DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

The scientific study of age-related changes throughout the human life span.
It recognizes humans of all societies and cultures as beings who are in process or constantly growing and changing.
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGISTS
Are interested in common patterns of development and growth and the way in which people differ throughout the
lifespan.

Interested in time and age related changes in cognitive and intellectual functioning, personality, and social relationships
from birth to death.

What do they do?

1. Working with a specific population such as developmentally delayed children

2. Specializing in studying a particular age range such as adolescence or old age.
3. Evaluating children to determine if they have a developmental disability.
4. Investigating how language skills are acquired.
5. Studying how moral reasoning develops in children.
6. Exploring ways to help elderly individuals remain independent.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ISSUES AND DEBATES

Continuity and Discontinuity - This issue focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative
change or distinct stages.

Continuity - Development results from a gradual process occurring over several weeks, months, and possibly years.
Discontinuity - Development occurs through a sequence of stages in which change is qualitatively rather than
quantitatively different.

Nature and Nurture - a psychology term related to whether heredity or the environment most impacts human
psychological development

NATURE - In the "nature vs nurture" debate, nature refers to an individual's innate qualities (nativism).
Example: Nature is your genes. The physical and Personality traits determined by your genes stay the same regardless of
where you were born and raised.

NURTURE - Learning through observation and personal experience. Tabula Rasa (John Locke)

STABILITY and CHANGE - This issue involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our early
experience or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development.
STABILITY—childhood personality measurements closely predict adult personality
CHANGE—life changes can affect a person’s development from childhood to adulthood

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Development begins at conception when sperm cells unite with the ovum.

 23 chromosomes from each parent unite at conception to form zygote.

 Period from conception to birth called the prenatal period.

Stages of Prenatal Development

 Stage of zygote - shortest, from conception until approximately 2 weeks later.

o Ovum usually fertilized in one of fallopian tubes.
o Zygote takes 7 days move down fallopian tubes to uterus
o Zygote takes another 7 days to be firmly implanted in wall of uterus.
 Stage of embryo - lasts 6 weeks, from week 2 to week 8.
o 3 layers in the embryo:
1. Ectoderm (hair, outer layer of skin, nervous system)
2. Mesoderm (muscles, bones, circulatory system)
3. Endoderm (digestive system, lungs)
 Stage of fetus - longest, lasting until birth.
o Organs grow and begin functioning
o Arms and legs move by end of third month
o By 7th month, it reaches viability - can survive if born prematurely.
o Fetus ready to be born at about 270 days.

Environmental Influences On Prenatal Development

 During rapid stage prenatal development, even small environmental disturbances can have serious and lasting
consequences.
 Maternal malnutrition - increases in miscarriages, stillbirths, and premature births.
o Deficiencies in specific vitamins and minerals
o Calcium deficiencies -- development of bones and teeth in fetus
 o Nutrient deficiencies may adversely affect mother.
 Drugs and chemicals
o Smoking by mother - low birth-weight, hearing defects
o Smoking mother may have more miscarriages, stillbirths, and babies who die soon after birth than
mothers who do not smoke.
o Alcohol - heavy drinking increases probability of having smaller babies and babies with retarded physical
growth, poor coordination, poor muscle tone, and intellectual retardation; collectively these are called
fetal alcohol syndrome.
 FAS leading preventable cause of birth defects leading to mental retardation.
 Total abstinence from alcohol during pregnancy is the best thing to do.
o Psychoactive drugs such as heroin and/or cocaine
 Babies may be born addicted leading to painful withdrawal and hospital stay averaging 42 days.
 Low birth weight, difficult regulating sleep/waking cycles, and symptoms of FAS.
o Drugs should be used with great care and only after consulting with physician.
 Maternal stress causes hormone changes and reduces oxygen available to fetus.
 Role of father
o one third Down's syndrome babies result from difficulties with sperm
o Undernourishment, alcohol or drug abuse, or stress in father near time of conception may have
developmental consequences on child.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF PREGNANCY

FIRST TRIMESTER: PREGNANCY VALIDATION – ACCEPTING THE PREGNANCY
Even when the pregnancy is planned, there are normal feelings of ambivalence and disbelief about the pregnancy. Many
women become introspective or have mood swings caused by hormone fluctuations.

SECOND TRIMESTER: FETAL EMBODIMENT – ACCEPTING THE BABY

This occurs as the mother incorporates the growing fetus into her body image.
The physical changes she is experiencing, especially the growing uterus help her meet this task.
Self-involvement, depression or regressive behavior may be signs of difficulty in meeting the tasks.
FETAL DISTINCTION – Accepting the baby as a separate person

THIRD TRIMESTER: ROLE TRANSITION – PREPARING FOR PARENTHOOD

Includes parents exploring together the meaning of fathering and mothering, learning parental skills, the amazing skills of
newborn for interactions.

INFANCY - Derived from the Latin word “Infantia” which means early childhood and literally “inability to speak”

 Stage of human life that last from birth to 1 ½ years

 CHARACTERISITICS OF INFANCY:

1.THE SHORTEST OF ALL DEVELOPMENTAL PERIODS- begins with birth and ends when the infant is 2 weeks’
old
 Time when the fetus the fetus must adjust to life outside the uterine walls of the mother

SUBDIVISIONS OF INFANCY:
PERIOD OF THE PARTUNATE (from birth- 15 to 30 minutes after birth)- until this is done, the infant
continues to be a parasite and makes no adjustments to the postnatal environment
PERIOD OF NEONATE (from the cutting and tying of the umbilical cord to approximately the end of two
weeks of postnatal period)- make adjustments to the new environment outside the mother’s body
2.INFANCY IS THE TIME OF RADICAL ADJUSTMENTS- graduation from an internal to external environment
3.INFANCY IS THE PLATEAU IN DEVELOPMENT- due to the necessity for adjustment
4.INFANCY IS A PREVIEW OF LATER DEVELOPMENT
5.INFANCY IS A HAZARDOUS PERIOD- the time when the attitudes of significant people toward the infant are
crystallized

 Perception of Depth and Distance

o "Visual Cliff" used to test depth perception in young children
 Neonates hear very well
o Sound localization - 3 to 10 minutes after birth
o Respond to differences in pitches and loudness.
 Newborns respond to differences in taste and smell
 Responds positively to pleasant smells and negatively on unpleasant

MAJOR ADJUSTMENTS OF INFANCY:

1. TEMPERATURE CHANGES- there is a constant temperature of 100-degree F in the uterine sac, while temperatures
in the hospital or home may vary from 60 to 70-degree F
2. BREATHING- when the umbilical cord is cut, infants must begin to breathe on their own
3. SUCKING AND SWALOWING- gets less nourishment than needed and loses weight
4. ELIMINATION – formerly waste products were eliminated through the umbilical cord

I. INFANCY DEVELOPMENT

1. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
- Relates to the changes, growth, and skill development of the body, including development of muscles
and senses.
2. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
- Development of knowledge, skills, problem solving and dispositions, which help children to think
about and understand the world around them.
- Sensori-motor stage
3. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
- Supports a child’s ability to communicate, and express and understand feelings.
- Includes receptive and expressive skills
4. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
- Process by which a child learns to interact with other people around them.
- Trust vs. Mistrust


DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES
- Provide a systematic approach by which to observe the progress of the infant over time.
- Attainment of a particular skill builds on the achievement of earlier skills.
- Only rarely are skills skipped.
0-2 MONTHS
 Babinsky Reflex  Stepping Reflex
 Moro Reflex  Cries for Needs
 Mouthing Reflex  Alert to Voices
 Grasp Reflex
3-4 MONTHS
 Better eye-muscle control  Coos and Smiles
 Begins to control hand and feet actions  Makes eye contact
 Sit with support, and keep head up
5-6 MONTHS
 Able to sit alone  Uses babbling to get attention
 Infant begins to grasp  Notices toys that make sounds
 Infant rolls from back to stomach
 Can stand with support
6-9 MONTHS
 Simple gestures
 Learns to crawl
 Imitates sounds
 Develops eye-hand coordination
 Recognizes sounds of their name
 Sit down from a standing position
 Looks at familiar objects and people when named
10-12 MONTHS
 Infants begins to balance while standing
alone
 Meaningfully uses “Mama” or “Dada”
 Infants take steps holding a hand; may
 Responds to “no”
take few steps alone
 Enjoys listening to songs
 Claps hands
 Explores toys with fingers and mouth
13-18 MONTHS
 Walks independently  Combines sounds and actions
 Squats to pick up toys  Imitates simple words or actions
 Helps with getting dressed/undressed  Responds to questions
 May use 5-10 words

Major Reflexes found in newborns:

Babinski – a baby’s toes fan out when the sole is stroked from heel to toe
Blink – a baby’s eyes close in response to bright light or loud noise
Moro – a baby throws its arms out and then inward (as if embracing) in response to loud noise or when its head falls.
Palmar – grasping an object placed in the palm of its hand
Rooting – when the cheek is stroked, it turns its head toward the stroking and opens its mouth
Stepping – a baby who is held upright by an adult and is then moved forward begins to step rhythmically.
Sucking – a baby sucks when an object is placed in its mouth

II. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

A. FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

 Freud developed the Psychosexual Theory which indicates that individuals go through a series of stages
personality development, and in every phase, we experience pleasure in one part of our body.
STAGE APPROXIMATE EROGENOUS CHARACTERISTIC FIXATIONS
 PERIOD IN LIFE ZONE S

Chewing, biting, and

sucking is the child’s Smoking, chewing
Birth to 2 years main source of gums, or biting on
ORAL STAGE Mouth
old pleasure that a pencil.
decreases tension in
the infant.

B. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Piaget developed his theory based in the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they explore and
manipulate the world around them.
 They grow and their brains develop as they move through stages that are characterized by differences in thought
processing.
 Schema – building blocks of knowledge
- assimilation or accommodation

APPROXIMATE PERIOD IN
STAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
LIFE
Children explore the world
using the senses and ability to
move. They develop object
permanence and the
SENSORIMOTOR Birth to 2 years old
understanding that concepts and
mental images represent objects,
people, and events

C. ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD

 In Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, each stage has a conflict of psychosocial crisis that
helps shape the development of the ego or self-identity of a child.

SUCCESSFUL UNSUCCESSFUL
DEVELOPMENTAL DEVELOPMENTAL
DEALING W/ DEALING W/
CRISIS PERIOD
CRISIS CRISIS
If babies’ needs for If babies’ needs for
food, comfort, and food, comfort, and
TRUST VS. MISTRUST affection are met, affection are not met,
Infants learn a basic sense of Infancy they develop a sense they develop a sense
trust dependent upon how Birth to 1 ½ years old of trust in people of mistrust in people
their needs are met. and expect those and do not expect
needs to be met in their needs to be met
the future. in the future.

III. COMMON HEALTH ISSUES OF INFANTS

 SOME HEALTH ISSUES ON INFANT:

1. Acrocyanosis – painless condition which refers to Cyanosis found in the extremities.

 Cyanosis – bluish purple hue to the skin (usually found on lips, mouth, earlobes, fingernails)

May indicate that there is:

a. problem with lungs/heart
b. defect in blood vessels
c. decreased oxygen to RBC

2. Birth injury (birth trauma)

- Any harm to a baby that occurs during or near the time of birth.
Example of effect:
Facial paralysis, spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, bone fractures

 COLIC
- When a healthy baby cries or fusses frequently for a prolonged period of time
- Last more than 3 hours a day

INDICATIONS:

 Pain or discomfort from gas or indigestion

 Digestive system that has not fully recovered
 Sensitivity to formula or breastmilk
  Overstimulation
 Childhood migraine or headache

 SKIN PROBLEMS

Can be caused by heat, cold, fungus, bacteria, allergy, wet napkins etc.

COMMON:

 Prickly heat
 Diaper rash
 Infantic eczema
 Contact dermatitis

BABYHOOD
CHARACTERISTICS
6. Babyhood is the true foundation age:
7. Babyhood is an age of rapid growth and change.
8. Babyhood is an age of decreasing dependency.
9. Babyhoods is the age of increased individuality.
10. Babyhood is the beginning of socialization.
11. Babyhood is the beginning of sex-role typing.
12. Babyhood is an appealing age.
13. Babyhood is the beginning of creativity.
14. Babyhood is a hazardous age.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

 2 months- can raise their head and chest on their arms and can grasp an object that is held directly in front of their
head and shoulders- infants reflexively move their heads to free their mouth and nose when something blocks
their breathing- as the infant matures, this reflex begins to cease to occur around the age of 2 months and the
infant increasingly relies on voluntary movements to keep its nose and mouth clear
 2 to 5 months – TRANSITION PERIOD- from reflexive to voluntary movements- sometimes unable to free their
airways----- this is why using supports to keep infants sleeping on their backs for the first year to avoid
SIDS(sudden infant death syndrome)
 6 months – can roll from back to front, sit and crawl
 1 year- can walk alone and grasp small objects with their fingers and thumbs
 2 years- “getting into everything” and walking well but with the peculiar gait that earns them the nickname
“toddlers”
2 weeks- 2 months

 Rapid change in all senses

 Clear vision increases to 12 feet 6 months- vision is 20/20

JEAN PIAGET (COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT) SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

 Moves from pure reflexive actions to the ability to coordinate sensations and motor movements such as
voluntarily taking a nipple into the mouth and sucking
 2 months old –begin to interact actively in its environment (sensorimotor experience)- it no longer passively
stares at objects but takes great pleasure in pushing, pulling, and mouthing- actively changes the sensations it
receives by using its hands and feet to alter the environment (sensorimotor experience)
 4 ½ months- most infants respond positively to the sound of their names
 2 months on – remember some of what they have experienced for a time

OBJECT PERMANCE

 Develop the ability to form cognitive representations of the world

 6 to 9 months of age, begins to understand that object exist even when they are out of sight (before that time it
was “out of sight out of mind”)- infant will search for the object behind the card, suggesting that the infant knows
that it’s back there somewhere
 9 months- spoons still exist when thrown on the floor, the infant quickly masters the dropsies… infants joyously
fill their mealtimes with the game of throwing their spoons on the floor
 9 months- begin to understand some nouns- ball and cookie, can respond to bye-bye and other gestures
 12 months – can say some words
 14 months- look for objects that were removed 24 hours earlier------- cannot yet use those images to reason
  18 months – has a speaking vocabulary of 20 words
-can respond to prohibitions (“no, no… don’t touch”)- can respond correctly to “show me your nose (ear,
toe, mouth)

 2 years – has a speaking vocabulary of 300 words and speaks in word combinations that fascinate adults in
accomplishing so much by saying so little TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH –because it leaves out the same words
that would be left out a brief telegram--- “milk all gone” and “Daddy silly “ say all that needs to be said.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

 Capable of only 3 emotional expressions: surprise, pleasure, and distress

 2 months- show first true social behavior- smile at the faces of caregivers
 4 months- added the fourth emotion –anger
 Before 6 to 9 months- generally comfortable with any adult who will take care of them, but after that time they
are often fearful of anyone but their mother, father, or other caregiver
 6 to 9 months – first learn to fear the sight of a hypodermic needle
 2 years- emotions grow more complex
- Act guilty after misbehavior and seem to feel ashamed after failure
- Richly social creatures who have formed strong attachments to their parents or other caregivers
- Strength of attachment:
 often cling, grasp, grab and do whatever else they can to stay close to their parents- nothing short
of the parents’ physical closeness and undivided attention will suffice at times
 when separated from their parents, they become anxious- separation anxiety- the crying and
fussing that baby –sitters know so well when the child’s parents are about to leave the child
 exhibit fear of strangers; no one but the adults to whom they are attached (parents, day-care
workers, grandparents) has the same soothing effect

COMMON EMOTIONAL PATTERNS IN BABYHOOD

1.ANGER
Stimuli: interference with attempted movements, thwarting of some wish, not letting
them do what they want to do, and not letting them make themselves understood
Responses: screaming, kicking the legs, waving the arms, and hitting or kicking
anything within reach, jump up and down, throw themselves on the floor, and hold
their breath
2.FEAR
Stimuli: loud noises; strange persons, objects, and situations; dark rooms; high
places; and animals
Responses: withdraw from the frightening stimulus, accompanied by whimpering
crying, temporary holding of the breath, and checking the activity
3. CURIOSITY
Stimuli: unusual acts
Responses: facial expressions-tensing the facial muscles, opening the mouth, and
protruding the tongue grasp the objects that aroused curiosity and handle,
shake, bang, or suck
4.JOY
Stimuli: (2nd or 3rd month) being played with, being tickled, and watching or listening to others
Responses: smiling, laughing, and moving their arms and legs, coo, gurgle, or even shout with glee
5.AFFECTION
Stimuli: Anyone who plays with babies, takes care of their bodily needs or shows them affection will be a stimulus for
their affection. Later, toys and the family pet may also become love objects for them.
Responses: hugging patting, and kissing the loved object or person

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
 infants develop intense bond with those who care for them; prefers familiar faces and voices
 after object permanence, develop stranger anxiety: fear of strangers
commonly displayed after 8 months of age

 attachment: emotional tie with another person; shown by child seeking

closeness to caregiver (those who are comfortable, familiar, and

responsive to needs) and distress when separated

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (ERIK ERIKSON): 18 MONTHS TO 3 YEARS

Ego Developmental Task: Autonomy vs. Shame
Basic Strengths: Self-control, Courage, and Will
 Task is to master physical environment while developing self-esteem
During this stage, the toddler learns to master skills for himself. Not only does he learn to walk, talk and feed
himself, he is also learning fine-motor development, and the much appreciated toilet training. As your child
gains more control over his body, and develops cognitive skills such as language and expected social behaviors,
your positive reactions and encouragement will support his emerging self-confidence and autonomy.
One critical skill during the “Terrible Two’s” is discovering the power of “NO!” It may become bothersome for
parents, but this display of rugged independence develops

SOCIAL RESPONSES TO ADULTS

2 to 3 Months: Babies can distinguish people from inanimate objects and they discover that people supply their needs.
They are content to be with people but discontented when left alone. At this age, babies show no preference for any one
person.
4 to 5 Months: Babies want to be picked up anyone who approaches them. They react differently to scolding and to
smiling faces and to friendly and to angry voices
6 to 7 Months: It is also the beginning of the “attachment age”- the time when babies become strongly attached to their
mothers or mother-substitutes and show a waning of indiscriminate friendliness.
8 to 9 Months: The baby attempts to imitate the speech, gestures, and simple acts of others.
12 Months: The baby reacts to the warning “no-no.”
16 to 18 Months: Negatives, in the form of stubborn resistance to request or demands from adults, is manifested in
physical withdrawal or angry outbursts.
22 to 24 Months: The baby cooperates in a number of routine activities, such as being dressed, fed, and bathed.

SOCIAL RESPONSES TO OTHERS

4 to 5 Months
The baby tries to attract the attention of another baby or a child by bouncing up and down, kicking, laughing, or blowing
bubbles.
6 to 7 Months
The baby smiles at other and shows an interest in their crying.
9 to 13 Months
Babies attempt to explore the clothes and hair of other babies, imitate behavior vocalizations, and cooperate in the use of
toys-although they tend to become upset when other babies take one of their toys.

13 to 18 Months
Fighting over toys decreases, and the baby shows more cooperation during play and a willingness to share.
18 to 24 Months
The baby shows more interest in playing with other babies and uses play materials to establish social relationships with
them.

COMMON PLAY PATTERNS OF BABYHOOD

Sensorimotor Play: kicking, bouncing, wiggling, moving fingers and toes, climbing, babbling, and rolling.
Exploratory Play: pulling their hair, sucking their fingers and toes, pushing their fingers in their navels, and manipulating
their sex organs. They shake, throw, bang, suck and pull their toys and explore by pulling, banging, and tearing any object
within their reach.
Imitative Play: (2nd year) imitate the actions of those around them, such as reading a magazine, sweeping the floor, or
writing with a pencil or crayon.
Make-Believe Play: (2nd year) throw their toys with the qualities they find they have in real ties of real animals just as
dolls and trucks are treated by the baby as if they were real people or real trucks.
GAMES: (Before 1-year-old) place traditional games as peekaboo, pat-a-cake, pigs to market, and hide-and-seek. These
are usually played with parents, grandparents, or order siblings.
AMUSEMENTS: Babies like to be sung to, talked to, and read to. Most are fascinated by radio and television and enjoy
looking at pictures

EARLY CHILDHOOD
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Names used by parents
PROBLEM AGE –stubborn, disobedient, negativistic, and antagonistic
TOY AGE- spend much of waking time playing with toys.
2. Names used by educators
PRESCHOOL AGE –go to nursery school or kindergarten
3. Names used by psychologists
PREGANG AGE – learning the foundations of social behavior
 EXPLORATORY AGE –want to know what their environment is, how it works, how it feels, and how they can
be a part of it
QUESTIONING AGE-
IMITATIVE AGE –imitating the speech and action of others
CREATIVE AGE- showing creativity in playing

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: at a slow rate as compared with the rapid rate of growth in babyhood
SKILLS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD- the ideal age to learn skills

They enjoy repetition- willing to repeat an activity until they have acquired the ability to do it well
Adventuresome- not held back by fear of hurting themselves or of being ridiculed by peers as older children often
are
 Learn easily and quickly because their bodies are still very pliable and because they have acquired so few skills
that they do not interfere with the acquisition of new ones
 TEACHABLE MOMENT for acquiring skills
EMOTIONS

 Time of disequilibrium
 “out of focus”- easily aroused to emotional outbursts, difficult to live with and guide--- from aged 2 ½ - 3 ½ and
5 ½ -6 ½
 Emotion maybe heightened--- occurs more frequently and more intensely---temper tantrums, intense fears,
unreasonable outbursts of jealousy
 Intense emotionality due to-fatigue, prolonged play, rebellion against taking naps
 They feel they are capable of doing more than their parents will permit them to do and revolt against the
restrictions placed upon them
 Become angry when they find they are incapable of doing what they think they can do easily and successfully

COMMON EMOTIONS:
ANGER: conflicts over playthings, the thwarting of wishes, and vigorous attacks from another child- crying, screaming,
stamping, kicking, jumping up and down, or striking
FEAR: conditioning, imitation, and memories of unpleasant experiences--- running away, hiding, crying, and avoiding
frightening situations
JEALOUSY: become jealous when they think parental interest and attention are shifting toward someone else in the
family, usually a new sibling-----may openly express their jealousy by reverting to infantile behavior such as: bed-wetting,
pretending to be ill, or being naughty----bid for attention
CURIOSITY: curious about anything new that they see and also about their own bodies and the bodies of others
Responses: sensorimotor exploration; later as a result of social pressures and punishment, they respond by
asking questions
ENVY: envious of the abilities or material possessions of another child
Responses: complaining about what they themselves have, by verbalizing wishes to have what other has, or by
appropriating the objects they envy
JOY: derive joy from sense of physical well-being, incongruous situations, sudden unexpected noises, slight calamities,
playing pranks on others, and accomplishing what seem to them to be difficult tasks
Responses: smiling, laughing, clapping their hands, jumping up and down, hugging the object or person that has
made them happy
GRIEF: saddened by the loss of anything they love or that is important of them, whether be a person, a pet, or an
inanimate object, such as a toy.
Responses: crying, losing interest in their normal activities including eating
AFFECTION: learn to love the things--- people, pets, or objects--- that give them pleasure
Responses: hugging, patting, and kissing the object of their affection
PATTERN OF SOCIALIZATION:

 Between 2 and 3- show a decided interest in watching other children and they attempt to make social contacts
with them- PARALLEL PLAY- play independently beside other children rather than with them--- if any contacts
are made with other children, they tend to be frictional rather than cooperative
 ASSOCIATIVE PLAY- children engage in similar, if not identical, activities with other children
 COOPERATIVE PLAY- they are a part of the group and interact with group members

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR PATTERNS:

IMITATION: to identify themselves with the group, they imitate the attitudes and behavior of a person whom they
especially admire and want to be like.
RIVALRY: the desire to excel or outdo others is apparent as early as 4. It begins at home and later develops in pay with
children outside the home
COOPERATION: by the end of 3, cooperative play and group activities begin to develop and increase in both
frequency and duration as the child’s opportunities for play with other children increase
SYMPATHY: it appears only occasionally before 3. The more play contacts the child has, the sooner sympathy will
develop.
EMPATHY: few children are able to do this until early childhood ends.
SOCIAL APPROVAL: as early childhood draws to a close, peer approval becomes more important than adult approval.
Young children find that naughty and disturbing behavior is a way of winning peer approval.
SHARING: the way to win social approval is to share what they have--- especially toys—with others. Generosity then
gradually replaces selfishness.
ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR: young children who as babies discovered the satisfaction that comes from warm, close,
personal associations with others, gradually attach their affection to people outside the home, such as a nursery school
teacher, or to some inanimate object, such as a favorite toy or even a blanket. These then become what are known as
attachment objects
CHILD DEVELOPMENT CHART: PRESCHOOL MILESTONES
By Mayo Clinic staff

Age 2 Age 3 Age 4 Age 5

LANGUAGE SKILLS

Links two words together Identifies most Describes the uses of common Uses compound and
common objects objects complex sentences

Speaks clearly enough for Says first name and Speaks clearly enough for Says full name and
parents to understand age strangers to understand address
about half the words

Knows some adjectives Uses pronouns (I, Uses verbs that end in “ing” Uses future tense
(big, happy) you, we, they) and and some irregular past tense
some plurals verbs, such as ran and fell

Speaks about 50 words Answers simple Tells simple stories Understands

questions rhyming

SOCIAL SKILLS

Becomes aware of his/her Imitates parents and Cooperates with playmates Wants to be like
identity as a separate playmates friends
individual

May become defiant Takes turns Tries to solve problems Follows rules

Becomes interested in Expresses affection Becomes interested in new Understands gender

playing with other openly experiences
children

Separation anxiety begins Easily separates from Becomes more independent Wants to do things
to fade parents alone

COGNITIVE SKILLS

Begins to play make- Plays make-believe Becomes involved in more Uses imagination to
believe complex imaginary play create stories
 Begins to sort objects by More confidently Prints some capital letters and Correctly names at
shape and color sorts objects by shape names some colors least four colors and
and color counts at least 10
objects

Understands some spatial Understands more Understands more complex Distinguishes

concepts (in, on) spatial concepts spatial concepts (behind, next between fantasy and
(over, under) to) reality

Scribbles Copies a circle Draws a person with two to Copies a triangle

four body parts and other geometric
patterns

Finds hidden objects Understands the Understands the concepts of Understands the
concept of two same and different concepts of time
and sequential order

PHYSICAL SKILLS

Walks alone and stands Walks up and down Stands on one foot for at least Stands on one foot
on tiptoe stairs, alternating feet five seconds for at least 10
seconds

Climbs on furniture and Kicks, climbs, runs Throws ball overhand, kicks Hops, swings and
begins to run and pedals tricycle ball forward and catches somersaults
bounced ball most of the time

Builds a tower of four Builds a tower of Dresses and undresses May learn to skip,
blocks or more more than six blocks ride a bike and
swim

Empties objects from a Manipulates small Uses scissors Brushes own teeth
container objects and turns and cares for other
book pages one at a personal needs
time

LATE CHILDHOOD
(6 years-12 )

Characteristics of LATE CHILDHOOD:

Names used by PARENTS:
 SLOPPY AGE- time when children tend to be careless and slovenly about their appearance and when their
rooms are so cluttered that it is almost impossible to get into them
 QUARRELSOME AGE – the time when family fights are common and when the emotional climate of the home
is far from pleasant for all family members

Name used by EDUCATORS

 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AGE – child is expected to acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are essential
for successful adjustment to adult life
Names used by PSYCHOLOGISTS
 GANG AGE – major concern is acceptance by their age mates and membership in a gang, especially a gang with
prestige in the eyes of their age-mates
 CONFORMITY AGE –
 CREATIVE AGE - whether the child will become conformist or producer of new and original work
 PLAY AGE –overlapping of play activities… it is the breadth of play interests and activities rather than the
time spent in play

SKILLS OF LATE CHILDHOOD:

1. SELF-HELPSKILLS-older children should be able to eat, dress, bathe, and groom themselves with almost as
much speech and adeptness as an adult, and these skills should not require the conscious attention that was
necessary in early childhood
2. SOCIAL-HELP SKILLS- relate to helping others at home.. they include making beds, dusting, and sweeping; at
school, they include emptying wastebaskets and washing chalkboards; and in the play group, they include helping
to construct a tree house or lay out a baseball diamond
3. SCHOOL SKILLS-at school, the child develops the skills needed in writing, drawing, painting, clay modeling,
dancing, crayoning, sewing, cooking and woodworking.
 4. PLAY SKILLS- learns such skills as throwing and catching balls, riding a bicycle, skating and swimming in
connection with play

SPECIAL VOCABULARIES OF LATE CHILDHOOD:

1. ETIQUETTE VOCABULARY- by the end of the first grade, children who have had training at home in using such
words as “please” and “thank you,” have as large etiquette vocabularies as those of the adults in their
environments
2. COLOR VOCABULARY- learn the names of all the common colors and many of the less common ones shortly
after they enter school and begin to have formal training in art
3. NUMBER VOCABULARY- from their study of arithmetic at school, children learn the names
and meaning of numbers
4. MONEY VOCABULARY- both in school and at home, older children learn the names of the different coins and
they understand the value of the various denominations of bills
5. TIME VOCABULARY- the time vocabularies of older children are as large as those of adults with whom they come
in contact but their understanding of time words is sometimes incorrect
6. SLANG-WORD AND SWEAR-WORD VOCABULARIES- children learn slang words and swear words form older
siblings and from the older children in the neighborhood. Using such words, makes them feel “grown-up” and
they soon discover that, in addition, the use of such words has great attention value
7. SECRET VOCABULARIES- use secret vocabularies to communicate with their intimate friends. These can be
written, consisting of codes formed by symbols or the substitutions of one letter for another
COMMON CONDITIONS CONTRIBUTING TO DETERIORATION IN FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS IN LATE
CHILDHOOD
 ATTITUDES TOWARD PARENTHOOD- parents who perceive their roles unfavorably and feel that the time,
effort, and money expended on their children are unappreciated tend to have poor relationships with their children
 PARENTAL EXPECTATIONS – when children fail to meet expectations, parents often criticize, nag, and
punish.
 CHILD-TRAINING METHODS – authoritarian child training, commonly used in large families, both lead to
friction in the home and feelings of resentment on the child’s part. Democratic discipline fosters good family
relationships
 SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS – if children feel that their homes and possessions compare unfavorably with
those of their peers, they often blame their parents and the parents tend to resent this bitterly.
 PARENTAL OCCUPATIONS –if their mothers work outside their home, children’s attitudes toward their
mothers are colored partly by how their friends feel about women working outside the home and partly by how
many home responsibilities they are expected to assume.
 CHANGED ATTITUDES TOWARD PARENTS- from contacts with their friends’ parents and as a result of
what they have read in books or see in television or in the movies, children build up concepts of an ideal mother
and father. If their own parents fall short of thee ideals, they are likely to become critical of them and compare
them unfavorably with the parents of their friends
 SIBLING FRICTION – older siblings frequently criticize the appearance and behavior of the younger child who
in turn likes to teas and bully even younger siblings. If parents attempt to put a stop on this, they are accused of
playing favorites. The children may then gang up against them and the sibling whom they regard as the parental
pet.
 CHANGED ATTITUDES TOWARD RELATIVES- older children enjoy being with relatives less than they
did when they were younger and tend to regard them as “too old” or “too bossy.” When they are expected to be a
part of a family gathering, they often put up a protest and claim that family gatherings “bore” them. Relatives
resent these attitudes and frequently reprove the children.
 STEPPARENTS – older children who remember a real parent who is no longer in the home usually resent a
stepparent and show it by critical, negativistic, and generally troublesome behavior. This leads to friction in the
home.
PSYCHOLOGICAL HAZARDS OF LATE CHILDHOOD:
 SPEECH HAZARDS
o A smaller-than –average vocabulary handicaps children in their schoolwork as well as their
communications with others
o Speech errors- such as mispronunciations and grammatical mistakes, and speech defects, such as
stuttering or lisping may make children so self-conscious that they will speak only when necessary
o Children who have difficulty speaking the language used in their school environment maybe handicapped
in their efforts to communicate and maybe made to feel that they are “indifferent.”
o Egocentric speech, critical and derogatory comments and boasting antagonize their peers.

 EMOTIONAL HAZARDS- if they continue to show unacceptable patterns of emotional expression, such as
temper tantrums, and if such unpleasant emotions as anger and jealousy are so dominant that children are
disagreeable and unpleasant to be with.
 SOCIAL HAZARDS-
o Children who are rejected or neglected by their peer group are deprived of opportunities to learn to be
social
o Voluntary isolates who have little in common with their peer group come to think of themselves as
“different” and to feel that they have no chance for acceptance
o Geographically or socially mobile children who find acceptance by already-formed gangs difficult
o Children against whom there is group prejudice because of their race or religion
o Followers who want to be leaders become resentful and disgruntled group members
  PLAY HAZARDS-children who lack social acceptance are deprived of opportunities to learn the games and
sports essential to gang belonging
o Children who are discouraged from fantasizing because it is a “waste of time,” or from creative activities
in their play, develop a habit of being rigid conformists
 MORAL HAZARDS
o The development of a moral code based on peer or mass-media concepts of right and wrong which may
not coincide with adult codes
o A failure to develop a conscience as an inner control over behavior
o Inconsistent discipline which leaves children unsure of what they are expected to do
o Physical punishment which serves as a model of aggressiveness in children
o Finding peer approval of misbehavior so satisfying that such behavior becomes habitual
o Intolerance of the wrongdoings of others
 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH INTERESTS
o Being uninterested in the things age-mates regard as important
o Developing unfavorable attitudes towards interests that would be valuable to them, as in the case of health
or school
 HAZARDS IN SEX-ROLE TYPING
o When children grown up in homes where parents play sex roles that differ from those of their age-mates’
parents
o When boys are expected to play egalitarian roles and girls, traditional ones
 FAMILY-RELATIONSHIP HAZARDS
o It weakens family ties and it leads to habitual unfavorable pattern of adjustment to people and problems
which carries outside the home
 HAZARDS IN PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
o The development of an unfavorable self-concept, which leads to self-rejection
o The carry-over from early childhood of egocentrism- egocentrism is serious because it gives children a
false sense of their importance

PUBERTY
The word puberty is derived from the Latin word pubertas, which means “age of manhood.” It refers to the physical rather
than the behavioral changes which occur when the individual becomes sexually mature and is capable of producing
offspring.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBERTY:
1. AN OVERLAPPING PERIOD- it encompasses the closing years of childhood and the beginning years of
adolescence.
2. Puberty is a Short Period
▪ Explanation: Lasting from 2 to 4 years of age
▪ Rapid maturers: who passes through puberty in 2 years or less
▪ Slow maturers: who require 3 to 4 years to complete the transformation into adults.
3. DIVIDED INTO STAGES
 PREPUBESCENT STAGE- overlaps the closing year or two of childhood- one who is no longer a child
but not yet an adolescent. During this time, the secondary sex characteristics begin to appear but the
reproductive organs are not yet fully developed
 PUBESCENT STAGE – occurs at the dividing line between childhood and adolescence; the time when
the criteria of sexual maturity appear--- the menarche in girls and the first nocturnal emissions in boys.
The secondary sex characteristics continue to develop and cells are produced in the sex organs.
 POSTPUBESCENT STAGE – overlaps the first year or two of adolescence. During this stage, the
secondary sex characteristics become well developed and the sex organs begin to function in a mature
manner
4. Puberty is a Time of Rapid Growth and Change
Is one of the 2 periods in the lifespan that are characterized by rapid growth and marked changes in body
proportions.
5. A NEGATIVE PHASE- losing some of the good qualities previously developed. The worst of the negative phrase is
over when the individual becomes sexually mature. Negative phrase is more pronounced in girls than in boys.
6. OCCURS AT A VARIABLE AGE- It is the variations of timing rather than the changes associated with it that make
puberty one of the most difficult even though one of the shortest periods.

CRITERIA OF PUBERTY:
1. MENARCHE ( first menstruation- midpoint in puberty)- sex organs and secondary sex characteristics have all
started to develop, but none of them have yet reached a state of maturity
2. NOCTURNAL EMISSIONS –during sleep, the penis sometimes become erect, and semen, or the fluid
containing sperm cells, is released. This is abnormal way for the male reproductive organ to rid itself of excessive
amounts of semen- occur after some puberty development
3. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS – the first urine passed by boys in the morning determine sexual maturity as has
analysis of girls’ urine to see whether the female gonadotropic hormone, estrogen is present.
 4. X-RAYS –specially the hands and knees.

CONDITIONS RESPONSIBLE FOR PUBERTY CHANGES

1. ROLE OF THE PITUITARY GLAND –
 GROWTH HORMONE -influential in determining the individual’s size
 GONADOTROPIC HORMONE- stimulates the gonads to increase activity. Just before the puberty ,
there is a gradual increase in the amount of the gonadotropic hormone and an increased sensitivity of the
gonads to this hormone, this initiates puberty changes
2. ROLE OF THE GONADS- with the growth and development of the gonads, the sex organs- the primary sex
characteristics- increase in size and become functionally mature, and the secondary sex characteristics, such as
pubic hair, develop.
3. INTERACTION PF THE PITUITARY GLAND AND THE GONADS-the hormones produced by the gonads,
which have been stimulated by the gonadotropic hormone produced by the pituitary gland, act in turn on this
gland and cause a gradual reduction in the amount of growth hormone produced, thus stopping in the growth
process. The interaction between the gonadotropic hormone and the gonads continues throughout the individual’s
reproductive life, gradually decreasing as women approach the menopause and men approach the climactic.

IMPORTANT SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS

BOYS
1. HAIR-pubic hair appears about 1 year after the testes and penis have started to increase in size. Axillary and
facial hair appear when the pubic hair has almost completed its growth, as does body hair. At first, all hair is
scanty, lightly pigmented, and fine in texture. Later it becomes darker, coarser, more luxuriant, and slightly kinky
2. SKIN- becomes coarser, less transparent, and sallow in color, and the pores enlarge
3. GLANDS – the sebaceous, or oil-producing, glands in the skin enlarge and become more active, which may
cause acne. The apocrine glands in the armpits start to function, and the perspiration increases as puberty
progresses.
4. MUSCLES- increase markedly in size and strength, thus giving shape to the arms, legs, and shoulders
5. VOICE – changes begin after some pubic hair has appeared. The voice forst becomes husky and later drops in
pitch, increases in volume, and acquires a pleasanter tone. Voice breaks are common when maturing is rapid
6. BREAST KNOTS –slight knobs around the male mammary glands appear between the ages of 12 and 14. These
last for several weeks and then decrease in number and size.
GIRLS
1. HIPS – become wider and rounder as a result of the enlargement of the pelvic bone and development of
subcutaneous fat.
2. BREASTS – shortly after the hips start to enlarge, the breasts begin to develop. The nipples enlarge and protrude
and, as the mammary glands develop, the breasts become larger and rounder.
3. HAIR- pubic hair appears after hip and breast development is well under way. Axillary hair begins to appear after
the menarche, as does facial hair. Body hair appears on the limbs late in puberty. All hair except facial hair is
straight and lightly pigmented at first and then becomes more luxuriant, coarser, darker, and slightly kinky.
4. SKIN – becomes coarser, thicker, and slightly sallow, and the pores enlarge
5. GLANDS –the sebaceous and apocrine glands become more active as puberty progresses. Clogging of the
sebaceous glands can cause acne, while the apocrine glands in the armpits produce perspiration, which is
especially heavy and pungent just before and during the menstrual period.
6. MUSCLES- increase in size and strength, especially in the middle of puberty, and toward the end, thus giving
shape to the shoulders, arms and legs.
7. VOICE- becomes fuller and more melodious. Huskiness and breaks in the voice are rare among girls.

COMMON EFFECTS OF PUBERTY CHANGES ON ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR

1. DESIRE FOR ISOLATION- when puberty changes begin, children usually withdraw from peer and family
activities and often quarrel with peers and family members. They spend much time in daydreaming about how
misunderstood and mistreated they are and in experimenting with sex through masturbation. Part of this
withdrawal syndrome includes refusal to communicate with others.
 2. BOREDOM-pubescent children are bored with the play they formerly enjoyed, with schoolwork, with social
activities, and with life in general. As a result, they do as little work as they can, thus developing the habit of
underachieving. This habit is accentuated by not feeling up to par physically.
3. INCOORDINATION- rapid and uneven growth affects habitual patterns of coordination, and the pubescent
child is clumsy and awkward for a time. As growth slows down, coordination gradually improves.
4. SOCIAL ANTAGONISM – the pubescent child is often uncooperative, disagreeable, and antagonistic. Open
hostility between the sexes, expressed in constant criticism and derogatory comments, is common at this age. As
puberty progresses, the child becomes friendlier, more cooperative, and more tolerant of others.
5. HEIGHTENED EMOTIONALITY – moodiness, sulkiness, temper outbursts, and a tendency to cry at the
slightest provocation are characteristic of the early part of puberty. It is a time of worry, anxiety, and irritability.
Depression, irritability, and negative moods are especially common during the premenstrual and early menstrual
periods of girls. As pubescent children become more mature physically, they become less tense and exhibit more
mature emotional behavior.
6. LOSS OF SELF-CONFIDENCE – the pubescent child formerly so self-assured, becomes lacking in self-
confidence and fearful of failure. This is due partly to lowered physical resistance and partly to the constant
criticism of adults and peers. Many boys and girls emerge from puberty with the foundations of an inferiority
complex.
7. EXCESSIVE MODESTY- the bodily changes that take place during puberty cause the child to become
excessively modest for fear that others will notice these changes and comment on them favorably.
CONCERNS OF BOYS AND GIRLS
 SEX ORGANS –pubescent children often fear that their enlarged sex organs will show through their
clothing or that the menstrual discharge and nocturnal emissions will leave telltale signs on their clothing.
 BODY DISPROPORTIONS- large hands, feet, and noises; long and lanky arms and legs; small shoulders
and perhaps a receding chin, all characteristics of early puberty, make pubescent children wonder whether
they will ever look like normal people.
 AWKWARDNESS- because all children become awkward and clumsy to some extent during puberty,
they are likely to worry because they believe they are losing skills acquired earlier. Their concerns are
heightened if they are ridiculed or reproved for their awkwardness.
 AGE OF MATURING- earlier maturers may feel like misfits, while those are slow to mature are
embarrassed by their undeveloped bodies and concerned about their lack of interest in the things that
absorb their more mature age-mates.
 MASTURBATION- tension and discomfort in the developing sex organs often lead the pubescent to
handle them. Most children have been told that masturbation leads to insanity, for example.

ADOLESCENCE
From the Latin word “adolescere,” meaning “to grow to maturity.”
Adolescence is the age when the individual becomes integrated into the society of adults, the age when the child no longer
feels that he is below the level of his elders, but equal, at least in rights

Stages of Adolescence
Early Adolescence - Ages 10 to 13 (Late childhood and early adolescence)
 During this stage, children often start to grow more quickly.
 These body changes can inspire curiosity and anxiety in some―especially if they do not know what to expect or
what is normal.
 Early adolescents have concrete, black-and-white thinking.
 Pre-teens feel an increased need for privacy.

Middle - Ages 14 to 17
 Physical changes from puberty continue during middle adolescence.
 At this age, many teens become interested in romantic and sexual relationships.
 Many middle adolescents have more arguments with their parents as they struggle for more independence.
 The brain continues to change and mature in this stage, but there are still many differences in how a normal
middle adolescent thinks compared to an adult.
 Strong emotions often continue to drive their decisions when impulses come into play.

Late - Ages 18-21

 Late adolescents generally have completed physical development and grown to their full adult height.
  They usually have more impulse control by now and may be better able to gauge risks and rewards accurately.
 Have a stronger sense of their own individuality now and can identify their own values.
 Become more focused on the future and base decisions on their hopes and ideals.
 Friendships and romantic relationships become more stable.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENTS
1. Age-segregated
 They interact mostly with their own age group, rather than with younger children and older adults.
2. Appearance-Consciousness
 As physical changes are very rapidly taking place, affecting the appearance of the adolescent, “how do I
appear?” becomes his or her haunting concern.
 An adolescent would do all that he or she can to develop and maintain an attractive look.
 One grows very particular regarding one’s dress, hair-style and so on.
3. Attraction Towards the Opposite Sex
 The pubic changes in the girl, and in the boy, make one feel a strong attraction towards the other.
 The adolescents who fail to adjust themselves to those of the opposite sex in a proper way, would prove
awkward in their behavior.
4. Career-Conscious
 One happens to be mature enough to think of the importance of a good job.
5. Emotional Conditions
 The overall impact of these physical and biological changes is the development of an emotional state
which generally makes the adolescent short-tempered and rash.
 Repressed emotions may result in an explosive outburst or a temper-tantrum.
 The adolescent is rich in emotional energy but for want of proper management.
6. Sex-Role Identity
 A distinct identity of the sex may be marked in the selection of dresses and other items to wear.
 Both boys and girls try to acquire a set of behaviour patterns, acceptable, and liked by the society for a
particular gender only.
 Some hobbies are there for which girls have preference; for example, fine needle or embroidery work is,
generally, liked by girls only; and, hard gymnastic exercises or some rigorous games are liked by male
youth only.
ADOLESCENT SOCIAL GROUPINGS
1. CLOSE FRIENDS- the adolescent usually has 2 or 3 close friends or confidants. They are of the same sex and
have similar interests and abilities. Close friends have a marked influence on one another, though they may
quarrel occasionally.
2. CLIQUES- are usually made up of groups of close friends. At first they consist of members of the same sex, but
later include both boys and girls
3. CROWDS- made up of cliques and groups of close friends, develop as interest in parties and dating grows.
Because crowds are large, there is less congeniality of interest among the members and thus a greater social
distance between them
4. ORGANIZED GROUP- adult directed youth groups are established by schools and community organizations to
meet the social needs of adolescents who belong to no cliques or crowds. Many adolescents who join such groups
feel regimented and lose interest in them by the time they are 16 or 17
5. GANGS- adolescents who belong to no cliques or crowds and who gain little satisfaction from organized groups
may join a gang. Gang members are usually of the same sex, and their main interest is to compensate for peer
rejection through antisocial behavior
FACTORS INFLUENCING ADOLESCENT ATTITUDES TOWARD EDUCATION
 PEER ATTITUDES –whether they are college- oriented or work-oriented
 PARENTAL ATTITUDES- whether parents consider education a stepping-stone to upward social mobility or
only a necessity because it is required by law.
 GRADES which indicate academic success or failure
 The relevance or practical value of various courses
 Attitudes toward teachers, administrators, and academic and disciplinary policies
 Success in extracurricular activities
 Degree of social acceptance among classmates
 PATTERN OF CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS INTERESTS
 PERIOD OF RELIGIOUS AWAKENING: when adolescents prepare to join the church of their parents, their
interest in religion is heightened. As a result of this increased interest, they may either become extremely
enthusiastic about religion- even to the point where they think they want to devote their lives to it- or they may
grow skeptical of the religious beliefs they accepted unquestioningly during childhood. They often compare
these beliefs with those of their friends, or analyze them critically in terms of their increased knowledge
 PERIOD OF RELIGIOUS DOUBT: As a result of a critical examination of their childhood beliefs, adolescents
often become skeptical of religious forms, such as prayer and formal church rituals, and later begin to doubt
religious content, such as teachings about the nature of God and life after death. For some adolescents ,doubt
 leads to a lessening of all religious observances, while others attempt to find a faith that meets their needs better
than that of their family.
 PERIOD OF RELIGIOUS RECONSTRUCTION: sooner or later, most adolescents feel the need of some
religious faith, even though they find their childhood faith no longer meets their new faith--- the faith of an
intimate friend of the same or of the opposite sex, or one of one of the new religious cults. These cults are
constantly springing up in different parts of the country and have a strong appeal to the older adolescents and
young adults who lack religious ties. Such young people are easy prey to any new or different religious cult

COMMON OBSTACLES TO MAKING TRANSITION TO MATURITY

 POOR FOUNDATIONS: adolescents who did not establish good foundations during childhood will be unable
to master the developmental tasks of adolescence
 LATE MATURING: late maturers have less time in which to master the developmental tasks of adolescence
than early maturers or those who mature at the average age. Many late maturers have barely completed the
puberty changes when adolescence is drawing to a close
 PROLONGED TREATMENT AS CHILDREN: adolescents who, because they were late maturers, are often
treated as children at the time when their contemporaries are treated as near adults. As a result, they may develop
feelings of inadequacy about

 their abilities to assume the rights, privileges, and responsibilities that go with adulthood.
 ROLE CHANGE: adolescents who go to work after completing high school, or after dropping out of school,
undergo a drastic role change almost overnight. They must assume adult roles earlier than their contemporaries
who continue their education, and they are deprived of the opportunity to make a slow transition into adulthood.
 PROLONGED DEPENDENCY: a prolonged state of dependency as when adolescents continue their education
into early adulthood, is a handicap in making the transition to adulthood. Because girls, as a group, are more apt
to be forced into a state of prolonged dependency than boys, they are especially handicapped in making the
transition into adulthood.