CHAPTER I

SENSITIZED MATERIAL

Sensitized material refers to films and papers which are composed of emulsion containing SILVER
HALLIDE crystals suspended by gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.

FILM
 A film consists basically of a random scattering of light sensitive silver halides suspended in a layer
of animal gelatin which is coated onto support or base.

Structure of a Black and White Film

Top Coating Top Layer

Scratch resistant coating also called gelatin coating, an over coating composed of a thin transparent
layer of hard gelatin which help protect the silver halide emulsion. It prevents hallo formation in the
photograph. The black dye is removed during processing by one of the chemicals in the developer. Its second
function is to control the film from the curling inward (towards the emulsion surface).

Parts of Film

Emulsion
It is a light sensitive material which is suspension of silver salts, usually silver halides, in a gelatin
that has been coated on glass of plastic base. The incident light causes a chemical reaction to produce a latent
or invisible image.

Base
It holds and supports the emulsion.
 Super coat: the super coat is like the anti-scratch layer of the film and it protects the emulsion.
 Emulsion: the emulsion layer contains the silver halide crystals necessary for forming the visible
image. The photographic emulsion is usually 10 to 30 micrometers (1 millionth of a meter) thick.
The emulsion is more specifically a gelatin layer on top of the fiber base. The crystals also contain
some impurities such as silver sulfide and some free-moving silver ions. These are added to increase
the photosensitivity.
 Adhesive: the adhesive layer attaches the emulsion layer to the fiber base.
 Base: The fiber base usually consists of polyester or triacetate. This layer differs from the base layer
of film because it is not transparent.

Various Layer of Film

1. The thin coat of animal gelatin
2. The emulsion
3. The base
4. The anti- halation backing

Classification According To Use:

Black and white film

 for B and W photography

Color film
 The negative in this type of film is derived into blocks and is color positive. It is composed of
hue dyes.
 In between the blue and green hues, yellow gelatin is placed so that the hue rays of lights would
not be affect the green hue and in between green and the red dye, magenta gelatin is placed so
that the green rays of light would not affect the red dye of the emulsion.

Panchromatic Film
  A film which are sensitive to visible light of all colors including red. Such films are also
sensitive to invisible ultra violet-rays. As a general rule will make black & white legal
photographs with visible light, panchromatic film should be used.
 Panchromatic film really the ordinary film today. When used with the proper filter over the lens
panchromatic film is capable of reproducing a scene of object in black and white exactly as it
affect to the eye in color.

Process Panchromatic Film

 Permit short exposures under average lighting condition and has the advantage of fine grain
structure.

High Speed Panchromatic Film

 Designed originally for photographing objects under adverse lighting condition. Contrast of the
panchromatic film usually varies with the color of the light and using filters can attain proper
contrast in photograph.

Fine Grain Panchromatic Film

 This type of film is fast enough to permit reasonable short exposures under average lightning
conditions and has the advantage of a fine grain structure.
 This means that enlarge prints can be made from negative of fine grain panchromatic film
without obtaining pictures that have mottled, sandy appearance.
 This type of film also produce bright, snappy prints, representative film of class are; Agfa
Finopan and Eastman Panatomic X.

Orthochromatic Film
 Film that is sensitive to UV rays, blue and green colors, but not to red. Red portions are recorded
as dark tones, while green and blue parts appear as light tones when printed.
 This type of film is popular in the market as the KODALITH FILM.

Infrared Film
 A special type of film that is sensitive to infrared and ultra-violet radiation (radiation beyond the
human eye’s sensitive). It is also sensitive to all the colors found in the visible spectrum.
Although the infrared film is sensitive to blue color, a red filter can exclude the blue color. The
red filter transmits only long red and infrared radiation.
 IR film is useful in penetrating haze because of its longer wavelength. In investigate
photography, it is useful in laboratory analysis of questioned documents, in discovering old (or
faded) tattoos under the skin, and in the contraction of camera traps.

X-ray Film
 Film that is sensitive to x ray -radiation

Types Based On Film Speed:

(according to light sensitivity)

Fast Film
 Contains numerous number of large grains of silver halides that usually develop in groups; film
that are very sensitive to light. When the available light is dim, this type of films is the best
choice because of the low reflection power of the subject against the background. It is low in
contrast but high in brightness. However, the use of the fast speed film is not advisable due to its
graininess results.
Slow Film
 Films that require longer period of time to completely expose there emulsion to light; film with
fine grains of silver halides

Types Based On Special Sensitivity:

(color sensitivity)
Spectral sensitivity
 Responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of light sources.

1. Monochromatic Film
 a film that is sensitivity to a single color of (for black and white)

2. Blue sensitive film

 a film specially treated that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of light
Emulsion speed
 Refers to the extent to which an emulsion is sensitive, the general types of speed rating are:
1. ASA rating: (American Standard Association)
2. DIN (Deutche Idustri Normen) rating
3. ISO rating

ASA Rating; (American Standard Association)

 This is expressed in arithmetical value system. The speed in numbers a directly proportional to
the sensitivity of the material. A film with an arithmetical value of 400 is four times as fast as
one with a speed of 100.

DIN Rating (Deutche Idustri Normen)

 It is expressed in logarithmic value system. In this system an increase of 3 degree double the
sensitivity of the film.
ISO
 Stands for 'International Organization for Standardization' and their film speed ratings are used
to indicate the relative amount of light necessary to give a proper exposure.
 A normal film will be rated at ISO 100.
 A film rated at ISO 200 will give a proper exposure with only half the amount of light compared
to the ISO 100 film, enabling you to shoot in lower light or with a smaller aperture or faster
shutter speed. The ISO 200 film would be referred to as a 'faster' film.
 There are films available that range in speed from ISO 25 to ISO 1600.

FILM SIZE

110 – For cartridge loading pocket cameras.

126 – For older and larger cartridge loading type
120 – Variation of the 2.25 inch-wide roll film that was first introduces for box cameras a decade ego
and now used in professional medium format cameras like the Hasselbald or Mamiya.
135 – Commonly known as the mm. so named because the film is 35mm wide.
220 – The same with 120 but twice it many exposure

Photographic Exposure

 As the product of illumination and time.

 The unit of exposure is usually in meter candle second that is equivalent to exposure produced by a
light source of one candle power, in one second at a distance of one meter from the surface of the
sensitive material.
 When light is brought in its focus by the camera lens and strikes and front surface of the film
emulsion, a number of tiny crystals of light sensitive silver halides are affected.
 The grains of silver halide rendered developable forming later the image is known as the latent
photographic image. These images become visible by chemical development. This image conforms
to the shape of the object points in the subject according to the capability of the lens and film.

SENSITIVE PAPER
Photographic Paper
 The result of photography in its final form is the photograph. The material necessary to produce a
photograph (Positive Print) is a sensitized paper. It has emulsion that is coated with opaque material
like paper.

Kinds of Photographic Paper:

 According to chemical content- chloride paper for contact printing, bromide paper for enlarging and
chloro-bromide paper for contact and enlarging.
 According to contrast- #0 #1 #2 #3
 According to physical characteristics – weight (single, double), surface (glossy, semi-matte, matte),
color (white, cream).

The manufacturer of the films according to their own ideas classifies the contrast range of photographic
paper. They produce different photographic papers intended for the specific contrast of the negatives to be
printed. Generally, this contrast range is classified into four:
They are the following:
# 1. Low Contrast
# 2 Normal and Medium Contrast
# 3 Hard Contrast
# 4 Very Hard or Extra Hard Contrast

The low contrast paper is usually suitable to a very low contrast negative to produce a normal print
or photograph. On the other hand, the high or hard contrast is suitable to a very low contrast paper is suitable
to a very low contrast negative to compensate for lack of brilliance and produce a normal print or
photographs.
Photographic papers are made with different characteristics. They are the combination of thickness
and finish. The texture maybe smooth, rough or linen, its finest maybe glossy with a very smooth surface
texture. Other type of textures may produce a mate or semi-glossy finish in rough or linen texture.
The paper base of the photographic paper maybe either white or tinted. Its weight or thickness
maybe either lightweight or single-weight or double-weight.
The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the purpose of the photographs to be
made. Black and White object are usually printed in a white base photographic paper. Reproduction of
photographs would give satisfactory results if printed on glossy white photographic paper. For portrait
photograph, a cream paper base photographic paper is recommended and for law enforcement photography,
the smooth photographic paper is necessary so that the detail of the image appear and appreciated by the
viewers.

 PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS are supplied in different grades. Numbers and or descriptive names, # 4
or hard, # 3 or medium, # 2 or normal, # 1 or soft contrast designates them. The type of paper to be
used is frequently the opposite in the name to the type of negative. For instance, hard paper is used
for thin, and normal paper is used for the so-called normal negative.
 Photographic paper is made with different characteristics. They are the combination of thickness and
finish. Photographic papers are supplied according to weight or thickness of the base, surface, color
and contrast.

1. WEIGHT
 Light Weight – are used when the thickness of the paper is not a consideration and high degree
of flexibility is necessary. Intended for purposes, which involve folding.
 Single Weight – are paper used for small print or print which need to be mounted on solid and
fine details are necessary in the production. Used only for ordinary photographic purposes.
 Double Weight – generally used for large prints because they stand up better under rough
treatment

2. SURFACE TEXTURE
 Glossy Papers – are preferred where fine detail and brilliant images are required.
 Semi – matte Papers – are with decided textures which obscure fine details
  Rough Papers – used for large prints or where breadth rather than detail is necessary.

3. COLOR
 White – are preferred for cold effect
 Cream – are preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscapes or when warmth effect is desired.
 Buff Papers – are preferred for tone prints.

The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the purpose of the photographs to be
made.
Black and White object are usually printed in a white-based photographic paper.
Reproduction of photographs would give satisfactory results if printed in glossy white-based photographic
paper.
For portrait photography, a cream based photographic paper is recommended.
For law enforcement photography, the smooth photographic paper is necessary so that the detail of the image
appears and appreciated by the viewer.

Grade of Printing Papers

Because of the fact that all negative do not print best on one kind of paper, and in order to permit
printing for special effects, photographic papers is made in several different grades of contrast and surface
texture. Velox paper made by Kodak offers six degrees of contrast and glossy surface.

VELOX No. 0 – used for printing from extremely contrast negatives, the low contrast in the paper
sensitizing counteracts the high contrast in the negative to give a new print.
VELOX No. 1 – used for high contrast negative
VELOX No. 2 – a paper for normal contrast used with normal negatives
VELOX No. 3 – used for negatives that have weak contrast
VELOX No. 4 – provides for sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak negatives. It is useful
in printing pictures which high contrast is desired
VELOX No. 5 – for flat negative that are unprintable

Exposure:
Refers to the product of illumination and time it is computed by either the use of a light exposure
meter or the taking into consideration factors such as lighting condition, film sensitivity and kind of subject.
E.g. when using a film with ASA rating of 100, for a normal subject set the shutter speed at 1/25 of a
second and adjust the diaphragm opening in accordance with the following lightning conditions.
 Bright Sunlight-f-11
 Hazy Sunlight-f-8
 Dull Sunlight-f-6

Burning-in - the adding of exposure time on a specific area to bring out details.
Dodging - the holding back of some lights to a specific area to make it lighter in density.
Cropping - the excluding or omitting some images on the negative from the final print.

Chapter III

CHEMICAL PROCESSING

After the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the photographic paper during printing, the
next step would generally be chemical processing.

In black and white processing, the steps are development, stop bath, and fixation.
In color processing, the steps are color development, stop-fix, and stabilizer.

DEVELOPMENT
  The process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made visible. In black and white
emulsion, the image is composed of grains of black metallic silver. In color emulsion, the developed
silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye.
 Refers to the process of reduction. Exposed silver halides are reduced into metallic silver
 There is separate developer for film (D-76) and another for paper (Dektol).
 The factor that affects developing: developing time, agitation temperature, concentration of chemical
and exposure.

Component of Developer:

A typical component of a black – and – white developer are:

 Developing Agent- It reduced the exposed silver halide into metallic silver. Amidol, hydroquinone
and metol are the common developing agents.
 Preservative- it protects the developing agents against aerial oxidation. Usually sodium sulfite is
used to increase the rate of development and density.
 Accelerator- Alkaline solutions like sodium carbonate and borax powder are mixed to the
developing solution to accelerate the process or reduction of the silver salts to metallic silver.
 Restrainer- to prevent ionization and fogging o the latent image, potassium bromide is added to the
developing solution. (Solvent/water)
 Various chemicals can serve this function. Chemicals chosen are determined whether it is slow or
fast acting, produce high, normal, or low contrast, achieves maximum emulsion speed, creates fine
grain or acts in a number of ways.

D-76 Film developer formula:

1. Water 52C or 125F - 750 ml
2. Elon - 2 grams
3. Hydroquinone - 5 grams
4. Sodium sulfite - 100 grams
5. Borax (granules) - 2 grams
6. Water to make - 1 liter

DEKTOL – Paper Developer:

1. Water 52C or 125F - 500 ml
2. Elon - 311 grams
3. Hydroquinone - 12 grams
4. Sodium sulfite - 4.5 grams
5. Sodium carbonate - 67.5 grams
6. Potassium bromide - 1 gram
7. Water to make - 1 liter

Factors that Affect Developing Time:

1. Characteristics of negative material
2. Strength and composition of developer
3. Temperature of the developing solution

Stop Bath
 Is an Intermediate bath between the developer and the fixer?
 It is usually a combination of water blue acetic add or just plain water.
 Primarily its function is to prevent the contamination of the chemical solution, particularly the
contamination of the developer and fixer from each other.
 Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic acid

Fixation
 Refers to the process of removing unexposed halide remaining in the emulsion after the first stage of
development of the latent image.
  The usual composition of an acid fixing solution are solvent silver halide known as Hypo; anti-
staining agent like acetic acid, a preservative like sodium sulfate, and a hardening agent like
potassium alum.
 A fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a thorough washing. In this
processing stage, the unexposed underdeveloped silver halides crystals are dissolved and removed
from the emulsion of the photographic material

Component of Fixer:
 Solvent Silver Halide – It is a “Sodium Thiosulfite popularly as hypo solution”. The function is to
remove the unexposed silver halide.
 Anti- Staining Agent- it is the acetic acid which neutralizes the alkali in the developer carried over
that will prevent the weakening of the fixing solution and the staining of the image produced.
 Preservative- Sodium sulfite act as the preservative of the fixing solution that will prevent
precipitation of sulfur and also prevent the oxidation of the developing solution carried over in the
fixing bath.
 Hardening Agent- It is the potassium alum that hardens the gelatin of the sensitized materials which
was softens in the developing solution.

Fixing Bath formula:

The chemical component of a fixing bath are:
1. Water
2. Dissolving agent
3. Preservative
4. Neutralizers
5. Hardener

A typical fixer formula:

1. Water 50C or 125F - 600 ml
2. Hypo (sodium thiosulfate) - 240 g
3. Sodium sulfite (anhydrous) - 15 g
4. Acetic acid (28%) - 480 ml
5. Boric acid (crystals) - 7.5 g
6. Potassium alum (fine granular) - 15 g
7. Water to make - 1 liter

The fixing bath is recommended generally for both films and photographic papers.
Film Processing

 The most crucial part in the development.

 Film processing can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized equipment.
 Panchromatic materials must be handled in total darkness.
 Other materials like blue films, orthochromatic films and printing papers are handled under a
safelight

Equipment for film processing:

1. Tank or tray
2. Developing reel
3. Opener for film cartridge (pliers). Some .35 mm. films have a reusable cartridge that can be snapped
open by hand but others can only be opened with a pair of pliers.
4. Scissors to cut the tongue of the film
5. Thermometer
6. Timer
7. Funnel
8. Photographic sponge
9. Film clips for drying
10. Glass or plastic bottles (gallon size( for storing mixed solutions
 Small format films like the .35 mm. is best developed in a cylindrical daylight developing tank that
accommodate a spiral reel. The tank and the reel can be a stainless steel or made of hard plastic. These tanks
usually have a light – tight lid with provision for pouring solutions in and out while covered so that only one
tank is required for the entire process
Metal reels have a center clip or hook to hold one end by the spiral. Metal reels comes in a fixed size.
The plastic reel is loaded by simply pushing the film into the spiral from the outer end. It has a flange
that moves with back and forth rachet action after the film had been engaged on the outside guide slots, the
rachet movement feeds it smoothly into the grooves. Plastic reel can be adjusted to accommodate different
film size

Film Processing Procedure:

1. Tank method of film development

a. Mix the developer, stop-bath, and the fixer according to instructional manuals. Then bring it to
temperature which is 20 – 21 C or 68 – 70 F.
b. In a dry area, lay out the film, opener, scissors, reel and the tank so they can be readily located in
the dark.
c. In complete darkness, open the film cartridge by simply prying off the cap opposite the end,
where the long spool core protrudes. Extends the film then remove it from the tips in the spool
core. Then reel it.

Reeling procedure:
 To load a metal spiral reel, hold the film with the emulsion side in or down loosely in one hand while
the other hand holds the reel.
 Engage the film’s end at the center clip or hook of the reel.
 Slightly squeeze the film width by pressing between the thumb and forefinger so it narrows just
enough to fit into the reel.
 Turn the reel with other hand to pull the film onto the reel.
 Do not apply excessive pressure with the hand holding and squeezing the film.
 Let the film pass freely, it will straighten out full width in the spiral space of the reel.
d. After the reeling of the film is done, placed it inside the daylight developing tank then cover it.
White light can now be opened. Remove the lid cover of the tank and pour the film developer
slowly until the tank is full. Invert the tank then agitate it for a seconds. Timer should start now.
Intermittent agitation should be made during the developing time. After 5-6 minutes, pour out or
drain the developer.
e. Pour in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after 15-20 seconds, drain out stop-bath.
Next is to pour in the fixing bath. Agitation should also be done every so often and after 15-20
minutes, drain the fixer from the tank.

Note: Used developer, stop-bath and fixer can be used again and again but instead of pouring them
back in the bottles of fresh or unused solutions, pour them in a separate container so it will not contaminate
the fresh or unused solutions.

f. You now wash the negative for several changes or preferably in running water for another 15-20
minutes.
g. Remove the negative from the developing reel. Get the sponge and immerse it in the water then
squeeze it to remove excess water. Wipe the negative with the sponge slowly to remove the
water adhering on the negative. This must be done on both sides of the negative. Water that
adheres on the surface of the negative can cause watermarks if allowed to dry without wiping.
h. Hang the negative to dry at a clean, dust free place or better in a negative drier.

2. Tray method of film development

a. With this method of film development, the developer is placed on the tray.
b. In total darkness, remove the film from the cartridge then hold one end of the film and immerse
the film in the developer in the tray making sure that the film is thoroughly dipped until the
whole length of the film is evenly wet.
 c. Timer will start now.
d. With see – saw or pulling up or down motion, move the film from one end to the other then
back, continuously, until the developing time of 4-5 minutes is done.
e. Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10-15 seconds with the same motion.
f. Thereafter, place the film in the fixer and execute same motion for about five minutes then you
can now open the white light.
g. Continue the fixing until the required time is finished.
h. Next will be the washing and drying of the negative.

Note: This developing procedure is actually not recommended because the film has a long contact
with air during the procedure which can caused aerial fog. Besides it is more tedious and tiring especially
with a 36 exposure film
Photographic Printing:
1. Contact Printing
2. Projection Printing or Enlarging

1. Contact Printing
 The procedure of exposing photographic print materials while it is pressed in contact with the
negative being reproduced.
 Contact prints are generally made for proofs of 35 mm negatives or copies of the large format
negatives like 5”x7” or 8”x10”.
 It is also used to make positive copies of negatives.
 Contact prints can be made with either black – and – white or color materials.

Contact prints may be made with:

a. Glass and pad
b. Pressure printing frame
c. Contact printer

 Glass and pad – a sheet of clear glass about 2 inches bigger that the print size in all sides to give a
border for handling a for its application of pressure. The pad should be of the same size as the glass.
 Pressure printing frame – this is like a picture frame with a removable hinge back leaf spring on the
back. Lock it into place and it exert pressure against the glass in the frame.
 Contact Printer- For a large volume work and a more controlled printing, a contact printer is most
effective and convenient. This is essentially a glass-top box with an exposing light and a safelight
(for proper arrangement of the negatives and the paper) inside and a hinge pressure cover on the
glass. Switches of the format control the lights.

Projection Procedure:
 Clean the glass from dust, dirt and stains.
 Place the negative with the base side against the glass and the emulsion of the photographic paper.
 If a film rather than a photographic paper is being exposed, it must be backed with a black paper so
reflected lights will not add unwanted exposure, arrange the negatives to be printed on the
photographic paper so every part of it is accommodated with extra space on all sides.

2. Projection Printing or Enlarging

 This is a type of printing where the image in a negative is optically projected or enlarged onto a print
material for exposure to produce a picture image.

Printing Making Process

 It is the final stage in making photographs.
 The main equipment used is the ENLARGER – a device which the image on the negative is
transferred to the photographic paper by the action of light.

Two General Types of Enlargers:

1. Diffusion type
 2. Condenser type

Diffusion enlarger
 Has a diffusion screen (usually ground or optical glass) between the light source and the negative.
 Light from the lamp, as well as the light reflected from the reflector of the lamp housing, falls on the
diffuser that scatters the light.
 After the light passes through the diffuser, it travels in many directions when it falls upon the
negative.

Condenser enlarger
 Has a set of condensing lenses between the light source and the negative.
 The condensing lenses concentrate or focus the light from a bulb and direct the light rays straight
through the negative to the lens

Basic Parts of Enlarger:

1. Baseboard and its vertical column
2. Lamp house
3. Condenser or diffuser
4. Bellows
5. Lens
6. Focusing knob
7. Elevating control knob
8. Red filter
9. Electrical cord and switch

Essential accessory of an enlarger:

1. Negative Carrier
2. Easel of paper holder
3. Timer for consistent and repeatable exposure

Common light sources of enlarger:

1. Tungsten lamp
2. Halogen lamp
3. Mercury vapor lamp
4. Fluorescent lamp (Cold light)