Lesson - 15 : Personality And Individual Differences

Objectives

After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

ӹ Grasp The Meaning Of Personality;

ӹ Understand The Factors Contributing For Personality
Development;
ӹ Gain The Knowledge Of Various Personality Theories; And
ӹ Find Out The Impact Of Personality Differences On Behavior.

Lesson Outline

ӹ Meaning And Definition Of Personality

ӹ Determinants Of Personality
ӹ Theories Of Personality
ӹ Personality Traits And Their Impact On Behaviour
ӹ Review Questions

Meaning and Definition of Personality

Personality is a complex phenomenon and difficult understand.

There is no single universally acceptable definition. Personality refers to
the personal characteristics that lead to consistent patterns of behaviour.
It represents the overall profile or combination of stable characteristics
that capture the unique nature of a person. Personality combines a set
of physical and mental characteristics that reflect how a person looks,
thinks, acts and feels. It has both internal and external elements. External
traits are observable behaviours on the basis of which we can understand
one’s personality. The internal factors are thoughts, values and genetic
characteristics that are inferred from the observable behaviours. According
to Hogan, personality refers to the relatively stable pattern of behaviours and
consistent internal states that explain a person’s behavioural tendencies.
 We can understand from the above definition that people
have some traits in common with others and some uncommon with
them. Each employee in an organization is unique and he may or may
not act similarly in a similar situation. Therefore, managers cannot use the
same kind of rewards or motivation techniques to influence employee’s
behaviour. The above definition does not mean that people do not ever
change. It simply indicates that individuals do not change drastically
overnight and their thoughts, feelings, values, and actions remain relatively
stable over time. Personality changes in individuals occur slowly over an
extended period of time. However, an understanding of personality
dimensions would enable managers to predict the behaviour of employees
and manage them effectively.

Determinants of Personality

Having understood the concept of personality, now we can

move further to know how an individual’s personality is determined? Is it
inherited (genetically determined) or is it formed after years of experience?
There are no simple answers to these questions. In fact, several factors
influence the shaping of our personality. Primarily, there are two sources
contributing for personality differences. They are i. heredity and ii.
environment. Environment has several factors within it like culture,
family background, life experiences and the groups we interact with. The
following diagram shows how personality is shaped by these factors.
ENVIRONMENT
Culture
HEREDITY Family
background
Life experiences
Socialisation process

PERSONALITY

Figure 15.1: Determinants of Personality

Heredity

Our personality is partly inherited genetically from our parents.

For example, whether we are fair or dark, tall or short, strong or weak are
all characteristics that have something to do with heredity. Personality
characteristics are partly influenced by environmental factors also like
experiences in life. Some traits may have strong genetic component while
others may be largely learned.

Culture

Culture refers to the distinctive ways in which people organize and

live their lives. Hence people belonging to different societies will have
different cultural orientations. Persons born into a particular society
are exposed to family and societal values and to norms of acceptable
behaviour in the culture of that society. People in the West and those
in the East have cultural differences between themselves. In US culture,
people are rewarded for being independent while in Japanese culture they
are rewarded for being group oriented. These differences are primarily due
to variations in cultural norms and expectations of acceptable behaviours
in the respective societies. You may also note that though cultural values
may have an impact on personality differences among people in different
cultures, people born in the same culture may also differ from each other
in many characteristics. Managers should keep this in mind when they are
dealing with the employees.

Family Background

An important tool of socializing a person into a particular culture

is the person’s immediate family. Factors like the socio-economic status
of the family, the number of children in the family and birth order,
and education of the parents and extended members of the family such
as cousins, uncles and aunts influence personality formation. In this
regard, you may note that parents’ influence on children’s development is
significant and it happens in three ways:

i. Through their own behaviours they influence children’s behaviours;

ii. They serve as role models; and
iii. They selectively reward and punish the behaviour of children.
Experiences in Life

Perceptions, ego, temperaments, and self esteem, are all related to

ones past experiences.
A complex set of events and interactions with other people determine the
level of self esteem of a person. Therefore, some personality traits get
changed positively or negatively on the basis of the kind of experiences in
one’s life.

Groups we interact with

The first group of people, a person interacts with is the family.

As they grow, people participate in various groups in the life time. The
roles and experiences people have as members of different groups lead to
personality differences. People influence each other and tend to associate
with members who are similar to them in their attitudes and values.
The interactions begin first with patents and siblings, then teachers and
classmates, later on friends and colleagues. Undoubtedly, the influence of
groups and various individuals will shape our personality. For example,
if a person wants to become a member of a work group, he has to change
himself to conform to the values and norms of that group. If the person is
of aggressive type, he may have to become cooperative.

Theories of Personality

Trait Theory

Trait theory presents an approach to understand personality. Many

traits are common to most people. However, there are many other traits
that are unique to a person. It may be remembered that traits are reactions
and not what a person possesses. A person does not possess emotion but
he acts emotionally in some circumstances. One the basis of the traits,
people may be described as emotional, aggressive, loyal, creative, flexible,
humorous, sentimental, and impulsive and so on. Traits are the basic
elements of personality and can be used to summarize the behaviour of
a person. However, determining basic traits is rather difficult because
thousands of descriptive words are there.
Psychoanalytical Theory

The psychoanalytical theory of personality is based on the Freudian

concept of unconscious nature of personality. On the basis of his clinical
experience, Freud noted that his patient’s behaviour could not always be
consciously explained. This prompted him to believe that the personality
structure is primarily founded on unconscious framework and that
human behaviour and motivation are the outcomes of such conflicting
psychoanalytic concepts as the id, the ego and the super ego. Id is the
foundation of the unconscious and is the basis of libido drives. It strives
for sexual and other biological pleasures and has animal instincts of
aggression, power and domination. Ego is conscious in nature and is
a mechanism to relate our conscious urges to the outside real world. It
keeps the id in check through the realities of the external environment.
While id demands immediate pleasure, regardless of costs, ego controls
it so that these pleasures are granted at an appropriate time and in an
acceptable manner. Because of difficulty in keeping the id under control,
ego is supported by super ego. The super ego is the higher level restraining
force and can be described as the conscience of the person. The conscience
creates standards of what is right and what is wrong and is generally
subconsciously developed by the absorption of cultural and ethical values
of the social environment. All these three Freudian elements are inter-
related and each cannot exist in isolation from others. In order to create a
“normal” personality, there must be a balance in the relationship among
these three forces.

Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory differs from the psychoanalytical theory

in two ways. First, it is believed that personality development is more a
result of social variables than biological drives. Secondly, motives can be
traced to known and conscious needs and wants rather than unconscious
and latent desires. Thus, learning theory looks at personality as the sum
total of all that a person has learned. The social learning theory focuses
on behaviour patterns and cognitive activities in relation to the specific
conditions that evoke maintain or modify them. The social learning
theory uses “reinforcement and punishment” approach in understanding
personality. For example, good behaviour is rewarded by management in
terms of praise that further reinforces good behaviour. Thus, behaviour and
external environment have mutual interaction. Behaviour partly creates
the person’s environment and the environment affects the behaviour as
well.

Learning may also take place simply from observation rather than
interaction with the environment. We watch the behaviour of other people,
draw conclusions from it and come out with our own behaviour. Unlike
trait theory or psychoanalytical theory, social learning theory considers
situation as an important variable in determining human behaviour.

Individual Differences and Impact on Behaviour

The range of personality traits is quite bewildering. Personality trait

means the basic components of personality. The important personality
traits that influence employee behaviour at work place are need patterns,
locus of control, introversion and extroversion, self-esteem and self-
concept, risk taking, self monitoring, Type A or Type B personality, and
goal orientation. These are briefly explained below.

Need Patterns

Primarily four personality needs can be identified that manifest

themselves in the work setting. They are the needs for achievement,
affiliation, autonomy, and dominance. Those with a high need to achieve
engage themselves proactively in work behaviours in order to feel proud
about their achievements and success. Those who are high in need for
affiliation tend to work cooperatively with others. Those who are high in
need for autonomy do well when not closely supervised. Those high in
their need for dominance prove to be effective in situations where they can
enforce their legitimate authority.

Locus of Control

Locus of control refers to a generalized belief that events are

either within one’s control (internal locus of control) or are determined by
the fate or luck (external locus of control). People who have moderately
strong internal locus of control are likely to perform better at work places.
They are likely to be more successful than their external counterparts.
Internals are more suitable for leadership positions and are likely to be
more satisfied with the jobs. Internals typically have more control over
their own behaviour than externals that leave everything to fate.

Introversion and Extroversion

Personality traits are commonly understood in terms of introversion

and extroversion. Introversion is the tendency in individuals which
directs them to turn inward and experience and process feelings, thoughts
and ideas within themselves. Extroversion refers to the tendency in
individuals to turn outward searching for external stimuli with which
they can interact. While there is some element of introversion as well
as extraversion in all of us, based on dominance, people are regarded as
either introverts or extroverts. Extroverts are sociable, lively, gregarious,
and seek outward stimuli or external interactions. Introverts are quiet,
reflective, introspective, and intellectual people. They interact with a
few intimate people. Introverts perform well when they are alone and
when the environment is quiet. Since managers have to constantly interact
with individuals both within and outside the organization and be able to
influence them to achieve organization’s goals, it is expected that extroverts
prove to be better managers than introverts.

Risk - taking

Personality differences can be seen in the willingness of people

to take risk. Some managers are prepared to take risk and act on little
information and quickly also. They prove to be as much effective as those
other managers that are averse to take risk and make decision cautiously.

Self – Monitoring

It refers to a person’s level of sensitivity and ability to adapt to

situational cues. High self-monitors change their behaviour quite easily
to suit the situation whereas low self monitors reveal their moods and
personal characteristics to others who can easily predict their behaviour in
a given situation. Self monitoring personality trait is important in carrying
out organizational activities. Employees having this trait emerge as better
performers, better leaders and are likely to grow faster in the organization.
Self – Esteem and Self-Concept

Self esteem is the result of a person’s continuing self-evaluation.

Self-esteem refers to the extent to which an individual consistently regards
himself as capable, successful, important, and worthy. Self-esteem is an
important personality factor that determines how managers perceive
themselves and their role in the organization. It is important to self-
concept, which refers to the way individuals define themselves as to who
they are and derive their sense of identity. High self-esteem leads to a high
sense of self-concept, which in turn, reinforces high self-esteem. The two
are mutually reinforcing forces. As a trait, a person high in self-esteem
is likely to take on more challenging assignments and be successful, thus
enhancing their self-concept. That means they define themselves as
highly valuable and valued individuals in the organization. The higher the
self-concept and self-esteem of a person, the more he contributes to the
goals of the organization.

Type A and Type B Personalities

Individuals can be grouped into two types of personalities – Type A

and Type B. Type A persons feel a chronic sense of time urgency, are highly
achievement oriented, exhibit a competitive drive, and are impatient when
their work get slowed down for any reason. In contrast, Type B persons
are easy going individuals who neither have sense of time urgency, nor
the competitive drive. Type A individuals are more prone to heart attacks
than Type B individuals. While helping the organization to move ahead in
a relatively short period of time, Type A persons may suffer from health
problems which are harmful to themselves apart from the organization.

Goal - Orientation

An important personality difference affecting behaviour at work is

goal orientation. There are two orientations – learning goal orientation and
performance goal orientation. A person with learning orientation develops
by acquiring new competencies whereas a person with performance
orientation demonstrates competencies by seeking favorable judgments
from others. As is well known, some individuals are highly work-oriented
while others try to do the minimum that is necessary for not being fired
on the job. The extremely work oriented person gets greatly involved in
the job and lives up to being described as “living, eating, and breathing the
job”. Estrangement from immediate family members may occur. Though a
high level of work orientation of members is good for the organization to
achieve its goals, too much of it may lead to premature burnout and health
problems.
In the above discussion, it is evident that personality traits are
important for employees, managers and organizational effectiveness.
With personality differences, we are able to understand, how they affect
the behaviour of the people in organizations.

Review Questions

1. Define Personality?
2. How is Personality of an individual shaped?
3. What you know about psychoanalytical theory of personality?
4. Distinguish between introversion and extroversion.