1.

Explain the terms Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML) and Deep
Learning?
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the domain of producing intelligent machines. ML
refers to systems that can assimilate from experience (training data) and Deep
Learning (DL) states to systems that learn from experience on large data sets. ML
can be considered as a subset of AI. Deep Learning (DL) is ML but useful to large
data sets. The figure below roughly encapsulates the relation between AI, ML, and
DL:
In summary, DL is a subset of ML & both were the subsets of AI.
Additional Information: ASR (Automatic Speech Recognition) & NLP (Natural Language
Processing) fall under AI and overlay with ML & DL as ML is often utilized for NLP
and ASR tasks.
2. What are the different types of Learning/ Training models in ML?
ML algorithms can be primarily classified depending on the presence/absence of
target variables.
A. Supervised learning: [Target is present]The machine learns using labelled data.
The model is trained on an existing data set before it starts making decisions with
the new data.The target variable is continuous: Linear Regression, polynomial
Regression, and quadratic Regression.The target variable is categorical: Logistic
regression, Naive Bayes, KNN, SVM, Decision Tree, Gradient Boosting, ADA boosting,
Bagging, Random forest etc.
B. Unsupervised learning: [Target is absent]The machine is trained on unlabelled
data and without any proper guidance. It automatically infers patterns and
relationships in the data by creating clusters. The model learns through
observations and deduced structures in the data.Principal component Analysis,
Factor analysis, Singular Value Decomposition etc.
C. Reinforcement Learning:The model learns through a trial and error method. This
kind of learning involves an agent that will interact with the environment to
create actions and then discover errors or rewards of that action.

3. What is the difference between deep learning and machine learning?

Machine Learning involves algorithms that learn from patterns of data and then
apply it to decision making. Deep Learning, on the other hand, is able to learn
through processing data on its own and is quite similar to the human brain where it
identifies something, analyse it, and makes a decision.The key differences are as
follows:

The manner in which data is presented to the system.

Machine learning algorithms always require structured data and deep learning
networks rely on layers of artificial neural networks.

4. What is the main key difference between supervised and unsupervised machine
learning?
Supervised learningUnsupervised learningThe supervised learning technique needs
labelled data to train the model. For example, to solve a classification problem (a
supervised learning task), you need to have label data to train the model and to
classify the data into your labelled groups.Unsupervised learning does not need any
labelled dataset. This is the main key difference between supervised learning and
unsupervised learning.

5. How do you select important variables while working on a data set?

There are various means to select important variables from a data set that include
the following:

Identify and discard correlated variables before finalizing on important variables

The variables could be selected based on ‘p’ values from Linear Regression
Forward, Backward, and Stepwise selection
Lasso Regression
Random Forest and plot variable chart
Top features can be selected based on information gain for the available set of
features.

6. There are many machine learning algorithms till now. If given a data set, how
can one determine which algorithm to be used for that?
Machine Learning algorithm to be used purely depends on the type of data in a given
dataset. If data is linear then, we use linear regression. If data shows non-
linearity then, the bagging algorithm would do better. If the data is to be
analyzed/interpreted for some business purposes then we can use decision trees or
SVM. If the dataset consists of images, videos, audios then, neural networks would
be helpful to get the solution accurately.
So, there is no certain metric to decide which algorithm to be used for a given
situation or a data set. We need to explore the data using EDA (Exploratory Data
Analysis) and understand the purpose of using the dataset to come up with the best
fit algorithm. So, it is important to study all the algorithms in detail.

7. How are covariance and correlation different from one another?

CovarianceCorrelationCovariance measures how two variables are related to each
other and how one would vary with respect to changes in the other variable. If the
value is positive it means there is a direct relationship between the variables and
one would increase or decrease with an increase or decrease in the base variable
respectively, given that all other conditions remain constant.Correlation
quantifies the relationship between two random variables and has only three
specific values, i.e., 1, 0, and -1.
1 denotes a positive relationship, -1 denotes a negative relationship, and 0
denotes that the two variables are independent of each other.
8. State the differences between causality and correlation?
Causality applies to situations where one action, say X, causes an outcome, say Y,
whereas Correlation is just relating one action (X) to another action(Y) but X does
not necessarily cause Y.
9. We look at machine learning software almost all the time. How do we apply
Machine Learning to Hardware?
We have to build ML algorithms in System Verilog which is a Hardware development
Language and then program it onto an FPGA to apply Machine Learning to hardware.
10. Explain One-hot encoding and Label Encoding. How do they affect the
dimensionality of the given dataset?
One-hot encoding is the representation of categorical variables as binary vectors.
Label Encoding is converting labels/words into numeric form. Using one-hot encoding
increases the dimensionality of the data set. Label encoding doesn’t affect the
dimensionality of the data set. One-hot encoding creates a new variable for each
level in the variable whereas, in Label encoding, the levels of a variable get
encoded as 1 and 0.

11. When does regularization come into play in Machine Learning?

At times when the model begins to underfit or overfit, regularization becomes
necessary. It is a regression that diverts or regularizes the coefficient estimates
towards zero. It reduces flexibility and discourages learning in a model to avoid
the risk of overfitting. The model complexity is reduced and it becomes better at
predicting.
12. What is Bias, Variance and what do you mean by Bias-Variance Tradeoff?
Both are errors in Machine Learning Algorithms. When the algorithm has limited
flexibility to deduce the correct observation from the dataset, it results in bias.
On the other hand, variance occurs when the model is extremely sensitive to small
fluctuations.
If one adds more features while building a model, it will add more complexity and
we will lose bias but gain some variance. In order to maintain the optimal amount
of error, we perform a tradeoff between bias and variance based on the needs of a
business.
Source: Understanding the Bias-Variance Tradeoff: Scott Fortmann – Roe
Bias stands for the error because of the erroneous or overly simplistic assumptions
in the learning algorithm . This assumption can lead to the model underfitting the
data, making it hard for it to have high predictive accuracy and for you to
generalize your knowledge from the training set to the test set.
Variance is also an error because of too much complexity in the learning
algorithm. This can be the reason for the algorithm being highly sensitive to high
degrees of variation in training data, which can lead your model to overfit the
data. Carrying too much noise from the training data for your model to be very
useful for your test data.
The bias-variance decomposition essentially decomposes the learning error from any
algorithm by adding the bias, the variance and a bit of irreducible error due to
noise in the underlying dataset. Essentially, if you make the model more complex
and add more variables, you’ll lose bias but gain some variance — in order to get
the optimally reduced amount of error, you’ll have to trade off bias and variance.
You don’t want either high bias or high variance in your model.
13. How can we relate standard deviation and variance?
Standard deviation refers to the spread of your data from the mean. Variance is the
average degree to which each point differs from the mean i.e. the average of all
data points. We can relate Standard deviation and Variance because it is the square
root of Variance.
14. A data set is given to you and it has missing values which spread along 1
standard deviation from the mean. How much of the data would remain untouched?
It is given that the data is spread across mean that is the data is spread across
an average. So, we can presume that it is a normal distribution. In a normal
distribution, about 68% of data lies in 1 standard deviation from averages like
mean, mode or median. That means about 32% of the data remains uninfluenced by
missing values.
15. Is a high variance in data good or bad?
Higher variance directly means that the data spread is big and the feature has a
variety of data. Usually, high variance in a feature is seen as not so good
quality.
16. If your dataset is suffering from high variance, how would you handle it?
For datasets with high variance, we could use the bagging algorithm to handle it.
Bagging algorithm splits the data into subgroups with sampling replicated from
random data. After the data is split, random data is used to create rules using a
training algorithm. Then we use polling technique to combine all the predicted
outcomes of the model.
17. A data set is given to you about utilities fraud detection. You have built
aclassifier model and achieved a performance score of 98.5%. Is this a goodmodel?
If yes, justify. If not, what can you do about it?
Data set about utilities fraud detection is not balanced enough i.e. imbalanced. In
such a data set, accuracy score cannot be the measure of performance as it may only
be predict the majority class label correctly but in this case our point of
interest is to predict the minority label. But often minorities are treated as
noise and ignored. So, there is a high probability of misclassification of the
minority label as compared to the majority label. For evaluating the model
performance in case of imbalanced data sets, we should use Sensitivity (True
Positive rate) or Specificity (True Negative rate) to determine class label wise
performance of the classification model. If the minority class label’s performance
is not so good, we could do the following:

We can use under sampling or over sampling to balance the data.

We can change the prediction threshold value.
We can assign weights to labels such that the minority class labels get larger
weights.
We could detect anomalies.

18. Explain the handling of missing or corrupted values in the given dataset.
An easy way to handle missing values or corrupted values is to drop the
corresponding rows or columns. If there are too many rows or columns to drop then
we consider replacing the missing or corrupted values with some new value.
Identifying missing values and dropping the rows or columns can be done by using
IsNull() and dropna( ) functions in Pandas. Also, the Fillna() function in Pandas
replaces the incorrect values with the placeholder value.
19. What is Time series?
A Time series is a sequence of numerical data points in successive order. It tracks
the movement of the chosen data points, over a specified period of time and records
the data points at regular intervals. Time series doesn’t require any minimum or
maximum time input. Analysts often use Time series to examine data according to
their specific requirement.

20. What is a Box-Cox transformation?

Box-Cox transformation is a power transform which transforms non-normal dependent
variables into normal variables as normality is the most common assumption made
while using many statistical techniques. It has a lambda parameter which when set
to 0 implies that this transform is equivalent to log-transform. It is used for
variance stabilization and also to normalize the distribution.
21. What is the difference between stochastic gradient descent (SGD) and gradient
descent (GD)?
Gradient Descent and Stochastic Gradient Descent are the algorithms that find the
set of parameters that will minimize a loss function.The difference is that in
Gradient Descend, all training samples are evaluated for each set of parameters.
While in Stochastic Gradient Descent only one training sample is evaluated for the
set of parameters identified.
22. What is the exploding gradient problem while using the back propagation
technique?
When large error gradients accumulate and result in large changes in the neural
network weights during training, it is called the exploding gradient problem. The
values of weights can become so large as to overflow and result in NaN values. This
makes the model unstable and the learning of the model to stall just like the
vanishing gradient problem. This is one of the most commonly asked interview
questions on machine learning.
23. Can you mention some advantages and disadvantages of decision trees?
The advantages of decision trees are that they are easier to interpret, are
nonparametric and hence robust to outliers, and have relatively few parameters to
tune.On the other hand, the disadvantage is that they are prone to overfitting.

24. Explain the differences between Random Forest and Gradient Boosting machines.
Random ForestsGradient BoostingRandom forests are a significant number of decision
trees pooled using averages or majority rules at the end.Gradient boosting machines
also combine decision trees but at the beginning of the process, unlike Random
forests.The random forest creates each tree independent of the others while
gradient boosting develops one tree at a time.Gradient boosting yields better
outcomes than random forests if parameters are carefully tuned but it’s not a good
option if the data set contains a lot of outliers/anomalies/noise as it can result
in overfitting of the model.Random forests perform well for multiclass object
detection.Gradient Boosting performs well when there is data which is not balanced
such as in real-time risk assessment.
25. What is a confusion matrix and why do you need it?
Confusion matrix (also called the error matrix) is a table that is frequently used
to illustrate the performance of a classification model i.e. classifier on a set of
test data for which the true values are well-known.
It allows us to visualize the performance of an algorithm/model. It allows us to
easily identify the confusion between different classes. It is used as a
performance measure of a model/algorithm.
A confusion matrix is known as a summary of predictions on a classification model.
The number of right and wrong predictions were summarized with count values and
broken down by each class label. It gives us information about the errors made
through the classifier and also the types of errors made by a classifier.

26. What’s a Fourier transform?

Fourier Transform is a mathematical technique that transforms any function of time
to a function of frequency. Fourier transform is closely related to Fourier series.
It takes any time-based pattern for input and calculates the overall cycle offset,
rotation speed and strength for all possible cycles. Fourier transform is best
applied to waveforms since it has functions of time and space. Once a Fourier
transform applied on a waveform, it gets decomposed into a sinusoid.

27. What do you mean by Associative Rule Mining (ARM)?

Associative Rule Mining is one of the techniques to discover patterns in data like
features (dimensions) which occur together and features (dimensions) which are
correlated. It is mostly used in Market-based Analysis to find how frequently an
itemset occurs in a transaction. Association rules have to satisfy minimum support
and minimum confidence at the very same time. Association rule generation generally
comprised of two different steps:

“A min support threshold is given to obtain all frequent item-sets in a database.”

“A min confidence constraint is given to these frequent item-sets in order to form
the association rules.”

Support is a measure of how often the “item set” appears in the data set and
Confidence is a measure of how often a particular rule has been found to be true.
28. What is Marginalisation? Explain the process.
Marginalisation is summing the probability of a random variable X given joint
probability distribution of X with other variables. It is an application of the law
of total probability.
P(X=x) = ∑YP(X=x,Y)
Given the joint probability P(X=x,Y), we can use marginalization to find P(X=x).
So, it is to find distribution of one random variable by exhausting cases on other
random variables.
29. Explain the phrase “Curse of Dimensionality”.
The Curse of Dimensionality refers to the situation when your data has too many
features.
The phrase is used to express the difficulty of using brute force or grid search to
optimize a function with too many inputs.
It can also refer to several other issues like:
If we have more features than observations, we have a risk of overfitting the
model.
When we have too many features, observations become harder to cluster. Too many
dimensions cause every observation in the dataset to appear equidistant from all
others and no meaningful clusters can be formed.

Dimensionality reduction techniques like PCA come to the rescue in such cases.
30. What is the Principle Component Analysis?
The idea here is to reduce the dimensionality of the data set by reducing the
number of variables that are correlated with each other. Although the variation
needs to be retained to the maximum extent.
The variables are transformed into a new set of variables that are known as
Principal Components’. These PCs are the eigenvectors of a covariance matrix and
therefore are orthogonal.

31. Why is rotation of components so important in Principle Component Analysis

(PCA)?
Rotation in PCA is very important as it maximizes the separation within the
variance obtained by all the components because of which interpretation of
components would become easier. If the components are not rotated, then we need
extended components to describe variance of the components.
32. What are outliers? Mention three methods to deal with outliers.

A data point that is considerably distant from the other similar data points is
known as an outlier. They may occur due to experimental errors or variability in
measurement. They are problematic and can mislead a training process, which
eventually results in longer training time, inaccurate models, and poor results.
The three methods to deal with outliers are:Univariate method – looks for data
points having extreme values on a single variableMultivariate method – looks for
unusual combinations on all the variablesMinkowski error – reduces the contribution
of potential outliers in the training process
Also Read - Advantages of pursuing a career in Machine Learning
33. What is the difference between regularization and normalisation?
NormalisationRegularisationNormalisation adjusts the data; . If your data is on
very different scales (especially low to high), you would want to normalise the
data. Alter each column to have compatible basic statistics. This can be helpful to
make sure there is no loss of accuracy. One of the goals of model training is to
identify the signal and ignore the noise if the model is given free rein to
minimize error, there is a possibility of suffering from overfitting.Regularisation
adjusts the prediction function. Regularization imposes some control on this by
providing simpler fitting functions over complex ones.
34. Explain the difference between Normalization and Standardization.
Normalization and Standardization are the two very popular methods used for feature
scaling.
NormalisationStandardizationNormalization refers to re-scaling the values to fit
into a range of [0,1].Normalization is useful when all parameters need to have an
identical positive scale however the outliers from the data set are
lost.Standardization refers to re-scaling data to have a mean of 0 and a standard
deviation of 1 (Unit variance)
35. List the most popular distribution curves along with scenarios where you will
use them in an algorithm.
The most popular distribution curves are as follows- Bernoulli Distribution,
Uniform Distribution, Binomial Distribution, Normal Distribution, Poisson
Distribution, and Exponential Distribution. Check out the free Probability for
Machine Learning course to enhance your knowledge on Probability Distributions for
Machine Learning.Each of these distribution curves is used in various scenarios.
Bernoulli Distribution can be used to check if a team will win a championship or
not, a newborn child is either male or female, you either pass an exam or not, etc.
Uniform distribution is a probability distribution that has a constant probability.
Rolling a single dice is one example because it has a fixed number of outcomes.
Binomial distribution is a probability with only two possible outcomes, the prefix
‘bi’ means two or twice. An example of this would be a coin toss. The outcome will
either be heads or tails.
Normal distribution describes how the values of a variable are distributed. It is
typically a symmetric distribution where most of the observations cluster around
the central peak. The values further away from the mean taper off equally in both
directions. An example would be the height of students in a classroom.
Poisson distribution helps predict the probability of certain events happening when
you know how often that event has occurred. It can be used by businessmen to make
forecasts about the number of customers on certain days and allows them to adjust
supply according to the demand.
Exponential distribution is concerned with the amount of time until a specific
event occurs. For example, how long a car battery would last, in months.
36. How do we check the normality of a data set or a feature?
Visually, we can check it using plots. There is a list of Normality checks, they
are as follow:

Shapiro-Wilk W Test
Anderson-Darling Test
Martinez-Iglewicz Test
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
D’Agostino Skewness Test

37. What is Linear Regression?

Linear Function can be defined as a Mathematical function on a 2D plane as, Y =Mx
+C, where Y is a dependent variable and X is Independent Variable, C is Intercept
and M is slope and same can be expressed as Y is a Function of X or Y = F(x).
At any given value of X, one can compute the value of Y, using the equation of
Line. This relation between Y and X, with a degree of the polynomial as 1 is called
Linear Regression.
In Predictive Modeling, LR is represented as Y = Bo + B1x1 + B2x2The value of B1
and B2 determines the strength of the correlation between features and the
dependent variable.
Example: Stock Value in $ = Intercept + (+/-B1)*(Opening value of Stock) + (+/-
B2)*(Previous Day Highest value of Stock)
38. Differentiate between regression and classification.
Regression and classification are categorized under the same umbrella of supervised
machine learning. The main difference between them is that the output variable in
the regression is numerical (or continuous) while that for classification is
categorical (or discrete).
Example: To predict the definite Temperature of a place is Regression problem
whereas predicting whether the day will be Sunny cloudy or there will be rain is a
case of classification.
39. What is target imbalance? How do we fix it? A scenario where you have performed
target imbalance on data. Which metrics and algorithms do you find suitable to
input this data onto?
If you have categorical variables as the target when you cluster them together or
perform a frequency count on them if there are certain categories which are more in
number as compared to others by a very significant number. This is known as the
target imbalance.
Example: Target column – 0,0,0,1,0,2,0,0,1,1 [0s: 60%, 1: 30%, 2:10%] 0 are in
majority. To fix this, we can perform up-sampling or down-sampling. Before fixing
this problem let’s assume that the performance metrics used was confusion metrics.
After fixing this problem we can shift the metric system to AUC: ROC. Since we
added/deleted data [up sampling or downsampling], we can go ahead with a stricter
algorithm like SVM, Gradient boosting or ADA boosting.
40. List all assumptions for data to be met before starting with linear regression.
Before starting linear regression, the assumptions to be met are as follow:

Linear relationship
Multivariate normality
No or little multicollinearity
No auto-correlation
Homoscedasticity

41. When does the linear regression line stop rotating or finds an optimal spot
where it is fitted on data?
A place where the highest RSquared value is found, is the place where the line
comes to rest. RSquared represents the amount of variance captured by the virtual
linear regression line with respect to the total variance captured by the dataset.
42. Why is logistic regression a type of classification technique and not a
regression? Name the function it is derived from?
Since the target column is categorical, it uses linear regression to create an odd
function that is wrapped with a log function to use regression as a
classifier. Hence, it is a type of classification technique and not a regression.
It is derived from cost function.
43. What could be the issue when the beta value for a certain variable varies way
too much in each subset when regression is run on different subsets of the given
dataset?
Variations in the beta values in every subset implies that the dataset is
heterogeneous. To overcome this problem, we can use a different model for each of
the dataset’s clustered subsets or a non-parametric model such as decision trees.
44. What does the term Variance Inflation Factor mean?
Variation Inflation Factor (VIF) is the ratio of the model’s variance to the
model’s variance with only one independent variable. VIF gives the estimate of the
volume of multicollinearity in a set of many regression variables.
VIF = Variance of the model with one independent variable
45. Which machine learning algorithm is known as the lazy learner, and why is it
called so?
KNN is a Machine Learning algorithm known as a lazy learner. K-NN is a lazy learner
because it doesn’t learn any machine-learned values or variables from the training
data but dynamically calculates distance every time it wants to classify, hence
memorizing the training dataset instead.
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46. Is it possible to use KNN for image processing?

Yes, it is possible to use KNN for image processing. It can be done by converting
the 3-dimensional image into a single-dimensional vector and using the same as
input to KNN.
47. Differentiate between K-Means and KNN algorithms?
KNN algorithmsK-MeansKNN algorithms is Supervised Learning where-as K-Means is
Unsupervised Learning. With KNN, we predict the label of the unidentified element
based on its nearest neighbour and further extend this approach for solving
classification/regression-based problems.K-Means is Unsupervised Learning, where we
don’t have any Labels present, in other words, no Target Variables and thus we try
to cluster the data based upon their coord

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48. How does the SVM algorithm deal with self-learning?

SVM has a learning rate and expansion rate which takes care of this. The learning
rate compensates or penalises the hyperplanes for making all the wrong moves and
expansion rate deals with finding the maximum separation area between classes.
49. What are Kernels in SVM? List popular kernels used in SVM along with a scenario
of their applications.
The function of the kernel is to take data as input and transform it into the
required form. A few popular Kernels used in SVM are as follows: RBF, Linear,
Sigmoid, Polynomial, Hyperbolic, Laplace, etc.
50. What is Kernel Trick in an SVM Algorithm?
Kernel Trick is a mathematical function which when applied on data points, can find
the region of classification between two different classes. Based on the choice of
function, be it linear or radial, which purely depends upon the distribution of
data, one can build a classifier.
51. What are ensemble models? Explain how ensemble techniques yield better learning
as compared to traditional classification ML algorithms.
An ensemble is a group of models that are used together for prediction both in
classification and regression classes. Ensemble learning helps improve ML results
because it combines several models. By doing so, it allows for a better predictive
performance compared to a single model. They are superior to individual models as
they reduce variance, average out biases, and have lesser chances of overfitting.
52. What are overfitting and underfitting? Why does the decision tree algorithm
suffer often with overfitting problems?
Overfitting is a statistical model or machine learning algorithm that captures the
data’s noise. Underfitting is a model or machine learning algorithm which does not
fit the data well enough and occurs if the model or algorithm shows low variance
but high bias.
In decision trees, overfitting occurs when the tree is designed to fit all samples
in the training data set perfectly. This results in branches with strict rules or
sparse data and affects the accuracy when predicting samples that aren’t part of
the training set.
Also Read: Overfitting and Underfitting in Machine Learning
53. What is OOB error and how does it occur?
For each bootstrap sample, there is one-third of the data that was not used in the
creation of the tree, i.e., it was out of the sample. This data is referred to as
out of bag data. In order to get an unbiased measure of the accuracy of the model
over test data, out of bag error is used. The out of bag data is passed for each
tree is passed through that tree and the outputs are aggregated to give out of bag
error. This percentage error is quite effective in estimating the error in the
testing set and does not require further cross-validation.
54. Why boosting is a more stable algorithm as compared to other ensemble
algorithms?
Boosting focuses on errors found in previous iterations until they become obsolete.
Whereas in bagging there is no corrective loop. This is why boosting is a more
stable algorithm compared to other ensemble algorithms.
55. How do you handle outliers in the data?
Outlier is an observation in the data set that is far away from other observations
in the data set. We can discover outliers using tools and functions like box plot,
scatter plot, Z-Score, IQR score etc. and then handle them based on the
visualization we have got. To handle outliers, we can cap at some threshold, use
transformations to reduce skewness of the data and remove outliers if they are
anomalies or errors.
56. List popular cross validation techniques.
There are mainly six types of cross validation techniques. They are as follow:

K fold
Stratified k fold
Leave one out
Bootstrapping
Random search cv
Grid search cv

57. Is it possible to test for the probability of improving model accuracy without
cross-validation techniques? If yes, please explain.
Yes, it is possible to test for the probability of improving model accuracy without
cross-validation techniques. We can do so by running the ML model for say n number
of iterations, recording the accuracy. Plot all the accuracies and remove the 5% of
low probability values. Measure the left [low] cut off and right [high] cut off.
With the remaining 95% confidence, we can say that the model can go as low or as
high [as mentioned within cut off points].
58. Name a popular dimensionality reduction algorithm.
Popular dimensionality reduction algorithms are Principal Component Analysis and
Factor Analysis.Principal Component Analysis creates one or more index variables
from a larger set of measured variables. Factor Analysis is a model of the
measurement of a latent variable. This latent variable cannot be measured with a
single variable and is seen through a relationship it causes in a set of y
variables.
59. How can we use a dataset without the target variable into supervised learning
algorithms?
Input the data set into a clustering algorithm, generate optimal clusters, label
the cluster numbers as the new target variable. Now, the dataset has independent
and target variables present. This ensures that the dataset is ready to be used in
supervised learning algorithms.
60. List all types of popular recommendation systems? Name and explain two
personalized recommendation systems along with their ease of implementation.
Popularity based recommendation, content-based recommendation, user-based
collaborative filter, and item-based recommendation are the popular types of
recommendation systems.Personalized Recommendation systems are- Content-based
recommendations, user-based collaborative filter, and item-based recommendations.
User-based collaborative filter and item-based recommendations are more
personalized. Easy to maintain: Similarity matrix can be maintained easily with
Item-based recommendations.
61. How do we deal with sparsity issues in recommendation systems? How do we
measure its effectiveness? Explain.
Singular value decomposition can be used to generate the prediction matrix. RMSE is
the measure that helps us understand how close the prediction matrix is to the
original matrix.
62. Name and define techniques used to find similarities in the recommendation
system.
Pearson correlation and Cosine correlation are techniques used to find similarities
in recommendation systems.
63. State the limitations of Fixed Basis Function.
Linear separability in feature space doesn’t imply linear separability in input
space. So, Inputs are non-linearly transformed using vectors of basic functions
with increased dimensionality. Limitations of Fixed basis functions are:

Non-Linear transformations cannot remove overlap between two classes but they can
increase overlap.
Often it is not clear which basis functions are the best fit for a given task. So,
learning the basic functions can be useful over using fixed basis functions.
If we want to use only fixed ones, we can use a lot of them and let the model
figure out the best fit but that would lead to overfitting the model thereby making
it unstable.

64. Define and explain the concept of Inductive Bias with some examples.
Inductive Bias is a set of assumptions that humans use to predict outputs given
inputs that the learning algorithm has not encountered yet. When we are trying to
learn Y from X and the hypothesis space for Y is infinite, we need to reduce the
scope by our beliefs/assumptions about the hypothesis space which is also called
inductive bias. Through these assumptions, we constrain our hypothesis space and
also get the capability to incrementally test and improve on the data using hyper-
parameters. Examples:

We assume that Y varies linearly with X while applying Linear regression.

We assume that there exists a hyperplane separating negative and positive examples.

65. Explain the term instance-based learning.

Instance Based Learning is a set of procedures for regression and classification
which produce a class label prediction based on resemblance to its nearest
neighbors in the training data set. These algorithms just collects all the data and
get an answer when required or queried. In simple words they are a set of
procedures for solving new problems based on the solutions of already solved
problems in the past which are similar to the current problem.
66. Keeping train and test split criteria in mind, is it good to perform scaling
before the split or after the split?
Scaling should be done post-train and test split ideally. If the data is closely
packed, then scaling post or pre-split should not make much difference.
67. Define precision, recall and F1 Score?

The metric used to access the performance of the classification model is Confusion
Metric. Confusion Metric can be further interpreted with the following terms:-
True Positives (TP) – These are the correctly predicted positive values. It implies
that the value of the actual class is yes and the value of the predicted class is
also yes.
True Negatives (TN) – These are the correctly predicted negative values. It implies
that the value of the actual class is no and the value of the predicted class is
also no.
False positives and false negatives, these values occur when your actual class
contradicts with the predicted class.
Now,Recall, also known as Sensitivity is the ratio of true positive rate (TP), to
all observations in actual class – yesRecall = TP/(TP+FN)
Precision is the ratio of positive predictive value, which measures the amount of
accurate positives model predicted viz a viz number of positives it
claims.Precision = TP/(TP+FP)
Accuracy is the most intuitive performance measure and it is simply a ratio of
correctly predicted observation to the total observations.Accuracy =
(TP+TN)/(TP+FP+FN+TN)
F1 Score is the weighted average of Precision and Recall. Therefore, this score
takes both false positives and false negatives into account. Intuitively it is not
as easy to understand as accuracy, but F1 is usually more useful than accuracy,
especially if you have an uneven class distribution. Accuracy works best if false
positives and false negatives have a similar cost. If the cost of false positives
and false negatives are very different, it’s better to look at both Precision and
Recall.
68. Plot validation score and training score with data set size on the x-axis and
another plot with model complexity on the x-axis.
For high bias in the models, the performance of the model on the validation data
set is similar to the performance on the training data set. For high variance in
the models, the performance of the model on the validation set is worse than the
performance on the training set.
69. What is Bayes’ Theorem? State at least 1 use case with respect to the machine
learning context?
Bayes’ Theorem describes the probability of an event, based on prior knowledge of
conditions that might be related to the event. For example, if cancer is related to
age, then, using Bayes’ theorem, a person’s age can be used to more accurately
assess the probability that they have cancer than can be done without the knowledge
of the person’s age.Chain rule for Bayesian probability can be used to predict the
likelihood of the next word in the sentence.
70. What is Naive Bayes? Why is it Naive?
Naive Bayes classifiers are a series of classification algorithms that are based on
the Bayes theorem. This family of algorithm shares a common principle which treats
every pair of features independently while being classified.
Naive Bayes is considered Naive because the attributes in it (for the class) is
independent of others in the same class. This lack of dependence between two
attributes of the same class creates the quality of naiveness.Read more about Naive
Bayes.
71. Explain how a Naive Bayes Classifier works.
Naive Bayes classifiers are a family of algorithms which are derived from the Bayes
theorem of probability. It works on the fundamental assumption that every set of
two features that is being classified is independent of each other and every
feature makes an equal and independent contribution to the outcome.

72. What do the terms prior probability and marginal likelihood in context of Naive
Bayes theorem mean?
Prior probability is the percentage of dependent binary variables in the data set.
If you are given a dataset and dependent variable is either 1 or 0 and percentage
of 1 is 65% and percentage of 0 is 35%. Then, the probability that any new input
for that variable of being 1 would be 65%.
Marginal likelihood is the denominator of the Bayes equation and it makes sure that
the posterior probability is valid by making its area 1.
73. Explain the difference between Lasso and Ridge?
Lasso(L1) and Ridge(L2) are the regularization techniques where we penalize the
coefficients to find the optimum solution. In ridge, the penalty function is
defined by the sum of the squares of the coefficients and for the Lasso, we
penalize the sum of the absolute values of the coefficients. Another type of
regularization method is ElasticNet, it is a hybrid penalizing function of both
lasso and ridge.
74. What’s the difference between probability and likelihood?
Probability is the measure of the likelihood that an event will occur that is, what
is the certainty that a specific event will occur? Where-as a likelihood function
is a function of parameters within the parameter space that describes the
probability of obtaining the observed data.So the fundamental difference is,
Probability attaches to possible results; likelihood attaches to hypotheses.

75. Why would you Prune your tree?

In the context of data science or AIML, pruning refers to the process of reducing
redundant branches of a decision tree. Decision Trees are prone to overfitting,
pruning the tree helps to reduce the size and minimizes the chances of overfitting.
Pruning involves turning branches of a decision tree into leaf nodes and removing
the leaf nodes from the original branch. It serves as a tool to perform the
tradeoff.

76. Model accuracy or Model performance? Which one will you prefer and why?
This is a trick question, one should first get a clear idea, what is Model
Performance? If Performance means speed, then it depends upon the nature of the
application, any application related to the real-time scenario will need high speed
as an important feature. Example: The best of Search Results will lose its virtue
if the Query results do not appear fast.
If Performance is hinted at Why Accuracy is not the most important virtue – For any
imbalanced data set, more than Accuracy, it will be an F1 score than will explain
the business case and in case data is imbalanced, then Precision and Recall will be
more important than rest.
77. List the advantages and limitations of the Temporal Difference Learning Method.
Temporal Difference Learning Method is a mix of Monte Carlo method and Dynamic
programming method. Some of the advantages of this method include:

It can learn in every step online or offline.

It can learn from a sequence which is not complete as well.
It can work in continuous environments.
It has lower variance compared to MC method and is more efficient than MC method.

Limitations of TD method are:

It is a biased estimation.
It is more sensitive to initialization.

78. How would you handle an imbalanced dataset?

Sampling Techniques can help with an imbalanced dataset. There are two ways to
perform sampling, Under Sample or Over Sampling.
In Under Sampling, we reduce the size of the majority class to match minority class
thus help by improving performance w.r.t storage and run-time execution, but it
potentially discards useful information.
For Over Sampling, we upsample the Minority class and thus solve the problem of
information loss, however, we get into the trouble of having Overfitting.
There are other techniques as well –Cluster-Based Over Sampling – In this case, the
K-means clustering algorithm is independently applied to minority and majority
class instances. This is to identify clusters in the dataset. Subsequently, each
cluster is oversampled such that all clusters of the same class have an equal
number of instances and all classes have the same size
Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique (SMOTE) – A subset of data is taken from
the minority class as an example and then new synthetic similar instances are
created which are then added to the original dataset. This technique is good for
Numerical data points.
79. Mention some of the EDA Techniques?
Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) helps analysts to understand the data better and
forms the foundation of better models.
Visualization

Univariate visualization
Bivariate visualization
Multivariate visualization

Missing Value Treatment – Replace missing values with Either Mean/Median

Outlier Detection – Use Boxplot to identify the distribution of Outliers, then
Apply IQR to set the boundary for IQR
Transformation – Based on the distribution, apply a transformation on the features
Scaling the Dataset – Apply MinMax, Standard Scaler or Z Score Scaling mechanism to
scale the data.
Feature Engineering – Need of the domain, and SME knowledge helps Analyst find
derivative fields which can fetch more information about the nature of the data
Dimensionality reduction — Helps in reducing the volume of data without losing much
information

80. Mention why feature engineering is important in model building and list
out some of the techniques used for feature engineering.
Algorithms necessitate features with some specific characteristics to work
appropriately. The data is initially in a raw form. You need to extract features
from this data before supplying it to the algorithm. This process is called feature
engineering. When you have relevant features, the complexity of the algorithms
reduces. Then, even if a non-ideal algorithm is used, results come out to be
accurate.
Feature engineering primarily has two goals:

Prepare the suitable input data set to be compatible with the machine learning
algorithm constraints.
Enhance the performance of machine learning models.

Some of the techniques used for feature engineering include Imputation, Binning,
Outliers Handling, Log transform, grouping operations, One-Hot encoding, Feature
split, Scaling, Extracting date.
81. Differentiate between Statistical Modeling and Machine Learning?
Machine learning models are about making accurate predictions about the situations,
like Foot Fall in restaurants, Stock-Price, etc. where-as, Statistical models are
designed for inference about the relationships between variables, as What drives
the sales in a restaurant, is it food or Ambience.
82. Differentiate between Boosting and Bagging?
Bagging and Boosting are variants of Ensemble Techniques.
Bootstrap Aggregation or bagging is a method that is used to reduce the variance
for algorithms having very high variance. Decision trees are a particular family of
classifiers which are susceptible to having high bias.
Decision trees have a lot of sensitiveness to the type of data they are trained on.
Hence generalization of results is often much more complex to achieve in them
despite very high fine-tuning. The results vary greatly if the training data is
changed in decision trees.
Hence bagging is utilised where multiple decision trees are made which are trained
on samples of the original data and the final result is the average of all these
individual models.
Boosting is the process of using an n-weak classifier system for prediction such
that every weak classifier compensates for the weaknesses of its classifiers. By
weak classifier, we imply a classifier which performs poorly on a given data set.
It’s evident that boosting is not an algorithm rather it’s a process. Weak
classifiers used are generally logistic regression, shallow decision trees etc.
There are many algorithms which make use of boosting processes but two of them are
mainly used: Adaboost and Gradient Boosting and XGBoost.
83. What is the significance of Gamma and Regularization in SVM?
The gamma defines influence. Low values meaning ‘far’ and high values meaning
‘close’. If gamma is too large, the radius of the area of influence of the support
vectors only includes the support vector itself and no amount of regularization
with C will be able to prevent overfitting. If gamma is very small, the model is
too constrained and cannot capture the complexity of the data.
The regularization parameter (lambda) serves as a degree of importance that is
given to miss-classifications. This can be used to draw the tradeoff with
OverFitting.
84. Define ROC curve work
The graphical representation of the contrast between true positive rates and the
false positive rate at various thresholds is known as the ROC curve. It is used as
a proxy for the trade-off between true positives vs the false positives.

85. What is the difference between a generative and discriminative model?

A generative model learns the different categories of data. On the other hand, a
discriminative model will only learn the distinctions between different categories
of data. Discriminative models perform much better than the generative models when
it comes to classification tasks.
86. What are hyperparameters and how are they different from parameters?
A parameter is a variable that is internal to the model and whose value is
estimated from the training data. They are often saved as part of the learned
model. Examples include weights, biases etc.
A hyperparameter is a variable that is external to the model whose value cannot be
estimated from the data. They are often used to estimate model parameters. The
choice of parameters is sensitive to implementation. Examples include learning
rate, hidden layers etc.
87. What is shattering a set of points? Explain VC dimension.
In order to shatter a given configuration of points, a classifier must be able to,
for all possible assignments of positive and negative for the points, perfectly
partition the plane such that positive points are separated from negative points.
For a configuration of n points, there are 2n possible assignments of positive or
negative.
When choosing a classifier, we need to consider the type of data to be classified
and this can be known by VC dimension of a classifier. It is defined as cardinality
of the largest set of points that the classification algorithm i.e. the classifier
can shatter. In order to have a VC dimension of at least n, a classifier must be
able to shatter a single given configuration of n points.
88. What are some differences between a linked list and an array?
Arrays and Linked lists are both used to store linear data of similar types.
However, there are a few difference between them.
ArrayLinked ListElements are well-indexed, making specific element accessing
easierElements need to be accessed in a cumulative mannerOperations (insertion,
deletion) are faster in arrayLinked list takes linear time, making operations a bit
slowerArrays are of fixed sizeLinked lists are dynamic and flexibleMemory is
assigned during compile time in an arrayMemory is allocated during execution or
runtime in Linked list.Elements are stored consecutively in arrays.Elements are
stored randomly in Linked listMemory utilization is inefficient in the arrayMemory
utilization is efficient in the linked list.
89. What is the meshgrid () method and the contourf () method? State some usesof
both.
The meshgrid( ) function in numpy takes two arguments as input : range of x-values
in the grid, range of y-values in the grid whereas meshgrid needs to be built
before the contourf( ) function in matplotlib is used which takes in many inputs :
x-values, y-values, fitting curve (contour line) to be plotted in grid, colours
etc.
Meshgrid () function is used to create a grid using 1-D arrays of x-axis inputs
and y-axis inputs to represent the matrix indexing. Contourf () is used to draw
filled contours using the given x-axis inputs, y-axis inputs, contour line, colours
etc.
90. Describe a hash table.
Hashing is a technique for identifying unique objects from a group of similar
objects. Hash functions are large keys converted into small keys in hashing
techniques. The values of hash functions are stored in data structures which are
known hash table.
91. List the advantages and disadvantages of using Neural Networks.
Advantages:
We can store information on the entire network instead of storing it in a database.
It has the ability to work and give a good accuracy even with inadequate
information. A neural network has parallel processing ability and distributed
memory.
Disadvantages:
Neural Networks requires processors which are capable of parallel processing. It’s
unexplained functioning of the network is also quite an issue as it reduces the
trust in the network in some situations like when we have to show the problem we
noticed to the network. Duration of the network is mostly unknown. We can only know
that the training is finished by looking at the error value but it doesn’t give us
optimal results.
92. You have to train a 12GB dataset using a neural network with a machine which
has only 3GB RAM. How would you go about it?
We can use NumPy arrays to solve this issue. Load all the data into an array. In
NumPy, arrays have a property to map the complete dataset without loading it
completely in memory. We can pass the index of the array, dividing data into
batches, to get the data required and then pass the data into the neural networks.
But be careful about keeping the batch size normal.
Machine Learning Coding Interview Questions
93. Write a simple code to binarize data.
Conversion of data into binary values on the basis of certain threshold is known as
binarizing of data. Values below the threshold are set to 0 and those above the
threshold are set to 1 which is useful for feature engineering.
Code:
from sklearn.preprocessing import Binarizer
import pandas
import numpy
names_list = ['Alaska', 'Pratyush', 'Pierce', 'Sandra', 'Soundarya', 'Meredith',
'Richard', 'Jackson', 'Tom',’Joe’]
data_frame = pandas.read_csv(url, names=names_list)
array = dataframe.values
# Splitting the array into input and output
A = array [: 0:7]
B = array [:7]
binarizer = Binarizer(threshold=0.0). fit(X)
binaryA = binarizer.transform(A)
numpy.set_printoptions(precision=5)
print (binaryA [0:7:])

Machine Learning Using Python Interview Questions

94. What is an Array?
The array is defined as a collection of similar items, stored in a contiguous
manner. Arrays is an intuitive concept as the need to group similar objects
together arises in our day to day lives. Arrays satisfy the same need. How are they
stored in the memory? Arrays consume blocks of data, where each element in the
array consumes one unit of memory. The size of the unit depends on the type of data
being used. For example, if the data type of elements of the array is int, then 4
bytes of data will be used to store each element. For character data type, 1 byte
will be used. This is implementation specific, and the above units may change from
computer to computer.
Example:
fruits = [‘apple’, banana’, pineapple’]
In the above case, fruits is a list that comprises of three fruits. To access them
individually, we use their indexes. Python and C are 0- indexed languages, that is,
the first index is 0. MATLAB on the contrary starts from 1, and thus is a 1-indexed
language.
95. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using an Array?

Advantages:

Random access is enabled

Saves memory
Cache friendly
Predictable compile timing
Helps in re-usability of code
Disadvantages:

Addition and deletion of records is time consuming even though we get the element
of interest immediately through random access. This is due to the fact that the
elements need to be reordered after insertion or deletion.
If contiguous blocks of memory are not available in the memory, then there is an
overhead on the CPU to search for the most optimal contiguous location available
for the requirement.

Now that we know what arrays are, we shall understand them in detail by solving
some interview questions. Before that, let us see the functions that Python as a
language provides for arrays, also known as, lists.
append() – Adds an element at the end of the listcopy() – returns a copy of a
list.reverse() – reverses the elements of the listsort() – sorts the elements in
ascending order by default.
96. What is Lists in Python?

Lists is an effective data structure provided in python. There are various

functionalities associated with the same. Let us consider the scenario where we
want to copy a list to another list. If the same operation had to be done in C
programming language, we would have to write our own function to implement the
same.
On the contrary, Python provides us with a function called copy. We can copy a list
to another just by calling the copy function.
new_list = old_list.copy()
We need to be careful while using the function. copy() is a shallow copy function,
that is, it only stores the references of the original list in the new list. If the
given argument is a compound data structure like a list then python creates another
object of the same type (in this case, a new list) but for everything inside old
list, only their reference is copied. Essentially, the new list consists of
references to the elements of the older list.
Hence, upon changing the original list, the new list values also change. This can
be dangerous in many applications. Therefore, Python provides us with another
functionality called as deepcopy. Intuitively, we may consider that deepcopy()
would follow the same paradigm, and the only difference would be that for
each element we will recursively call deepcopy. Practically, this is not the case.
deepcopy() preserves the graphical structure of the original compound data. Let us
understand this better with the help of an example:

import copy.deepcopy
a = [1,2]
b = [a,a] # there's only 1 object a
c = deepcopy(b)

# check the result by executing these lines

c[0] is a # return False, a new object a' is created
c[0] is c[1] # return True, c is [a',a'] not [a',a'']
This is the tricky part, during the process of deepcopy() a hashtable implemented
as a dictionary in python is used to map: old_object reference onto new_object
reference.
Therefore, this prevents unnecessary duplicates and thus preserves the structure of
the copied compound data structure. Thus, in this case, c[0] is not equal to a, as
internally their addresses are different.
Normal copy
>>> a = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> b = list(a)
>>> a
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> b
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> a[0][1] = 10
>>> a
[[1, 10, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> b # b changes too -> Not a deepcopy.
[[1, 10, 3], [4, 5, 6]]

Deep copy

>>> import copy

>>> b = copy.deepcopy(a)
>>> a
[[1, 10, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> b
[[1, 10, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> a[0][1] = 9
>>> a
[[1, 9, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> b # b doesn't change -> Deep Copy
[[1, 10, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
Now that we have understood the concept of lists, let us solve interview questions
to get better exposure on the same.
97. Given an array of integers where each element represents the max number of
steps that can be made forward from that element. The task is to find the minimum
number of jumps to reach the end of the array (starting from the first element). If
an element is 0, then cannot move through that element.
Solution: This problem is famously called as end of array problem. We want to
determine the minimum number of jumps required in order to reach the end. The
element in the array represents the maximum number of jumps that, that particular
element can take.
Let us understand how to approach the problem initially.
We need to reach the end. Therefore, let us have a count that tells us how near we
are to the end. Consider the array A=[1,2,3,1,1]
In the above example we can go from
> 2 - >3 - > 1 - > 1 - 4 jumps
1 - > 2 - > 1 - > 1 - 3 jumps
1 - > 2 - > 3 - > 1 - 3 jumps
Hence, we have a fair idea of the problem. Let us come up with a logic for the
same.
Let us start from the end and move backwards as that makes more sense
intuitionally. We will use variables right and prev_r denoting previous right to
keep track of the jumps.
Initially, right = prev_r = the last but one element. We consider the distance of
an element to the end, and the number of jumps possible by that element. Therefore,
if the sum of the number of jumps possible and the distance is greater than the
previous element, then we will discard the previous element and use the second
element’s value to jump. Try it out using a pen and paper first. The logic will
seem very straight forward to implement. Later, implement it on your own and then
verify with the result.
def min_jmp(arr):

n = len(arr)
right = prev_r = n-1
count = 0

# We start from rightmost index and travesre array to find the leftmost index
# from which we can reach index 'right'
while True:
for j in (range(prev_r-1,-1,-1)):
 if j + arr[j] >= prev_r:
right = j

if prev_r != right:
prev_r = right
else:
break

count += 1

return count if right == 0 else -1

# Enter the elements separated by a space

arr = list(map(int, input().split()))
print(min_jmp(n, arr))

98. Given a string S consisting only ‘a’s and ‘b’s, print the last index of the ‘b’
present in it.
When we have are given a string of a’s and b’s, we can immediately find out the
first location of a character occurring. Therefore, to find the last occurrence of
a character, we reverse the string and find the first occurrence, which is
equivalent to the last occurrence in the original string.
Here, we are given input as a string. Therefore, we begin by splitting the
characters element wise using the function split. Later, we reverse the array, find
the first occurrence position value, and get the index by finding the value len –
position -1, where position is the index value.
def split(word):
return [(char) for char in word]

a = input()
a= split(a)
a_rev = a[::-1]
pos = -1
for i in range(len(a_rev)):
if a_rev[i] == ‘b’:
pos = len(a_rev)- i -1
print(pos)
break
else:
continue
if pos==-1:
print(-1)
99. Rotate the elements of an array by d positions to the left. Let us initially
look at an example.
A = [1,2,3,4,5]
A <<2
[3,4,5,1,2]
A<<3
[4,5,1,2,3]
There exists a pattern here, that is, the first d elements are being interchanged
with last n-d +1 elements. Therefore we can just swap the elements. Correct? What
if the size of the array is huge, say 10000 elements. There are chances of memory
error, run-time error etc. Therefore, we do it more carefully. We rotate the
elements one by one in order to prevent the above errors, in case of large arrays.
# Rotate all the elements left by 1 position
def rot_left_once ( arr):
n = len( arr)
tmp = arr [0]
for i in range ( n-1): #[0,n-2]
arr[i] = arr[i + 1]
arr[n-1] = tmp

# Use the above function to repeat the process for d times.

def rot_left (arr, d):
n = len (arr)
for i in range (d):
rot_left_once ( arr, n)

arr = list( map( int, input().split()))

rot =int( input())
leftRotate ( arr, rot)

for i in range( len(arr)):

print( arr[i], end=' ')
100. Water Trapping Problem
Given an array arr[] of N non-negative integers which represents the height of
blocks at index I, where the width of each block is 1. Compute how much water can
be trapped in between blocks after raining.
# Structure is like below:
# | |
# |_|
# answer is we can trap two units of water.
Solution: We are given an array, where each element denotes the height of the
block. One unit of height is equal to one unit of water, given there exists space
between the 2 elements to store it. Therefore, we need to find out all such pairs
that exist which can store water. We need to take care of the possible cases:

There should be no overlap of water saved

Water should not overflow

Therefore, let us find start with the extreme elements, and move towards the
centre.
n = int(input())
arr = [int(i) for i in input().split()]
left, right = [arr[0]], [0] * n
# left =[arr[0]]
#right = [ 0 0 0 0…0] n terms
right[n-1] = arr[-1] # right most element
# we use two arrays left[ ] and right[ ], which keep track of elements greater than
all# elements the order of traversal respectively.
for elem in arr[1 : ]:
left.append(max(left[-1], elem) )
for i in range( len( arr)-2, -1, -1):
right[i] = max( arr[i] , right[i+1] )
water = 0
# once we have the arrays left, and right, we can find the water capacity between
these arrays.

for i in range( 1, n - 1):

add_water = min( left[i - 1], right[i]) - arr[i]
if add_water > 0:
water += add_water
print(water)

101. Explain Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues.

Ans. Linear transformations are helpful to understand using eigenvectors. They find
their prime usage in the creation of covariance and correlation matrices in data
science.
Simply put, eigenvectors are directional entities along which linear transformation
features like compression, flip etc. can be applied.
Eigenvalues are the magnitude of the linear transformation features along each
direction of an Eigenvector.
102. How would you define the number of clusters in a clustering algorithm?
Ans. The number of clusters can be determined by finding the silhouette score.
Often we aim to get some inferences from data using clustering techniques so that
we can have a broader picture of a number of classes being represented by the data.
In this case, the silhouette score helps us determine the number of cluster centres
to cluster our data along.
Another technique that can be used is the elbow method.
103. What are the performance metrics that can be used to estimate the efficiency
of a linear regression model?
Ans. The performance metric that is used in this case is:

Mean Squared Error

R2 score
Adjusted R2 score
Mean Absolute score

104. What is the default method of splitting in decision trees?

The default method of splitting in decision trees is the Gini Index. Gini Index is
the measure of impurity of a particular node.
This can be changed by making changes to classifier parameters.
105. How is p-value useful?
Ans. The p-value gives the probability of the null hypothesis is true. It gives us
the statistical significance of our results. In other words, p-value determines the
confidence of a model in a particular output.
106. Can logistic regression be used for classes more than 2?
Ans. No, logistic regression cannot be used for classes more than 2 as it is a
binary classifier. For multi-class classification algorithms like Decision Trees,
Naïve Bayes’ Classifiers are better suited.
107. What are the hyperparameters of a logistic regression model?
Ans. Classifier penalty, classifier solver and classifier C are the trainable
hyperparameters of a Logistic Regression Classifier. These can be specified
exclusively with values in Grid Search to hyper tune a Logistic Classifier.
108. Name a few hyper-parameters of decision trees?
Ans. The most important features which one can tune in decision trees are:

Splitting criteria
Min_leaves
Min_samples
Max_depth

109. How to deal with multicollinearity?

Ans. Multi collinearity can be dealt with by the following steps:

Remove highly correlated predictors from the model.

Use Partial Least Squares Regression (PLS) or Principal Components Analysis

110. What is Heteroscedasticity?

Ans. It is a situation in which the variance of a variable is unequal across the
range of values of the predictor variable.
It should be avoided in regression as it introduces unnecessary variance.
111. Is ARIMA model a good fit for every time series problem?
Ans. No, ARIMA model is not suitable for every type of time series problem. There
are situations where ARMA model and others also come in handy.
ARIMA is best when different standard temporal structures require to be captured
for time series data.
112. How do you deal with the class imbalance in a classification problem?
Ans. Class imbalance can be dealt with in the following ways:

Using class weights

Using Sampling
Using SMOTE
Choosing loss functions like Focal Loss

113. What is the role of cross-validation?

Ans. Cross-validation is a technique which is used to increase the performance of a
machine learning algorithm, where the machine is fed sampled data out of the same
data for a few times. The sampling is done so that the dataset is broken into small
parts of the equal number of rows, and a random part is chosen as the test set,
while all other parts are chosen as train sets.
114. What is a voting model?
Ans. A voting model is an ensemble model which combines several classifiers but to
produce the final result, in case of a classification-based model, takes into
account, the classification of a certain data point of all the models and picks the
most vouched/voted/generated option from all the given classes in the target
column.
115. How to deal with very few data samples? Is it possible to make a model out of
it?
Ans. If very few data samples are there, we can make use of oversampling to produce
new data points. In this way, we can have new data points.
116. What are the hyperparameters of an SVM?
Ans. The gamma value, c value and the type of kernel are the hyperparameters of an
SVM model.
117. What is Pandas Profiling?
Ans. Pandas profiling is a step to find the effective number of usable data. It
gives us the statistics of NULL values and the usable values and thus makes
variable selection and data selection for building models in the preprocessing
phase very effective.
118. What impact does correlation have on PCA?
Ans. If data is correlated PCA does not work well. Because of the correlation of
variables the effective variance of variables decreases. Hence correlated data when
used for PCA does not work well.
119. How is PCA different from LDA?
Ans. PCA is unsupervised. LDA is unsupervised.
PCA takes into consideration the variance. LDA takes into account the distribution
of classes.
120. What distance metrics can be used in KNN?
Ans. Following distance metrics can be used in KNN.

Manhattan
Minkowski
Tanimoto
Jaccard
Mahalanobis

121. Which metrics can be used to measure correlation of categorical data?

Ans. Chi square test can be used for doing so. It gives the measure of correlation
between categorical predictors.
122. Which algorithm can be used in value imputation in both categorical and
continuous categories of data?
Ans. KNN is the only algorithm that can be used for imputation of both categorical
and continuous variables.
123. When should ridge regression be preferred over lasso?
Ans. We should use ridge regression when we want to use all predictors and not
remove any as it reduces the coefficient values but does not nullify them.
124. Which algorithms can be used for important variable selection?
Ans. Random Forest, Xgboost and plot variable importance charts can be used for
variable selection.
125. What ensemble technique is used by Random forests?
Ans. Bagging is the technique used by Random Forests. Random forests are a
collection of trees which work on sampled data from the original dataset with the
final prediction being a voted average of all trees.
126. What ensemble technique is used by gradient boosting trees?
Ans. Boosting is the technique used by GBM.
127. If we have a high bias error what does it mean? How to treat it?
Ans. High bias error means that that model we are using is ignoring all the
important trends in the model and the model is underfitting.
To reduce underfitting:

We need to increase the complexity of the model

Number of features need to be increased

Sometimes it also gives the impression that the data is noisy. Hence noise from
data should be removed so that most important signals are found by the model to
make effective predictions.
Increasing the number of epochs results in increasing the duration of training of
the model. It’s helpful in reducing the error.
128. Which type of sampling is better for a classification model and why?
Ans. Stratified sampling is better in case of classification problems because it
takes into account the balance of classes in train and test sets. The proportion of
classes is maintained and hence the model performs better. In case of random
sampling of data, the data is divided into two parts without taking into
consideration the balance classes in the train and test sets. Hence some classes
might be present only in tarin sets or validation sets. Hence the results of the
resulting model are poor in this case.
129. What is a good metric for measuring the level of multicollinearity?
Ans. VIF or 1/tolerance is a good measure of measuring multicollinearity in models.
VIF is the percentage of the variance of a predictor which remains unaffected by
other predictors. So higher the VIF value, greater is the multicollinearity amongst
the predictors.
A rule of thumb for interpreting the variance inflation factor:

1 = not correlated.
Between 1 and 5 = moderately correlated.
Greater than 5 = highly correlated.

130. When can be a categorical value treated as a continuous variable and what
effect does it have when done so?
Ans. A categorical predictor can be treated as a continuous one when the nature of
data points it represents is ordinal. If the predictor variable is having ordinal
data then it can be treated as continuous and its inclusion in the model increases
the performance of the model.
131. What is the role of maximum likelihood in logistic regression.
Ans. Maximum likelihood equation helps in estimation of most probable values of the
estimator’s predictor variable coefficients which produces results which are the
most likely or most probable and are quite close to the truth values.
132. Which distance do we measure in the case of KNN?
Ans. The hamming distance is measured in case of KNN for the determination of
nearest neighbours. Kmeans uses euclidean distance.
133. What is a pipeline?
Ans. A pipeline is a sophisticated way of writing software such that each intended
action while building a model can be serialized and the process calls the
individual functions for the individual tasks. The tasks are carried out in
sequence for a given sequence of data points and the entire process can be run onto
n threads by use of composite estimators in scikit learn.
134. Which sampling technique is most suitable when working with time-series data?
Ans. We can use a custom iterative sampling such that we continuously add samples
to the train set. We only should keep in mind that the sample used for validation
should be added to the next train sets and a new sample is used for validation.
135. What are the benefits of pruning?
Ans. Pruning helps in the following:

Reduces overfitting
Shortens the size of the tree
Reduces complexity of the model
Increases bias

136. What is normal distribution?

Ans. The distribution having the below properties is called normal distribution.

The mean, mode and median are all equal.

The curve is symmetric at the center (i.e. around the mean, μ).
Exactly half of the values are to the left of center and exactly half the values
are to the right.
The total area under the curve is 1.

137. What is the 68 per cent rule in normal distribution?

Ans. The normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve. Most of the data points are
around the median. Hence approximately 68 per cent of the data is around the
median. Since there is no skewness and its bell-shaped.
138. What is a chi-square test?
Ans. A chi-square determines if a sample data matches a population.
A chi-square test for independence compares two variables in a contingency table to
see if they are related.
A very small chi-square test statistics implies observed data fits the expected
data extremely well.
139. What is a random variable?
Ans. A Random Variable is a set of possible values from a random experiment.
Example: Tossing a coin: we could get Heads or Tails. Rolling of a dice: we get 6
values
140. What is the degree of freedom?
Ans. It is the number of independent values or quantities which can be assigned to
a statistical distribution. It is used in Hypothesis testing and chi-square test.
141. Which kind of recommendation system is used by amazon to recommend similar
items?
Ans. Amazon uses a collaborative filtering algorithm for the recommendation of
similar items. It’s a user to user similarity based mapping of user likeness and
susceptibility to buy.
142. What is a false positive?
Ans. It is a test result which wrongly indicates that a particular condition or
attribute is present.
Example – “Stress testing, a routine diagnostic tool used in detecting heart
disease, results in a significant number of false positives in women”
143. What is a false negative?
Ans. A test result which wrongly indicates that a particular condition or attribute
is absent.
Example – “it’s possible to have a false negative—the test says you aren’t pregnant
when you are”
144. What is the error term composed of in regression?
Ans. Error is a sum of bias error+variance error+ irreducible error in regression.
Bias and variance error can be reduced but not the irreducible error.
145. Which performance metric is better R2 or adjusted R2?
Ans. Adjusted R2 because the performance of predictors impacts it. R2 is
independent of predictors and shows performance improvement through increase if the
number of predictors is increased.
146. What’s the difference between Type I and Type II error?
Type I and Type II error in machine learning refers to false values. Type I is
equivalent to a False positive while Type II is equivalent to a False negative. In
Type I error, a hypothesis which ought to be accepted doesn’t get accepted.
Similarly, for Type II error, the hypothesis gets rejected which should have been
accepted in the first place.
147. What do you understand by L1 and L2 regularization?
L2 regularization: It tries to spread error among all the terms. L2 corresponds to
a Gaussian prior.
L1 regularization: It is more binary/sparse, with many variables either being
assigned a 1 or 0 in weighting. L1 corresponds to setting a Laplacean prior on the
terms.
148. Which one is better, Naive Bayes Algorithm or Decision Trees?
Although it depends on the problem you are solving, but some general advantages are
following:
Naive Bayes:

Work well with small dataset compared to DT which need more data
Lesser overfitting
Smaller in size and faster in processing

Decision Trees:

Decision Trees are very flexible, easy to understand, and easy to debug
No preprocessing or transformation of features required
Prone to overfitting but you can use pruning or Random forests to avoid that.

149. What do you mean by the ROC curve?

Receiver operating characteristics (ROC curve): ROC curve illustrates the
diagnostic ability of a binary classifier. It is calculated/created by plotting
True Positive against False Positive at various threshold settings. The performance
metric of ROC curve is AUC (area under curve). Higher the area under the curve,
better the prediction power of the model.
150. What do you mean by AUC curve?
AUC (area under curve). Higher the area under the curve, better the prediction
power of the model.
151. What is log likelihood in logistic regression?
It is the sum of the likelihood residuals. At record level, the natural log of the
error (residual) is calculated for each record, multiplied by minus one, and those
values are totaled. That total is then used as the basis for deviance (2 x ll) and
likelihood (exp(ll)).
The same calculation can be applied to a naive model that assumes absolutely no
predictive power, and a saturated model assuming perfect predictions.
The likelihood values are used to compare different models, while the deviances
(test, naive, and saturated) can be used to determine the predictive power and
accuracy. Logistic regression accuracy of the model will always be 100 percent for
the development data set, but that is not the case once a model is applied to
another data set.
152. How would you evaluate a logistic regression model?
Model Evaluation is a very important part in any analysis to answer the following
questions,
How well does the model fit the data?, Which predictors are most important?, Are
the predictions accurate?
So the following are the criterion to access the model performance,

Akaike Information Criteria (AIC): In simple terms, AIC estimates the relative
amount of information lost by a given model. So the less information lost the
higher the quality of the model. Therefore, we always prefer models with minimum
AIC.
Receiver operating characteristics (ROC curve): ROC curve illustrates the
diagnostic ability of a binary classifier. It is calculated/ created by plotting
True Positive against False Positive at various threshold settings. The performance
metric of ROC curve is AUC (area under curve). Higher the area under the curve,
better the prediction power of the model.
Confusion Matrix: In order to find out how well the model does in predicting the
target variable, we use a confusion matrix/ classification rate. It is nothing but
a tabular representation of actual Vs predicted values which helps us to find the
accuracy of the model.

153. What are the advantages of SVM algorithms?

SVM algorithms have basically advantages in terms of complexity. First I would like
to clear that both Logistic regression as well as SVM can form non linear decision
surfaces and can be coupled with the kernel trick. If Logistic regression can be
coupled with kernel then why use SVM?
● SVM is found to have better performance practically in most cases.
● SVM is computationally cheaper O(N^2*K) where K is no of support vectors
(support vectors are those points that lie on the class margin) where as logistic
regression is O(N^3)
● Classifier in SVM depends only on a subset of points . Since we need to maximize
distance between closest points of two classes (aka margin) we need to care about
only a subset of points unlike logistic regression.
154. Why does XGBoost perform better than SVM?
First reason is that XGBoos is an ensemble method that uses many trees to make a
decision so it gains power by repeating itself.
SVM is a linear separator, when data is not linearly separable SVM needs a Kernel
to project the data into a space where it can separate it, there lies its greatest
strength and weakness, by being able to project data into a high dimensional space
SVM can find a linear separation for almost any data but at the same time it needs
to use a Kernel and we can argue that there’s not a perfect kernel for every
dataset.
155. What is the difference between SVM Rank and SVR (Support Vector Regression)?
One is used for ranking and the other is used for regression.
There is a crucial difference between regression and ranking. In regression, the
absolute value is crucial. A real number is predicted.
In ranking, the only thing of concern is the ordering of a set of examples. We only
want to know which example has the highest rank, which one has the second-highest,
and so on. From the data, we only know that example 1 should be ranked higher than
example 2, which in turn should be ranked higher than example 3, and so on. We do
not know by how much example 1 is ranked higher than example 2, or whether this
difference is bigger than the difference between examples 2 and 3.
156. What is the difference between the normal soft margin SVM and SVM with a
linear kernel?
Hard-margin
You have the basic SVM – hard margin. This assumes that data is very well behaved,
and you can find a perfect classifier – which will have 0 error on train data.
Soft-margin
Data is usually not well behaved, so SVM hard margins may not have a solution at
all. So we allow for a little bit of error on some points. So the training error
will not be 0, but average error over all points is minimized.
Kernels
The above assume that the best classifier is a straight line. But what is it is not
a straight line. (e.g. it is a circle, inside a circle is one class, outside is
another class). If we are able to map the data into higher dimensions – the higher
dimension may give us a straight line.
157. How is linear classifier relevant to SVM?
An svm is a type of linear classifier. If you don’t mess with kernels, it’s
arguably the most simple type of linear classifier.
Linear classifiers (all?) learn linear fictions from your data that map your input
to scores like so: scores = Wx + b. Where W is a matrix of learned weights, b is a
learned bias vector that shifts your scores, and x is your input data. This type of
function may look familiar to you if you remember y = mx + b from high school.
A typical svm loss function ( the function that tells you how good your calculated
scores are in relation to the correct labels ) would be hinge loss. It takes the
form: Loss = sum over all scores except the correct score of max(0, scores –
scores(correct class) + 1).
158. What are the advantages of using a naive Bayes for classification?

Very simple, easy to implement and fast.

If the NB conditional independence assumption holds, then it will converge quicker
than discriminative models like logistic regression.
Even if the NB assumption doesn’t hold, it works great in practice.
Need less training data.
Highly scalable. It scales linearly with the number of predictors and data points.
Can be used for both binary and mult-iclass classification problems.
Can make probabilistic predictions.
Handles continuous and discrete data.
Not sensitive to irrelevant features.

159. Are Gaussian Naive Bayes the same as binomial Naive Bayes?
Binomial Naive Bayes: It assumes that all our features are binary such that they
take only two values. Means 0s can represent “word does not occur in the document”
and 1s as “word occurs in the document”.
Gaussian Naive Bayes: Because of the assumption of the normal distribution,
Gaussian Naive Bayes is used in cases when all our features are continuous. For
example in Iris dataset features are sepal width, petal width, sepal length, petal
length. So its features can have different values in the data set as width and
length can vary. We can’t represent features in terms of their occurrences. This
means data is continuous. Hence we use Gaussian Naive Bayes here.
160. What is the difference between the Naive Bayes Classifier and the Bayes
classifier?
Naive Bayes assumes conditional independence, P(X|Y, Z)=P(X|Z)
P(X|Y,Z)=P(X|Z)
P(X|Y,Z)=P(X|Z), Whereas more general Bayes Nets (sometimes called Bayesian Belief
Networks), will allow the user to specify which attributes are, in fact,
conditionally independent.
For the Bayesian network as a classifier, the features are selected based on some
scoring functions like Bayesian scoring function and minimal description length(the
two are equivalent in theory to each other given that there is enough training
data). The scoring functions mainly restrict the structure (connections and
directions) and the parameters(likelihood) using the data. After the structure has
been learned the class is only determined by the nodes in the Markov blanket(its
parents, its children, and the parents of its children), and all variables given
the Markov blanket are discarded.
161. In what real world applications is Naive Bayes classifier used?
Some of real world examples are as given below

To mark an email as spam, or not spam?

Classify a news article about technology, politics, or sports?
Check a piece of text expressing positive emotions, or negative emotions?
Also used for face recognition software

162. Is naive Bayes supervised or unsupervised?

First, Naive Bayes is not one algorithm but a family of Algorithms that inherits
the following attributes:

Discriminant Functions
Probabilistic Generative Models
Bayesian Theorem
Naive Assumptions of Independence and Equal Importance of feature vectors.

Moreover, it is a special type of Supervised Learning algorithm that could do

simultaneous multi-class predictions (as depicted by standing topics in many news
apps).
Since these are generative models, so based upon the assumptions of the random
variable mapping of each feature vector these may even be classified as Gaussian
Naive Bayes, Multinomial Naive Bayes, Bernoulli Naive Bayes, etc.
163. What do you understand by selection bias in Machine Learning?
Selection bias stands for the bias which was introduced by the selection of
individuals, groups or data for doing analysis in a way that the proper
randomization is not achieved. It ensures that the sample obtained is not
representative of the population intended to be analyzed and sometimes it is
referred to as the selection effect. This is the part of distortion of a
statistical analysis which results from the method of collecting samples. If you
don’t take the selection bias into the account then some conclusions of the study
may not be accurate.
The types of selection bias includes:

Sampling bias: It is a systematic error due to a non-random sample of a population

causing some members of the population to be less likely to be included than others
resulting in a biased sample.
Time interval: A trial may be terminated early at an extreme value (often for
ethical reasons), but the extreme value is likely to be reached by the variable
with the largest variance, even if all variables have a similar mean.
Data: When specific subsets of data are chosen to support a conclusion or rejection
of bad data on arbitrary grounds, instead of according to previously stated or
generally agreed criteria.
Attrition: Attrition bias is a kind of selection bias caused by attrition (loss of
participants) discounting trial subjects/tests that did not run to completion.

164. What do you understand by Precision and Recall?

In pattern recognition, The information retrieval and classification in machine
learning are part of precision. It is also called as positive predictive value
which is the fraction of relevant instances among the retrieved instances.
Recall is also known as sensitivity and the fraction of the total amount of
relevant instances which were actually retrieved.
Both precision and recall are therefore based on an understanding and measure of
relevance.
165. What Are the Three Stages of Building a Model in Machine Learning?
To build a model in machine learning, you need to follow few steps:

Understand the business model

Data acquisitions
Data cleaning
Exploratory data analysis
Use machine learning algorithms to make a model
Use unknown dataset to check the accuracy of the model
166. How Do You Design an Email Spam Filter in Machine Learning?

Understand the business model: Try to understand the related attributes for the
spam mail
Data acquisitions: Collect the spam mail to read the hidden pattern from them
Data cleaning: Clean the unstructured or semi structured data
Exploratory data analysis: Use statistical concepts to understand the data like
spread, outlier, etc.
Use machine learning algorithms to make a model: can use naive bayes or some other
algorithms as well
Use unknown dataset to check the accuracy of the model

167. What is the difference between Entropy and Information Gain?

The information gain is based on the decrease in entropy after a dataset is split
on an attribute. Constructing a decision tree is all about finding the attribute
that returns the highest information gain (i.e., the most homogeneous branches).
Step 1: Calculate entropy of the target.
168. What are collinearity and multicollinearity?
Collinearity is a linear association between two predictors. Multicollinearity is a
situation where two or more predictors are highly linearly related.
169. What is Kernel SVM?
SVM algorithms have basically advantages in terms of complexity. First I would like
to clear that both Logistic regression as well as SVM can form non linear decision
surfaces and can be coupled with the kernel trick. If Logistic regression can be
coupled with kernel then why use SVM?
● SVM is found to have better performance practically in most cases.
● SVM is computationally cheaper O(N^2*K) where K is no of support vectors (support
vectors are those points that lie on the class margin) where as logistic regression
is O(N^3)
● Classifier in SVM depends only on a subset of points . Since we need to maximize
distance between closest points of two classes (aka margin) we need to care about
only a subset of points unlike logistic regression.
170. What is the process of carrying out a linear regression?
Linear Regression Analysis consists of more than just fitting a linear line through
a cloud of data points. It consists of 3 stages–

analyzing the correlation and directionality of the data,

estimating the model, i.e., fitting the line,
evaluating the validity and usefulness of the model.

1. How do I start a career in machine learning?

There is no fixed or definitive guide through which you can start your machine
learning career. The first step is to understand the basic principles of the
subject and learn a few key concepts such as algorithms and data structures, coding
capabilities, calculus, linear algebra, statistics. For better data analysis, You
should have clear understanding of statistics for Machine Learning. The next step
would be to take up an ML course or read the top books for self-learning. You can
also work on projects to get a hands-on experience.
2. What is the best way to learn machine learning?
Any way that suits your style of learning can be considered as the best way to
learn. Different people may enjoy different methods. Some of the common ways would
be through taking up basics of machine learning course for free, watching YouTube
videos, reading blogs with relevant topics, read books which can help you self-
learn.
3. What degree do you need for machine learning?
Most hiring companies will look for a masters or doctoral degree in the relevant
domain. The field of study includes computer science or mathematics. But having the
necessary skills even without the degree can help you land a ML job too.
4. How do you break into machine learning?
The most common way to get into a machine learning career is to acquire the
necessary skills. Learn programming languages such as C, C++, Python, and Java.
Gain basic knowledge about various ML algorithms, mathematical knowledge about
calculus and statistics. This will help you go a long way.
5. How difficult is machine learning?
Machine Learning is a vast concept that contains a lot different aspects. With the
right guidance and with consistent hard-work, it may not be very difficult to
learn. It definitely requires a lot of time and effort, but if you’re interested in
the subject and are willing to learn, it won’t be too difficult.
6. What is machine learning for beginners?
Machine Learning for beginners will consist of the basic concepts such as types of
Machine Learning (Supervised, Unsupervised, Reinforcement Learning). Each of these
types of ML have different algorithms and libraries within them, such as,
Classification and Regression. There are various classification algorithms and
regression algorithms such as Linear Regression. This would be the first thing you
will learn before moving ahead with other concepts.
7. What level of math is required for machine learning?
You will need to know statistical concepts, linear algebra, probability,
Multivariate Calculus, Optimization. As you go into the more in-depth concepts of
ML, you will need more knowledge regarding these topics.
8. Does machine learning require coding?
Programming is a part of Machine Learning. It is important to know programming
languages such as Python.

1. What is Neural Network?

Ans: A Neural Network is a network of neurons which are interconnected to
accomplish a task. Artificial Neural Networks are developed by taking the reference
of Human brain system consisting of Neurons. In Artificial Neural Networks
perceptron are made which resemble neuron in Human Nervous System.
2. What are different types of Neural Networks?
Ans: (a)Feed Forward Neural Network:In a feed forward neural network, the data
passes through the different input nodes till it reaches the output node.This is
also known as a front propagated wave which is usually achieved by using a
classifying activation function. Learn more>>>
3. What are different types of Layers in an Artificial Neural Networks?
Ans: Basically, there are 3 different types of layers in a neural network: Input
Layer is a layer where all the inputs are fed to the Neural Network or model.
Hidden Layers are the layers which are in between input and output layers which are
used for processing inputs. A Neural Network can have more than one Hidden layer.
Learn more>>>
4. What is the difference between Deep Learning and Machine Learning?
Ans: Machine Learning is all about algorithms that analyses data, learn from the
data, and then apply what they’ve learned to make informed decisions.Deep Learning
is a type of machine learning that is inspired by the structure of the human
brain. Learn more>>>
5. What is Artificial Intelligence?
Ans: Artificial intelligence (AI) is an area of computer science that highlights
the creation of intelligent machines that work and react like humans. Artificial
intelligence is based on the principle that human intelligence. Learn more>>>
6. How can we compare the Neural Network with Human Brain?
Ans: Artificial Intelligence is developed by taking the inspiration from the Human
Nervous system. But it is not exactly similar to Human Brain Nervous system, which
is very complex in nature when compared to ANN. Learn more>>>
7. What do you mean by Single Layer Perceptron?
Ans: Single layer perceptron is a simple Neural Network which contains only one
layer. The single layer computation of perceptron is the calculation of sum of
input vector with the value multiplied by corresponding vector weight. The
displayed output value will be the input of an activation function. Learn more>>>
8. Difference between Single Layer vs Multilayer Perceptron?
Ans: (a)Single-layer PerceptronSingle Layer Perceptron has just two layers of input
and output. It only has single layer hence the name single layer perceptron. It
does not contain Hidden Layers as that of Multilayer perceptron. Learn more>>>
9. What do you mean by sigmoid Neurons?Ans: A sigmoid neuron is similar to the
perceptron neuron. A sigmoid neuron can handle more variation in values than what
you get with a perceptron. In fact, you can put any number you want in a sigmoid
neuron and then use a sigmoid function to squeeze that number into something
between zero and one. Learn more>>>
10. Explain Deep Neural network and Shallow neural networks?Ans: Shallow neural
networks give us basic idea about deep neural network which consist of only 1 or 2
hidden layers. Understanding a shallow neural network gives us an understanding
into what exactly is going on inside a deep neural network . Learn more>>>
11. Exploring ‘OR’, ‘XOR’,’AND’ gate in Neural Network?Ans: AND Gate From our
knowledge of logic gates, we know that an AND logic table is given by the diagram
belowFirst, we need to understand that the output of an AND gate is 1 only if both
inputs are 1. Learn more>>>
12. What do you mean by Activation Function in Neural Network? List them out?Ans:
It is a Function used in Neural Network in order to calculate weighted sum and add
bias with it. It also introduces non-linearity into output of a Neuron. Back
Propagation is possible in Neural network by using Activation Function since the
gradients are provided along with error to update the weights and biases. Learn
more>>>
13. Explain brief about Logistic or Sigmoid Activation Function?Ans: Sigmoid is an
activation function which is in S shape curve. It takes real value as an input and
gives the output which is in between 0 and 1. It is non-linear in nature; it is
continuously differentiable and has fixed output range of values. It gives a
continuous form of output unlike Step function. It has smooth gradient. Learn
more>>>
14. Explain brief about Hyperbolic Tangent or Tanh?Ans: The Activation Function
which is better than Sigmoid Function is Tanh function which is also called as
Hyperbolic Tangent Activation Function. Similar to Sigmoid Function it is also have
simple Derivative function. Range of values of Tanh function is from -1 to +1. It
is of S shape with Zero centered curve. Learn more>>>
15. Explain brief about ReLU (Rectified Linear Unit)?Ans: ReLU is the short form of
Rectified Linear Activation Unit Function which is most widely used in Neural
Network. It is mainly implemented in Hidden layers of Neural Network. For Zero
inputs and Negative inputs it will give output as Zero where as for positive input
it will give the same positive output. Learn more>>>
16. Explain brief about Step / Threshold Activation Function?Ans: Step Activation
function is also called as Binary Step Function as it produces binary output which
means only 0 and 1. In this Function we have Threshold value. Where the input is
greater than Threshold value it will give output 1 otherwise it is 0. Hence it is
also called as Threshold Activation Function. Learn more>>>
17. Explain brief about Leaky ReLU Activation Function?Ans: Leaky ReLU is the
extension to the ReLU Activation Function which overcomes the Dying problem of ReLU
Function. Dying ReLU problem is becomes inactive for any input provided to it, due
to which the performance of Neural Network gets effected. Learn more>>>
18. Explain brief about Softmax Activation Function?Ans: Softmax Function is mostly
used in a final layer of Neural Network. Softmax Function not only maps our output
function but also maps each output in such a way that the summation is equals to 1.
In simple this function calculates the probability distribution of the events where
these calculated probabilities determine the target class for the given inputs.
Learn more>>>
19. What is the difference between Sigmoid and Softmax Function?Ans: Sigmoid
Function is used for Two class Logistic Regression. Sum of Probabilities need not
to be 1. It is used as Activation Function while building Neural Networks. The high
value will have the high probability but it need not to be the highest probability.
Learn more>>>
20. What are all Zero centered activation Functions, Explain?Ans: Tanh or
Hyperbolic Tangent Function is the Zero centered Activation Function. Range of
values of Tanh Function is from -1 to +1 whose mid value is 0. Learn more>>>
21. Explain Back Propagation in Neural Network?Ans: Back Propagation is one of the
types of Neural Network. Here nodes are connected in loops that is output of a
particular node is connected to the previous node in order to reduce error at the
output. This loop may take number of iterations. Learn more>>>.
22. Explain Biases and Weights in Neural Network?Ans: Bias is the Pre-assumption in
a model. Bias is like the intercept added in a linear equation. It is an additional
parameter which is used to adjust the output along with the weighted sum of the
inputs to the neuron.Weight is the steepness of the linear function. Learn more>>>
23. How do Neural Networks update weights and Biases during Back Propagation?Ans.
To reduce the error by changing the values of weights and biases.calculate the rate
of change of error w.r.t change in weight.Since we are propagating backwards, first
thing we need to do is, calculate the change in total errors w.r.t the output O1
and O2. Learn more>>>
24. What are the different functions that we use in Keras to build basic Neural
Network?Ans: Different Activation functions are used in Keras in order to build
Neural Network. ReLU (Rectified linear unit) is used in first two layers. Sigmoid
Function is used at Output layer. We use a sigmoid on the output layer to ensure
our network output is between 0 and 1. Tanh function can be used at every layer.
Learn more>>>
25. What do you mean by dense layer in Keras Neural Network?Ans: Dense Layer is
regular layer of neurons in Neural Network. Each neuron receives input from all
previous neurons. Hence it forms Dense Layer. This layer represents matrix vector
multiplication. The values in this matrix are trainable parameters which gets
updated during Back Propagation. Dense layer is also used to change the values of
matrix. Learn more>>>
26. What do you mean by Drop out layer in Keras Neural Network?Ans: A dropout layer
is used for regularization where you can randomly set some of the dimensions of
your input vector to be zero. A dropout layer does not have any trainable
parameters, they can be updated during training. Learn more>>>
27. Why we use Softmax function only at the end of the Neural Network?Ans: Softmax
Function almost work like max layer that is output is either 0 or 1 for a single
output node. It is also differentiable to train by gradient descent. Summation of
all output will be always equal to 1. The high value of output will have highest
probability than others. Learn more>>>
28. What do you mean by Epoch, Batch, Iterations in a Neural Network?Ans: Epoch: In
real time we have very large datasets which we cannot feed to the computer all at
once. Which means the entire Dataset is to be divided in order to feed to the
Neural Network. Epoch is when the complete dataset is passed forward and backward
through the Neural Network only once. Learn more>>>
29. What are the different Gradient Descent implementations/ methods?Ans: Batch
Gradient Descent: It processes all the training examples for each iteration of
gradient descent. If the number of training examples is large, then batch gradient
descent is very expensive. So, in case of large training examples we prefer to use
stochastic gradient descent or mini-batch gradient descent. Learn more>>>
30. What are the different Loss functions that we generally use for Neural
Networks?Ans: There are no specific loss functions used for Neural Networks. In
general, we use Classification Loss Functions in Neural Networks. Mean square
error is measured as the average of squared difference between predictions and
actual observations. It’s only concerned with the average magnitude of error
irrespective of their direction. Learn more>>>
31. What is the difference between sparse categorical cross entropy and categorical
entropy?Ans: For both sparse categorical cross entropy and categorical cross
entropy have same loss functions but only difference is the format. The usage
entirely depends on loading the dataset. Advantage of using sparse categorical
cross entropy is, it saves time in memory as well as speed up the computation
process. Learn more>>>
32. What are the different optimization algorithms that we generally use in Neural
Network?Ans: Optimizers are algorithms or methods used to change the attributes of
your neural network such as weights and learning rate in order to reduce the
losses. There are different types of optimizers, let us see in detail. Learn
more>>>
33. Explain brief about Mini Batch Gradient Descent?Ans: Mini-batch gradient
descent is an extension of the gradient descent algorithm. Mini batch gradient
descent splits the training dataset into small batches which are used to calculate
model error and update model coefficients. Learn more>>>
34. How Gradient Descent is going to help to minimize loss functions?Ans: Gradient
descent is an optimization algorithm used to minimize loss function by iteratively
moving in the direction of steepest descent that is lowest point in the graph as
defined by the negative of the gradient. Our first step is to move towards the down
direction specified Learn more>>>
35. What do you mean by RMS Prop?Ans: RMS Prop is an optimization technique which
is not published yet used for Neural Networks. To know about RMS Prop, we need to
know about R prop. R Prop algorithm is used for full batch optimization. It tries
to resolve the problem of the gradients with variable magnitudes. Learn more>>>
36. Define Momentum in Gradient Descent?Ans: Generally, in Deep Neural Networks we
train the noisy data. To reduce the effect of noise when the data is fed to the
batches during optimization. This problem can be solved using exponentially
weighted averages. In order to identify the trends in noisy data, we have to set
the parameters algorithm is used. Learn more>>>
37. What is the difference between Momentum and Nesterov Momentum?Ans: Momentum
method is a technique that can speed up gradient descent by taking accounts of
previous gradients in the update rule at every iteration. where v is the velocity
term, the direction and speed at which the parameter should be twisted and α is the
decaying hyper-parameter. Learn more>>>
38. Explain about Adam Optimization Function?Ans: Adam can be looked at as a
combination of RMSprop and Stochastic Gradient Descent with momentum. It uses the
squared gradients to scale the learning rate like RMSprop and it takes advantage of
momentum by using moving average of the gradient instead of gradient itself like
SGD with momentum. Learn more>>>
39. What is the difference between Adagrad, Adadelta and Adam?Ans: Adagrad scales
alpha for each parameter according to the history of gradients (previous steps) for
that parameter which is basically done by dividing current gradient in update rule
by the sum of previous gradients. As a result, what happens is that when the
gradient is very large, alpha is reduced and vice-versa. Learn more>>>
40. What are Local Minima and Global Minima in Gradient Descent?Ans: The point in a
curve which is minimum when compared to its preceding and succeeding points is
called local minima. The point in a curve which is minimum when compared to all
points in the curve is called Global Minima. Learn more>>>
41. How can you avoid local minima to achieve the minimized loss function?Ans: We
can try to prevent our loss function from getting stuck in a local minima by
providing a momentum value. So, it provides a basic impulse to the loss function in
a specific direction and helps the function avoid narrow or small local minima.
Learn more>>>
42. What is Learning rate and how can it effect accuracy and performance in Neural
Networks?Ans: A neural network learns or approaches a function to best map inputs
to outputs from examples in the training dataset. Precisely, it controls the amount
of assigned error that the weights of the model are updated with each time they are
updated. Learn more>>>
43. What might me the reasons of the Neural Network model is unable to decrease
loss during training period?Ans: Large Learning rate will cause the optimization to
diverge, small learning rate will prevent you from making real improvement, and
possibly allow the noise inherent in SGD to overcome your gradient estimates.
Scheduling the Learning rate can decrease the learning rate over the course of
training. Learn more>>>
44. What is Convolutional Neural Network? What are all the layers used in it?Ans:
A Convolutional Neural Network is a Deep Learning algorithm which can take image as
an input, assign weights and biases to various objects in the image and be able to
differentiate one from the other. The pre-processing required in a ConvNet is much
lower as compared to other classification algorithms. Learn more>>>
45. What do you mean by filtering, stride and padding in Convolutional Neural
Network?Ans: A filter is represented by a vector of weights which we convolve the
input. Every network layer act like a filter for the presence of specific features
or patterns which are present in the original image. For detection of a filter it
is inappropriate where exactly this specific feature or pattern. Learn more>>>
46. Explain concepts of Pooling in Convolutional Neural Network?Ans: A pooling
layer is one of the building blocks of a Convolutional Neural Network. Its function
is to gradually reduce the spatial size of the representation to reduce the number
of parameters and speed of the computation in the network. Learn more>>>
47. What do you mean by Capsule Neural Network?Ans: Capsule is a nested set of
neural layers. In a regular neural network, you keep on adding more layers where as
in Capsule Neural Network you would add more layers inside a single layer. In other
words, nest a neural layer inside another layer. Learn more>>>
48. What is the difference between Convolutional Neural Network and Capsule Neural
Network?Ans: Convolutional Neural Network is used for the Image recognition by
using different layers. Convolutional layer comprises set of independent filters
where each filter is convolved with image. Pooling layer is used to reduce the
spatial size of representation to reduce the number. Learn more>>>
49. Why we use only Convolutional Neural Network for the Image recognition?Ans.
Convolutional Neural Network is developed from the inspiration of the visual cortex
in Human Brain. CNN are the complex feed forward Neural Network which is used for
Image recognition for its high accuracy. The CNN follows a hierarchical model which
works on building. Learn more>>>
50. What are different hyperparameters use in Convolutional Neural Networks during
training model?Ans: Tuning hyperparameters for deep neural network is difficult
because it is slow to train a deep neural network and there are many parameters to
configure. Learning rate controls updating of the weight in the optimization
algorithm. By fixing the learning rate, gradually decreasing learning rate,
momentum-based methods. Learn more>>>
51. How can you understand under fitting and over fitting in Neural Network?Ans: A
model is said to have underfitting when it cannot capture the underlying trend of
the data. Underfitting destroys the accuracy of model. Its occurrence simply means
that our model not fit the data well enough. It usually happens when we have less
data to build an accurate. Learn more>>>
52. What is the Regularization techniques used in Neural Network?Ans:
Regularization is a technique which makes slight modifications to the learning
algorithm such that the model generalizes better. This in turn improves the model’s
performance on the unseen data as well. In deep learning, regularization penalizes
the weight matrices of the nodes. Learn more>>>
53. What is meant by Data Augmentation? What are its uses?Ans: Data augmentation
adds value to base data by adding information derived from internal and external
sources within an original data. Data augmentation can be applied to any form of
data, but may be especially useful for customer data, sales patterns, product
sales, where additional information can help provide more in-depth insight. Learn
more>>>
54. When do we apply early stopping and how it is helpful?Ans: Early Stopping is a
type of regularization technique. During training, the model is evaluated on a
holdout validation dataset after each epoch. If the performance of the model on the
validation dataset starts to degrade, then the training process is stopped. The
model after training is stopped is used and is known to have good generalization
performance. Learn more>>>
55. Explain Recurrent Neural Network?Ans: Recurrent Neural Network are a type
of Neural Network where the output from previous step are fed as input to the
current step. In traditional neural networks, all the inputs and outputs are
independent to each other, but when it is required to predict the next word of a
sentence, the previous words are required and hence there is a requirement. Learn
more>>>
56. What is the difference between one to one, one to many, many to one, many to
many in Neural Network?Ans: In a One-To-Many relationship, one object is the
“parent” and other is the “child”. The parent controls the presence of the child.
In a Many-To-Many relationship, the existence of either type is dependent on
something outside the both of them. Learn more>>>
57. What is the difference between Bidirectional RNN and RNN?Ans: Bidirectional
Recurrent Neural Networks (BRNN) means connecting two hidden layers of opposite
directions to the same output, With this form of generative deep learning, the
output layer can get information from past and future states at the same time.
Learn more>>>
58. What are the different ways of solving Gradient issues in RNN?Ans: The lower
the gradient is, the harder it is for the network to update the weights and the
longer it takes to get to the final result. The output of the earlier layers is
used as the input for the further layers. The training for the time point t is
based on inputs that are coming from untrained layers. Learn more>>>
59. What is LSTM and Explain different types of gates used in LSTM?Ans: Long Short
Term Memory networks – usually just called “LSTMs” – are a special kind of RNN,
capable of learning long-term dependencies. They work tremendously well on a large
variety of problems, and are now widely used. Learn more>>>
60.Explain about Auto Encoder? Details about Encoder, Decoder and Bottleneck?Ans:
An autoencoder is a neural network that has three layers an input layer, a hidden
layer or encoding layer, and a decoding layer. Auto Encoders are type of basic
Machine Learning Model in which output is same as the input. It belongs to the
family of Neural Network where it works by compressing the input into the Latent
space. Learn more>>>
61. What are the different components in Autoencoders?Ans: An Autoencoder consists
of three components namely Encoder is also called as Input layer in Autoencoder. It
encodes the input image and sends it into code layer or Bottleneck layer of
Autoencoder. Learn more>>>
62. Explain about Under complete Autoencoder?Ans: Under complete Autoencoder is a
type of Autoencoder. Its goal is to capture the important features present in the
data. It has a small hidden layer hen compared to Input Layer. This Autoencoder do
not need any regularization as they maximize the probability of data rather copying
the input to output. Learn more>>>
63. Explain about Sparse Autoencoder?Ans: In sparse autoencoders with a sparsity
enforcer that directs a single layer network to learn code dictionary which
minimizes the error in reproducing the input while constraining number of code
words for reconstruction. Learn more>>>
64. Explain about Denoising Autoencoder?Ans: Generally, Autoencoders are used for
Feature Selection and Feature Extraction. When the number of Hidden Layers is more
than Input layers, then the output is equal to Input. To rectify this problem, we
use Denoising Autoencoder. Learn more>>>
65. Explain about Convolutional autoencoder?Ans: Convolutional Autoencoders use the
convolution operator to exploit this observation. Rather than manually engineer
convolutional filters we let the model learn the optimal filters that minimize the
reconstruction error. These filters can then be used in any computer vision task.
Learn more>>>
66. Explain about the Contractive autoencoders?Ans: A contractive autoencoder is an
unsupervised deep learning technique that helps a neural network encode unlabeled
training data. Contractive autoencoder (CAE) objective is to have a robust learned
representation which is less sensitive to small variation in the data. Learn
more>>>
67. Explain about Deep autoencoders?Ans: Deep Autoencoders consist of two identical
deep belief networks. One network for encoding and another for decoding. Typically,
deep autoencoders have 4 to 5 layers for encoding and the next 4 to 5 layers for
decoding. We use unsupervised layer by layer pre-training. The layers
are restricted Boltzmann machines, which are the building blocks of deep-belief
networks. Learn more>>>
68. Explain the terms Latent space representation?Ans: Latent Space Representation
is the compressed representation of an Image. In Auto Encoders, the Image is
compressed and represented in the form of Latent Space Representation. Later by
using Auto Decoder, one can get extended form of Image from Latent Space
Representation. In Auto Encoding, Latent Space Representation acts as a layer which
is in between Input layer and Output layer. Learn more>>>
69. What is Restricted Boltzmann Machine?Ans: A Restricted Boltzmann machine is an
algorithm useful for dimensionality reduction, classification, regression,
collaborative filtering, feature learning and topic modeling. RBMs are shallow,
two-layer neural nets that constitute the building blocks of deep-belief networks.
The first layer of the RBM is called the visible, or input, layer, and the second
is the hidden layer. Learn more>>>
70. How to perform Hyperparameter tuning in Autoencoders?Ans: While training an
Autoencoder, we will do hyperparameter tuning in order to obtain required
output.Code size: It represents the number of nodes in the middle layer. Smaller
size results in more compression.Number of layers: The autoencoder can consist of
as many layers as we want. Learn more>>>
71. What are popular Deep Learning Libraries in the world?Ans: Now a days Deep
learning is evolving rapidly. The most popular Deep learning Libraries according to
2019 are It’s handy for creating and experimenting with deep learning
architectures, and its formulation is convenient for data integration such as
inputting graphs, SQL tables, and images together. It is backed by Google which
guarantees it will stay around for a while, hence it makes sense to invest time and
resources to learn it. Learn more>>>
72. What do you mean by Transfer Learning? How do you apply in Neural Network?Ans:
Transfer learning is a machine learning method where a model developed for a task
is reused as the starting point for a model on the other task.Transfer learning
methods can be categorized based on the type of traditional ML algorithms involved,
such as: Learn more>>>
73. What is the difference between Keras and TensorFlow?Ans: TensorFlow is an open
source platform for machine learning. It’s a comprehensive and flexible environment
of tools, libraries and other resources that provide workflows with high-level
APIs. The framework offers various levels of concepts for you to choose the one to
build and deploy machine learning models. Learn more>>>
74. How do you save Neural Network model in keras once after the training and
tuning?Ans: Neural Networks can be saved in keras in two formats which are JSON and
YAML formats.JSON is a simple file format for describing data hierarchically.Keras
provides the ability to describe any model using JSON format with
a to_json() function. This can be saved to file and later loaded via
the model_from_json() function that will create a new model from the JSON
specification. Learn more>>>
75. What are the different Pre-trained models available in keras?Ans: It is not
always possible to build a model from scratch due to lack of time or any other
reasons. This is the time where Pre trained models are useful. A pre-trained model
is a model that was trained on a large standard dataset to solve a problem which is
similar to the one that we have to solve. . Learn more>>>
76. What do you mean by VGG16 model? And how do we use it for Image Classification?
Ans: VGG16 is a convolutional neural network model. The model achieves 92.7% top-5
test accuracy in ImageNet, which is a dataset of over 14 million images belonging
to 1000 classes. The input to cov1 layer is of fixed size 224 x 224 RGB image. The
image is passed through a stack of convolutional (conv.) layers, where the filters
were used with a very small receptive field: 3×3 (which is the smallest size to
capture the notion of left/right, up/down, center . Learn more>>>
77. Explain steps to solve Regression Problem using keras in Neural Network?Ans: To
solve regression problem, Neural Network will be built in Keras i.e. one where our
dependent variable (y) is in interval format and we are trying to predict the
quantity of y with as much accuracy as possible. Learn more>>>
78. Explain the Architecture of Keras Framework?Ans: Keras is an Open Source Neural
Network library written in Python that runs on top of Theano or TensorFlow. It is
designed to be modular, fast and easy to use. Keras is high-level API wrapper for
the low-level API, capable of running on top of TensorFlow, CNTK, or Theano. Learn
more>>>
79. What do you mean by Mobile Net Model?Ans: Mobile Net is an architecture which
is more suitable for mobile and embedded based vision applications where there is
lack of computation power. This architecture uses depth wise separable
convolutions which significantly reduces the number of parameters when compared to
the network. Learn more>>>
80. What do you mean by Google’s TensorFlow, Explain TensorFlow’s Architecture and
its work?Ans: The most famous deep learning library in the world is Google’s
TensorFlow. Google product uses machine learning in all of its products to improve
the search engine, translation, image captioning or recommendations. Learn more>>>
81. What do you mean by Tensor and Explain about Tensor Datatype and Ranks?Ans:
A tensor is often thought of as a generalized matrix. That is, it could be a 1-D
matrix (a vector is actually such a tensor), a 3-D matrix (something like a cube of
numbers), even a 0-D matrix (a single number), or a higher dimensional structure
that is harder to visualize. The dimension of the tensor is called its rank. Learn
more>>>
82. What do you mean by Tensorboard?Ans: Tensorboard is the interface used to
visualize the graph and other tools to understand, debug, and optimize the model.
Tensorboard provides us with a suite of web applications that help us to inspect
and understand the TensorFlow runs and graphs. Currently, it provides five types of
visualizations: scalars, images, audio, histograms, and graphs. Learn more>>>
83. Elaborate about Constants, Variables, Place holders in TensorFlow?Ans:
TensorFlow supports three main type of data types
namely Constants, Variables and Placeholders. Constant can be created
using tf.constant() function.A constant has the following arguments which can be
tweaked as required to get the desired function.value: A constant value (or list)
of output type dtype. Learn more>>>
84. How do you build computational graph in TensorFlow?Ans: TensorFlow uses
a dataflow graph to represent your computation in terms of the dependencies between
individual operations. This leads to a low-level programming model in which you
first define the dataflow graph, then create a TensorFlow session to run parts of
the graph across a set of local and remote devices. Learn more>>>
85. What is TensorFlow Pipelines and where it can be applied?Ans: GPUs and TPUs can
radically reduce the time required to execute a single training step. Achieving
peak performance requires an efficient input pipeline that delivers data for the
next step before the current step has finished. The tf.data API helps to build
flexible and efficient input pipelines. Learn more>>>
86. How to implement Gradient Descent in TensorFlow?Ans: Gradient Descent is a
learning algorithm that attempts to minimize some error. Learn more>>>
87. How to implement Linear Classification model in TensorFlow?Ans: The two most
common supervised learning tasks are linear regression and linear classifier.
Linear regression predicts a value while the linear classifier predicts a class.
This tutorial is focused on Linear Classifier. Learn more>>>
88. What is computer vision?Ans: Computer Vision, often abbreviated as CV, is
defined as a field of study that seeks to develop techniques to help computers
“see” and understand the content of digital images such as photographs and
videos.Computer vision is closely linked with artificial intelligence, as the
computer must interpret what it sees, and then perform appropriate analysis or act
accordingly. Learn more>>>
89. How many types of image filters in OpenCV?Ans: Filters generally use many pixel
for computing each new pixel value but point operations can use one pixel to
perform an image processing. The filters can use for blurred or fuzzy the local
intensity of image to make it smooth. The idea is to replace every pixel by the
average of its neighbor pixels. Learn more>>>
90. What are face recognition algorithms?Ans: The face recognition algorithm is
responsible for finding characteristics which best describe the image.The face
recognition systems can operate basically in two modes: Verification or
authentication of a facial image: it basically compares the input facial image.
Learn more>>>
91. How can you do face detection in Open cv and what is the Difference between
face detection and Recognition?Ans: Face detection is a computer technology being
used in a variety of applications that identifies human faces in digital images.
Face-detection algorithms focus on the detection of frontal human faces. It is
analogous to image detection in which the image of a person is matched bit by bit.
Learn more>>>
92. How can you detect corner of images using OpenCV?Ans: The purpose of detecting
corners is to track things like motion, do 3D modeling, and recognize objects,
shapes, and characters. Learn more>>>
93. What Is Geometric Transformation?Ans: A geometric transformation is
any bijection of a set having some geometric structure to itself or another such
set. Specifically, “A geometric transformation is a function whose domain and range
are sets of points. Most often the domain and range of a geometric transformation
are both R2 or both R3. Learn more>>>
94. How can you do Object Detection video?Ans: Object Detection in a Video can be
done by using TensorFlow, OpenCV, Pillow, H5py we’ll be using a trained
YOLOv3 computer vision model to perform the detection and recognition tasks. Learn
more>>>
95. What are SIFT and SURF?Ans: The scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) is an
algorithm used to detect and describe local features in digital images. It locates
certain key points and then furnishes them with quantitative information (so-
called descriptors) which can for example be used for object recognition. The
descriptors are supposed to be invariant against various transformations which
might make images look different although they represent the same object(s). Learn
more>>>
96. What are the languages supported by Computer vision?Ans: OpenCV and other image
processing and computer vision libraries care about computational efficiency. Based
on this, you could argue that the best programming language for image processing
would be the most efficient and fastest language. That is, from the most popular
languages your answer would be C++. Learn more>>>
97. What is SIFT? How to implement SIFT in Computer Vision?Ans: The scale-invariant
feature transform (SIFT) is an algorithm used to detect and describe local features
in digital images. It locates certain key points and then furnishes them with
quantitative information (so-called descriptors) which can for example be used for
object recognition. The descriptors are supposed to be invariant against various
transformations which might make images look different although they represent the
same object(s). Learn more>>>
98. What is SURF? How to implement SURF in Computer Vision?Ans: SURF is the speed
up version of SIFT. In SIFT, Lowe approximated Laplacian of Gaussian with
Difference of Gaussian for finding scale-space. SURF goes a little further and
approximates LoG with Box Filter. One big advantage of this approximation is that,
convolution with box filter can be easily calculated with the help of integral
images. And it can be done in parallel for different scales. Learn more>>>
99. What is BRIEF? How to implement BRIEF in Computer Vision?Ans: BRIEF means
Binary Robust Independent Elementary Features. It provides a shortcut to find the
binary strings directly without finding descriptors. It takes smoothened image
patch and selects a set of (x,y) location pairs in an unique way (explained in
paper). Learn more>>>
100. What is ORB? How to implement ORB in Computer Vision?Ans: The Full form off
ORB is Oriented Fast and Rotated BRIEF. ORB performs as well as SIFT on the task of
feature detection (and is better than SURF) while being almost two orders of
magnitude faster. ORB builds on the well-known FAST keypoint detector and the BRIEF
descriptor. Both of these techniques are attractive because of their good
performance and low cost. ORB’s main contributions are as follows: Learn more>>>
101. What do you mean by Haar cascades in Computer Vision? What are the different
Haar Cascades available in Computer Vision?Ans: A Haar-like feature considers
neighboring rectangular regions at a specific location in a detection window, sums
up the pixel intensities in each region and calculates the difference between these
sums. This difference is then used to categorize subsections of an image. Learn
more>>>
102. How do you implement Image Translation in Computer Vision?Ans: Image-to-image
translation is a class of vision and graphics problems where the goal is to learn
the mapping between an input image and an output image. It can be applied to a wide
range of applications, such as collection style transfer, object transfiguration,
season transfer and photo enhancement. Learn more>>>
103. What do you mean by Eigen Faces and Explain in Detail?Ans: Eigenface Method
uses Principal component analysis to linearly project the image space to low
dimensional feature space.As correlation methods are computationally expensive and
require great amounts of storage, it is natural to pursue dimensionality reduction
schemes. Learn more>>>
104. What do you mean by Fisher Faces and Explain in Detail?Ans: Fisher faces
method learns a class specific transformation matrix, so, they do not capture
illustrations as obviously as the Eigenfaces method.Discriminant analysis instead
finds the facial feature to discriminate between the persons. It’s important to
mention that the performance of the Fisher faces heavily depends upon input data as
well. Learn more>>>
105. How can you implement Averaging Technique on Image in Computer Vision?Ans: In
the averaging method, it is assumed that you have several images of the same
object… each with a different “noise pattern”. This is exactly what can be easily
obtained when taking pictures of distant galaxies. The gigantic telescopes just
keep looking at the same object. Learn more>>>
106. Explain about Gaussian Filtering?Ans: Gaussian filters are ideal to start
experimenting with filtering because their design can be controlled by manipulating
just one variable- the variance.Gaussian filter function is defined as. Learn
more>>>
107. Explain in detail about Median Filtering?Ans: Median filtering is a nonlinear
method used to remove noise from images. It is widely used as it is very effective
at removing noise while preserving edges. It is particularly effective at removing
‘salt and pepper’ type noise. The median filter works by moving through the image
pixel by pixel, replacing each value with the median value of neighboring pixels.
Learn more>>>
108. Explain in detail about Bilateral Filtering?Ans: The bilateral filter is
technique to smooth images while preserving edges. Its formulation is simple: each
pixel is replaced by an average of its neighbors. This aspect is important because
it makes it easy to acquire intuition about its behavior, to adapt it to
application-specific requirements, and to implement it. Learn more>>>
109. How can we do Thresholding in Computer Vision using OpenCV?
Ans: Thresholding is the assignment of each pixel in an image to either a true or
false class based on the pixel’s value, location or both. The result of a
thresholding operation is typically a binary image in which each pixel is assigned
either a true or false value.

1) What are the basic differences between Machine Learning and Deep Learning?
Differences between Machine Learning and Deep Learning are:
 Machine LearningDeep LearningDefinitionSub-discipline of AIA subset of machine
learningDataParses the dataCreates an artificial neural networkAccuracyRequires
manual intervention means decreased accuracySelf-learning capabilities mean higher
accuracyInterpretabilityMachine Learning is Faster10 Times Faster than MLOutputML
models produce a numerical outputDL algorithms can range from an image to text or
even an audioData dependenciesHighLowHardware dependenciesCan work on low-end
machines.Heavily depend on high-end machinesFutureEffective with image recognition
and face recognition in mobilesNot much effective due to data processing
limitations
2) What is the difference between Bias and Variance?

Bias: Bias can be defined as a situation where an error has occurred due to the use
of assumptions in the learning algorithm.
Variance: Variance is an error caused because of the complexity of the algorithm
that is been used to analyze the data.

3) What is the difference between supervised and unsupervised machine learning?

Supervised learning is a process where it requires training labeled data. When it
comes to Unsupervised learning doesn’t require data labeling.

4) What are the three stages of model building in machine learning?

Following are the three stages of model building:

Model Building: In this stage, we will choose the ideal algorithm for the model,
and we will train it based on our requirements.
Model Testing: In this stage, we will check the model's accuracy by using test
data.
Applying Model: After testing, we have to make the changes, and then we can use the
model for real-time projects.

5) What are the applications of supervised machine learning?

Following are the applications of machine learning:

Fraud Identification: Supervised learning trains the model for identifying the
suspicious patterns; we can identify the feasible fraud instances.
Healthcare: By giving images about a disease, supervised machine learning can train
the model for detecting whether a person is affected by illness or not.
Email spam identification: We train the model through historical data which
contains emails that are classified as spam or not spam. This labeled data is
supplied as the input to the model.
Sentiment Analysis: This relates to the process of using algorithms for mining the
documents and determining if they are negative, neutral, positive in sentiment.

Related Article - Artificial Intelligence Vs Machine Learning

6) What are the techniques of Unsupervised machine learning?
Following are the different techniques of unsupervised machine learning:

Clustering: It includes the data that must be divided into subsets. These subsets
are also known as clusters. Diverse clusters disclose details about objects, unlike
regression or classification.
Association: In the association problem, we can recognize the association patterns
between different items and variables. For instance, e-commerce can indicate other
items for us to buy according to our previous purchases.

7) What are the different types of Machine Learning?

Following are the different kinds of machine learning:
Unsupervised Learning: In this kind of machine learning, we will not have labeled
data. A model can recognize anomalies, relationships, and patterns in the input
data.
Supervised Learning: In this kind of machine learning, the model makes decisions or
predictions according to the labeled or past data. Labeled data relates to data
sets that provide labels or tags.
Reinforcement Learning: In reinforcement learning, a model can learn according to
the rewards it obtained from its past actions.

8) What is Deep Learning?

Deep learning is a branch of machine learning which is relevant to neural networks.
Deep learning tells us how to use the principles and backpropagation from
neuroscience to the large sets of semi-structured or unlabelled data. Deep learning
portrays the unsupervised learning algorithm which learns data representation by
using neural nets
Explore - Deep Learning Tools for more information
9) How to Build a Data Pipeline?
Data pipelines are the core of the machine learning engineers, which take data
science models and discover methods for scaling and automating them if you are
accustomed to the tools for building the platforms and data pipelines where we can
host pipelines and models.
10) How is KNN different from k-means clustering?
K-Nearest Neighbours is a supervised algorithm, and k-means clustering is an
unsupervised algorithm. For the K-nearest neighbors to work, we require labeled
data to classify the unlabeled point. K-means clustering needs only a threshold and
a group of unlabeled points: the algorithm takes the unlabeled points and slowly
learns how to divide them into groups by calculating the mean of distance between
the points.
11) Comparision between Machine Learning and Big Data
Machine Learning Vs Big DataFeatureMachine LearningBig DataData UseTechnology that
helps in reducing human intervention.Data research, especially when working with
huge data.OperationsExisting data helps to tech machine what can be done
furtherDesign patterns with analytics on existing data in terms of decision
making.Pattern RecognitionSimilar to Big Data, existing data helps in pattern
recognition.Sequence and classification analysis helps in pattern recognition.Data
VolumeBest performance, while working with small datasets.Datasets help in
understanding and solving problems associated with large data
volumes.ApplicationRead existing data to predict future information.Storing and
analyzing patterns within huge data volumes.
12) Explain what is precision and Recall?

Recall: It is known as a true positive rate. The number of positives that your
model has claimed compared to the actual defined number of positives available
throughout the data.
Precision: It is also known as a positive predicted value. This is more based on
the prediction. It is a measure of the number of accurate positives that the model
claims when compared to the number of positives it actually claims.

13) What is your favorite algorithm and also explain the algorithm briefly in a
minute?
This type of question is very common and asked by the interviewers to understand
the candidate's skills and assess how well he can communicate complex theories in
the simplest language.
This one is a tough question and usually, individuals are not at all prepared for
this situation so please be prepared and have a choice of algorithms and make sure
you practice a lot before going into any sort of interviews.
Related Article - Machine Learning Applications
14) What is the difference between Type1 and Type2 errors?
Type 1 error is classified as a false positive. I.e. This error claims that
something has happened but the fact is nothing has happened. It is like a false
fire alarm. The alarm rings but there is no fire.
Type 2 error is classified as a false negative. I.e. This error claims that nothing
has happened but the fact is that actually, something happened at the instance.
The best way to differentiate a type 1 vs type 2 error is:

Calling a man to be pregnant- This is a Type 1 example

Calling pregnant women and telling them that she isn’t carrying any baby- This is a
type 2 example

15) Define what is Fourier Transform in a single sentence?

A process of decomposing generic functions into a superposition of symmetric
functions is considered to be a Fourier Transform.
16) What is deep learning?
Deep learning is a process where it is considered to be a subset of the machine
learning process.
17) What is the F1 score?
The F1 score is defined as a measure of a model’s performance.
18) How is the F1 score is used?
The average Precision and Recall of a model is nothing but an F1 score measure.
Based on the results, the F1 score is 1 then it is classified as best and 0 being
the worst.
19) How can you ensure that you are not overfitting with a particular model?
In Machine Learning concepts, they are three main methods or processes to avoid
overfitting:
Firstly, keep the model simple
Must and should use cross-validation techniques
It is mandatory to use regularization techniques, for example, LASSO.
20) How to handle or missing data in a dataset?
An individual can easily find missing or corrupted data in a data set either by
dropping the rows or columns. On contrary, they can decide to replace the data with
another value.
In Pandas they are two ways to identify the missing data, these two methods are
very useful.isnull() and dropna().
21) Do you have any relevant experience on Spark or any of the big data tools that
are used for Machine Learning?
Well, this sort of question is tricky to answer and the best way to respond back
is, to be honest. Make sure you are familiar with Big data is and the different
tools that are available. If you know about Spark then it is always good to talk
about it and if you are unsure then it is best, to be honest, and let the
interviewer know about it.
So for this, you have to prepare what is Spark and it's good to prepare other
available Big data tools that are used for Machine learning.
Related Article - Machine Learning with Python
22) Pick an algorithm and write a Pseudocode for the same?
This question depicts your understanding of the algorithm. This is something that
one has to be very creative and also should have in-depth knowledge about the
algorithms and first and foremost the individual should have a good understanding
of the algorithms. The best way to answer this question would be to start off with
Web Sequence Diagrams.
23) What is the difference between an array and a Linked list?
An array is an ordered fashion of collection of objects while a linked list is a
series of objects that are processed in sequential order.
24): Define a hash table?
They are generally used for database indexing. A hash table is nothing but a data
structure that produces an associative array.
25) Mention any one of the data visualization tools that you are familiar with?
This is another question where one has to be completely honest and also giving out
your personal experience with these type of tools are really important. Some of the
data visualization tools are Tableau, Plot.ly, and matplotlib.
26) What is your opinion on our current data process?
This type of question is asked and the individuals have to carefully listen to
their use case and at the same time, the reply should be in a constructive and
insightful manner. Based on your responses, the interviewer will have a chance to
review and understand whether you are a value add to their team or not.
27) Please let us know what was your last read book or learning paper on Machine
Learning?
This type of question is asked to see whether the individual has a keen interest in
learning and also he is up to the latest market standards. This is something that
every candidate should be looking out for and it is vital for individuals to read
through the latest publishings.
28) What is your favorite use case for machine learning models?
The decision tree is one of my favorite use cases for machine learning models.
29) Is rotation necessary in PCA?
Yes, rotation is definitely necessary because it maximizes the differences between
the variance captured by the components.
30) What happens if the components are not rotated in PCA?
It is a straight effect. If the components are not rotated then it will diminish
eventually and one has to use a lot of various components to explain the data set
variance.
31) Explain why Naive Bayes is so Naive?
It is based on an assumption that all of the features in the data set are
important, equal, and independent.
32) How Recall and True positive rates are related?
The relation is True Positive Rate = Recall.
33) Assume that you are working on a data set, explain how would you select
important variables?
The following are a few methods that can be used to select important variables:

Use of Lasso Regression method.

Using Random Forest, plot variable importance chart.
Using Linear regression.

34) Explain how we can capture the correlation between continuous and categorical
variables?
Yes, it is possible by using the ANCOVA technique. It stands for Analysis of
Covariance. It is used to calculate the association between continuous and
categorical variables.
35) Explain the concept of machine learning and assume that you are explaining this
to a 5-year-old baby?
Yes, the question itself is the answer.
Machine learning is exactly the same way how babies do their day-to-day activities,
the way they walk or sleep, etc. It is a common fact that babies cannot walk
straight away and they fall and then they get up again and then try. This is the
same thing when it comes to machine learning, it is all about how the algorithm is
working and at the same time redefining every time to make sure the end result is
as perfect as possible.
One has to take real-time examples while explaining these questions.
36) What is the difference between Machine learning and Data Mining?
Data mining is about working on unstructured data and then extract it to a level
where interesting and unknown patterns are identified. Machine learning is a
process or a study whether it closely relates to the design, development of the
algorithms that provide an ability to the machines to capacity to learn.
37) What is inductive machine learning?
Inductive machine learning is all about a process of learning by live examples.
38) Please state a few popular Machine Learning algorithms?
Few popular Machine Learning algorithms are:
Nearest Neighbour
Neural Networks
Decision Trees etc
Support vector machines

39) What are the different types of algorithm techniques are available in machine
learning?
Some of them are :

Supervised learning
Unsupervised learning
Semi-supervised learning
Transduction
Learning to learn

40) What are the three stages to build the model in machine learning?
The three stages to build the model in machine learning is:

Model building
Model testing
Applying the model

41) Explain how the ROC curve works?

A ROC curve (receiver operating characteristic) is a graph that shows the
performance of a classification model at all classification thresholds. It plots
two parameters -

True positive rate

False-positive rate

True Positive Rate (TPR) is defined as follows:

TPR = TP/(TP+FN)
False Positive Rate (FPR) is defined as follows:
FPR = FP/(FP+TN)
42) What is the difference between L1 and L2 regularization?
Regularization is a process of introducing some information in order to prevent
overfitting.
L1 RegularizationL2 RegularizationIt is more binary/sparseTends to spread error
among all the termsL1 regularization corresponds to setting a Laplacean prior on
the termsIt corresponds to a Gaussian prior
43) What is a type 1 and type 2 error?

Type 1 Error - Type 1 error also called false positive, is asserting something true
when it is actually false.

Type 2 Error - Type 2 error also called false negative, is a test result indicating
that a condition is failed but in actuality it is successful.

44) What is the difference between machine learning and deep learning?
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning and is called so because it makes use
of deep neural networks. Let’s find out machine learning Vs Deep learning
 Machine learningDeep LearningData dependenciesPerforms better on small and medium
datasetsWorks better for big datasetsHardware dependenciesWork on low-end
machinesRequires powerful machine, preferably with GPUInterpretabilityAlgorithms
are easy to interpretDifficult to interpretExecution timeFrom a few minutes to
hoursIt May take up to a weekFeature EngineeringNeed to understand the features
that represent the dataNo need to understand the best feature that represents the
data
45) What is Bayes Theorem and how it is used in machine learning?
Bayes theorem is a way of calculating conditional probability ie. finding the
probability of an event occurring based on the given probability of other events
that have already occurred. Mathematically, it is stated as -
P(A|B) = {P(B|A).P(A)}/P(B)
Bayes theorem has become a very useful tool in applied machine learning. It
provides a way of thinking about the relationship shared by data and the models.
A machine learning model is a specific way of thinking about the structured
relationship in the data such as relationships shared by input (x) and output (y).
If we have some prior domain knowledge about the hypothesis, Then the Bayes theorem
can help in solving machine learning problems.
46) What is cross-validation techniques would you be using on a time series
dataset?
Cross-validation is used for tuning the hyperparameters and producing measurements
of model performance. With the time series data, we can't use the traditional
cross-validation technique due to two main reasons which are as follows -

Temporal dependencies

Arbitrary Choice of Test Set

For time-series data, we use nested cross-validation that provides an almost

unbiased estimate of the true error. A nested CV consists of an inner loop for
parameter tuning and an outer loop for error estimation.
47) What are the Discriminative and generative models?
To understand these terms better, let us consider an example. Suppose a person has
two kids - kid A and kid B. Kid A learns and understands everything in depth
whereas Kid B can only learn the differences between what he sees. One day, that
person took them to the zoo where they saw a deer and a lion. After coming from the
zoo, the person showed them an animal and asked them what it was. Kid A drew the
images of both the animals he saw in the zoo. He compared the images and answered
"the animal is deer" based on the closest match of the image. As Kid B learns
things based on only differences, therefore, he easily answered: "the animal is
deer.".
In ML, we call Kid A a Generative Model and Kid B a Discriminative Model. To make
it more clear, the Generative Model ‌
learns the joint probability distribution
p(x,y). It predicts the conditional probability using Bayes Theorem. Whereas a
Discriminative model ‌
predicts the conditional probability distribution p(y|x). Both
of these models are used in supervised learning problems.
48) How is a decision tree pruned?
In Machine learning, pruning means simplifying and optimizing a decision tree by
cutting nodes of the tree that causes overfitting. The pruning process can be
divided into two types -

Bottom-up pruning - procedure starts at the last node

Top-down pruning - procedure starts at the root node

Pruning is done to increase the predictive accuracy of a decision tree model.
49) What is more important - model accuracy or model performance?
Accuracy is more important in machine learning models. We can improve model
performance by using distributed computing and parallelizing over the scored
assets. But accuracy should be built during the model training process.
50) How would you handle an imbalanced dataset?
Imbalanced data set is a classification problem where the number of observations
per class is not distributed equally. For some classes, there will be a large
number of observations whereas for others fewer observations are present. We can
fix this issue by -

Collecting more data to even the imbalances in the dataset.

Resample the dataset to correct for imbalances.

Try a different algorithm altogether on your dataset.

51) When should you use classification over regression?

In supervised learning, we have datasets and a list of outcomes. Types of outcomes
that we have helped us categorize the problem into classification and regression.
For regression problems, the outcomes are typically in real numbers whereas for
classification problems outcomes are classes or categories. Therefore, we can say
that we would use regression if the outputs are in real numbers and we would go
with classifications if the outputs are in the form of classes or categories.
52) Tell me a situation where ensemble techniques might be useful?
Ensemble learning combines several models into one predictive model to decrease the
variance and improve results. The ensemble method is divided into two groups - the
sequential method and the parallel method.
Sequential method - base learners are generated sequentially
Parallel method - base learners are generated parallelly
Ensembles techniques are -

Bagging

Stacking

Boosting

Scenario - suppose you want to buy a new pair of headphones. What will you do?
Being an aware consumer, first, you will do research on which company offers the
best headphones and also take some suggestions from your friends. In short, you
will be making informed decisions after thoroughly researching work.
53) What are the data types supported by JSON?
Here, the interviewer wants to test your knowledge of JSON. There are six basic
data types supported by JSON: strings, numbers, objects, arrays, booleans, and null
values.
54) According to you, what is the most valuable data in our business?
Through this question, the interviewer tries to test you on two dimensions: your
knowledge and understanding about business models and how you correlated data and
apply that thinking about the company. To answer this question, you’ll have to
research the business model, learn their business problems, and solve most with
their data.
55) Tell us about machine learning papers you’ve read lately?
To answer this question, you need to keep yourself updated with the latest
scientific literature on machine learning to demonstrate your interest in a machine
learning position.
56) What GPU/hardware do you use and what models do you train for?
This question tests if you have handled machine learning projects outside of a
corporate role and understand how to resource projects and allocate GPU time
efficiently. These kinds of questions are usually asked by hiring managers as they
want to know what you’ve done independently.
There are some general questions that an interviewer may ask you depending upon
your working experiences and awareness. Some of them are as follows -

Do you have research experience in machine learning?

What uses cases do you like the most in machine learning?

What are your views on GPT-3 and OpenAI’s model?

57) What is a Fourier Transform?

Fourier Transform is a general method for decomposing the general functions into
asymmetric functions superposition. The Fourier transform discovers the cycle set
amplitudes, phases, and speeds for matching any time signal. Fourier transform
converts the signal from the time to frequency domain.
58) What is the use of the Kernel trick?
Kernel trick includes kernel functions that can allow higher-dimension spaces
without externally computing the dimension’s points coordinates. Kernel functions
calculate the inner products among the images of all the data pairs in the feature
space. This enables them to attribute computing coordinates of higher dimensions
when the computation of the said coordinates’ external calculation is cheaper.
59) Why Naive Bayes is Naive?
Regardless of its practical applications, particularly in text mining, we consider
Naive Bayes naive because it makes superposition which is practically impossible to
see in real-time data. We calculate the conditional probability in the form of the
product of the separate probabilities of the components.
60) Define Overfitting? How do we assure that we are not overfitting a model?
Overfitting happens when the model researches the training data to affect the model
performance on the latest data significantly. This indicates that we record the
disruption in the training data, and we learn the concepts by model. The problem is
that concepts that do not employ the testing data negatively affect the ability of
the model for classifying the new data; therefore, it decreases the testing data
accuracy.
To avoid Overfitting, we have to apply the following methods:

We collect more data so that we can train the model with diverse samples.
We can avoid overfitting by using the ensembling methods, like Random Forest.
According to the bagging idea, we use them to minimize the change in the
projections by joining the result of the multiple decision trees on various samples
of the data set.
By Selecting the correct algorithm, we can avoid overfitting.

61) Explain Cluster sampling?

Cluster sampling is a process of arbitrarily choosing the integral algorithms
inside a specified population, and distributing the same characteristics. Cluster
sampling is the likelihood sample where a single sampling unit is a cluster or
collection of the elements. For instance, if we are clustering the cumulative
number of managers in a group of companies, in such a case, managers will depict
employees and companies will depict the clusters.
62) What are the methods available to screen the Outliers?
We can use the following methods to screen the outliers:
Linear models: Linear models like logistic regression can be trained to screen the
outliers. In this way, the model collects the subsequent outlier it meets.
Boxplot: The box plot depicts the allocation of the data and its changeability. Box
plot includes lower and upper quartiles; therefore, the box fundamentally stretches
the Inter-Quartile Range(IQR). The main reason for using the box plot is to
identify the outliers in the data.
Proximity-based models: K-means clustering is the example of this kind of model,
where data points form various or “k” clusters based on the features like distance
or similarity.
Probabilistic and Statistical models: We can use statistical models like
exponential distribution and normal distribution for identifying the variations in
the allocation of the data points. If we found any data point outside the
distribution scope, then we can render it an outlier.