Light Emitting Diode(LED)

q The Light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light

source.
q In 1962, Nick Holonyak has come up with the idea of a light-
emitting diode, and he was working for the general electric
company.
q The LED is a special type of diode and they have similar
electrical characteristics to a PN junction diode.
q LED allows the flow of current in the forward direction and
blocks the current in the reverse direction.
 What is a Light Emitting Diode?

• The lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially

doped diode and made up of a special type of semiconductors. When
the light emits in the forward biased, then it is called a light-emitting
diode.
The LED symbol is similar to a diode symbol except for two small
arrows that specify the emission of light, thus it is called LED
(light-emitting diode). The LED includes two terminals namely
anode (+) and the cathode (-). The LED symbol is shown below.
 Principle
• Energy is required to take an electron from Valence band to
conduction band i.e. to generate an electron hole pair.
• Conversely, energy is emitted when an electron and hole
recombine.
• In semiconductors like Si & Ge, this recombination energy is
emitted in the form of heat.
• But in SCs like GaAs (Gallium Arsenide), GaP (Gallium
Phosphate), the energy is emitted in the form of light.
• This is the basic principle of light emission in LEDs
 Construction of LED
• The construction of LED belong to three layers which are arranged one by one where the top region is
a P-type region, the middle region is active and finally, the bottom region is N-type. The three regions of
semiconductor material can be observed in the construction. In the construction, the P-type region
includes the holes; the N-type region includes elections whereas the active region includes both holes
and electrons. When the voltage is not applied to the LED, then there is no flow of electrons and holes
so they are stable. Once the voltage is applied then the LED will forward biased, so the electrons in the
N-region and holes from P-region will move to the active region. This region is also known as the
depletion region. Because the charge carriers like holes include a positive charge whereas electrons
have a negative charge so the light can be generated through the recombination of polarity charges.

OR
• From Fig.1, we can observe that the N-type silicon is in red color including the
electrons (black circles).
• The P-type silicon (blue color) contains holes (white circles).
• The power supply across the p-n junction makes the diode forward biased and
pushing the electrons from n-type to p-type. Pushing the holes in the opposite
direction.
• Electron and holes at the junction are combined.
• The photons are given off as the electrons and holes are recombined.
The energy released due to recombination process is in the form of photon of energy
Fig. 1
Eg=hν=hc/λ
 History of Light Emitting Diode
• In1927, Oleg Losev (Russian inventor) was created the first LED and published some theory on his research.
• In1952, Prof. Kurt Lechovec has tested the theories of Losers theories and explained about the first LEDs
• In 1958, the first green LED was invented by Rubin Braunstein & Egon Loebner
• In 1962, a red LED was developed by Nick Holonyak. So, the first LED is created.
• In 1964, IBM implemented LEDs on a circuit board for the first time on a computer.
• In 1968, HP (Hewlett Packard) started using LEDs in calculators.
• In 1971, Jacques ankove & Edward Miller were invented a blue LED
• In 1972, M. George Crawford (Electrical Engineer) was invented the yellow color LED.
• In 1986, Walden C. Rhines & Herbert Maruska from the University of Stafford invented a blue color LED with
Magnesium including future standards.
• In 1993, Hiroshi Amano & Physicists Isamu Akaski has developed a Gallium Nitride with high-quality blue color
LEDs.
• An electrical engineer like Shuji Nakamura was developed the first blue LED with high-brightness through Amanos
& Akaski developments, which rapidly leads to the expansion of white color LEDs.
• In 2002, white color LEDs were used for residential purposes which charger around £80 to £100 for each bulb.
• In 2008, LED lights have become very popular in offices, hospitals & schools.
• In 2019, the LEDs have become the main light sources;
• The LED development is incredible, as it is ranged from small indication to light the offices, homes, schools,
hospitals, etc.
 Types of Light Emitting Diodes

• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red

• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
• Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red, orange-
red, orange, and yellow
• Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
• Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
• Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
• Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near-ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
• Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
• Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
• Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet
 White LEDs
• The manufacturing of LEDs can be done through two
techniques.
• The first technique includes the LED chips like red,
green & blue are merged within a similar package to
generate white light.
• The second technique, phosphorescence is utilized i.e.
Fluorescence within the phosphor can be summarized
within the epoxy surrounding then the LED will be
activated through the short-wavelength energy using
the InGaN LED device.
 Luminous Efficacy

• The LEDs’ luminous efficacy can be defined as the produced

luminous flux in lm for each unit and electrical power can be used
within W.
• The rated internal efficacy order of Blue color LED is 75 lm/W;
• For amber LEDs have 500 lm/W
• For red LEDs have 155 lm/W.
• Because of internal re-absorption, the losses can be taken into
consideration; the order of luminous efficacy ranges from 20 to 25
lm/W for green & amber LEDs. This efficacy definition is also known
as external efficacy & is analogous to the efficacy definition normally
used for other types of light sources like multicolor LED.
 Multicolor Light Emitting Diode
• A LED that produces one color once they connected in
forward bias (FB) & produce a color once they connected in
reverse bias is known as multicolor LED.
• Actually, these LEDs include two PN-junctions and the
connection of this can be done in parallel with the anode of
one that is linked to the cathode of another.
• Multicolor LEDs are normally red once they biased in one
direction & green once they biased in another direction. If
this LED is turned ON very fast among two polarities, then
this LED will generate a third color. A green or red LED will
generate a yellow color light once rapidly switched
backward and forward among biasing polarities.
Difference between a Diode and a LED
Diode LED
The semiconductor device like a diode conducts The LED is one type of diode, used to generate light.
simply in one direction.
The designing of the diode can be done with a The LED is designed with the gallium phosphide &
semiconductor material & the flow of electrons in this gallium arsenide whose electrons can generate light
material can give their energy the heat form. while transmitting the energy.
The diode changes the AC into the DC The LED changes the voltage into light
It has a high reverse breakdown voltage It has a low-reverse breakdown voltage.
The on-state voltage of the diode is 0.7v for silicon The on-state voltage of LED approximately ranges from
whereas, for germanium, it is 0.3v 1.2 to 2.0 V.
The diode is used in voltage rectifiers, clipping & The applications of LED are traffic signals, automotive
clamping circuits, voltage multipliers. headlamps, in medical devices, camera flashes, etc.
I-V Characteristics of LED
Two types of LED configurations

• 1) Emitters : The emitter is a single die that is mounted toward a

circuit board, then to a heat sink. This circuit board gives electrical
power toward the emitter, while also drawing away heat.
• 2) COBs: To aid in reducing cost as well as enhance light uniformity,
investigators determined that the LED substrate can be detached &
the single die can be mounted openly to the circuit board. So this
design is called COB (chip-on-board array)
Advantages and Disadvantages of LED’s
Advantages Disadvantages
• The cost of LED’s is less and they
are tiny. • Price
• By using the LED’s electricity is • Temperature sensitivity
controlled.
• The intensity of the LED differs with
the help of the microcontroller. • Temperature dependence
• Long Lifetime • Light quality
• Energy efficient
• No warm-up period • Electrical polarity
• Doesn’t affect by cold temperatures • Voltage sensitivity
• Directional
• Color Rendering is Excellent • Efficiency droop
• Environmentally friendly • Impact on insects
• Controllable
 Applications
• LED is used as a bulb in the homes and
industries
• In motorcycles and cars
• In mobile phones to display the message
• At the traffic light signals
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is an flat display screen used in
electronic devices such as laptop, computer, TV, cellphones
and portable video games.
• As the name says liquid crystal is a material which flows like a
liquid and shows some properties of solid.
• These LCD are vey thin displays
• They consumes less power than LEDs.
 Molecular arrangement of Liquid Crystal
• As the name says the molecular
structure of liquid crystal is in
between solid crystal and liquid
isotropic.
• In LCD; nematic type of liquid
cyrstal molecular arrangement
is used in which molecules are
oriented in some degr ee of
alignment.
• For example when we increase
the temperature the ice cube
melts and liquid crystal is like
the state in between ice cube
and water
 Construction of Liquid Crystal Display
• It consists of two polarized glass pieces.

• Two electrodes are used, one is positive

and the other one is negative.

• External potential is applied to LCD

through this electrodes and it is made up
of indium-tin-oxide.

• Liquid crystal layer of about 10µm- 20µm

is placed between two glass sheets.

• The light is passed or blocked by

changing the polarization.
 Working of LCD
• The basic working principle of LCD is blocking of light.
It does not produce light on its own.
• So external light source is used.
• When the external light passes from one polarizer to
the next polarizer, external supply is given to the
liquid crystal ,the polarized light aligns itself so that
the image is produced in the screen.
• The indium oxide conducting surface is a transparent
layer which is placed on both the sides of the sealed
thick layer of liquid crystal .
• When no external bias is applied the molecular
arrangement is not disturbed.
• When the external bias is applied the molecular
arrangement is disturbed and it and that area looks
dark and the other area looks clear.
 LCD Display
In the segment arrangement, the conducting segment looks dark and the
other segment looks clear.

e.g. To display number 2 , the segments A,B,G,E,D are energized.

Positive and Negative LCDs

• In positive LCD display the segments are dark and

the background is white and the polarizers are
placed perpendicular to each other.

• In the negative LCD display the segments are white

in the dark background and the polarizers are
aligned to each other.
Advantages, Disadvantages, Applications

• Advantages: • Disadvantages • Applications:

• It is thin and • Speed of • Used in digital wrist watch
compact operation is • Display images in digital
cameras
• Low power low • Used in numerical counters
consumption • Lifespan is less • Display screen in calculators
• Less heat is • Restricted • Mainly used in television
emitted during viewing angles • Used in mobile screens
operation • Used in video players
• Low cost • Used in image sensing circuits
 Photoconducting materials
INTRODUCTION
• A photoconductor or Photoconductivity is an electrical &
• The photoconductive optical phenomenon where a material turns into conductive
device is based on the more electrically because of the electromagnetic radiation
decrease in the resistance absorption like infrared light, ultraviolet light, visible light, or
of certain semiconductor gamma radiation. Once a semiconductor material absorbs
materialswhen they are light, then the number of charge carriers & also its
exposed to both infrared electrical conductivity will be increased. Once a load
and visible radiation. resistor & a bias voltage are used with the semiconductor
in series, then a voltage drop across the load resistor can
• When the light falls on the be measured while the change within the material’s
materials, then the electrical conductivity changes the current flowing
conductivity of whose throughout the circuit.
material significantly
increases is known as
photoconductor material. • The photoconductive materials examples are the
conductive polymer polyvinyl carbazole material is used
The increased conductivity widely in photocopying and lead sulfide material is used in
is called photoconductivity IR detection applications like the Russian Atoll heat-
which is observed mainly in seeking missiles, U.S. Sidewinder & selenium is used in
semiconductors. early xerography & television.
Photoconductor Construction & Working Principle
The photoconductor construction is shown in the left hand side. The
photoconductor includes a light-sensitive material that is arranged in a
long strip zigzag form across a base that is in a disc shape. The
connecting terminals are fixed to the conducting material on every side
of the strip. So, the light-sensitive material is a wide strip in between
the two conductors and a transparent plastic cover is used for its
protection.
The two materials like CdSe (cadmium selenide) & CdS (Cadmium
sulfide) are used in the manufacturing of photoconductive cells. These
two materials respond quite slowly to changes within light intensity. So,
the response time of CdSe is approximately 10 ms, whereas, for CdS, it
may be 100 ms
Another main difference between these two materials is temperature
sensitivity because there is a huge change within the resistance of a
CdSe cell through changes in ambient temperature; however, the
cadmium sulfide resistance remains fairly stable.

As with all other types of devices, care must be taken to make sure that
the power dissipation is not extreme. The spectral response of a CdS
cell is related to that of the human eye because it quickly responds to
visible light.
Photoconductor
Photoconductivity in Semiconductors
Working Photoconductivity is the increased conductivity that is mainly observed within
semiconductors. To understand this mechanism in detail, a basic internal semiconductor
Once the light ray strikes structure needs to consider. In the semiconductors energy-band diagram, the number of
the surface of a charge carriers like electrons within the conduction band is significantly low as compared to
photoconductive conductors. But, there are also charge carriers like holes within the valence band.
material then it provides
enough energy to cause These are known as vacancies which are left by electrons and moved to the conduction band.
electrons in the material The following diagram shows charge carriers within a semiconductor. The conduction of the
to move away from their current within a semiconductor takes place by electrons & holes within the valence band.
atoms. Therefore, free Semiconductors are available in two types like Intrinsic & Extrinsic. Pure semiconductors are
charge carriers like holes intrinsic and when impurities are included to a semiconductor for increasing its conductivity
& electrons can be is known as extrinsic. Here, the impurity which is added can either increase the number of
created within the electrons or the number of holes.
material, its resistance
will be decreased. So this Once the light rays drop on the semiconducting material, then the electrons in the valence
i s c a l l e d t h e band absorb the photons & jump immediately into the conduction band by leaving holes. So
Photoconductive effect. the increased number of electrons & holes within both the bands will increase the material’s
conductivity. So the conductivity increase is mainly because of the light dropping on the
material, which is known as photoconductivity.
 Photoconductive Gain
The photoconductive gain can be defined as the ratio of flow of electron’s rate for each second to the rate of
electron-hole pair’s generation in the device. However, the electrons flow rate for each sec is = ∆i/e. Here, the
photoconductive gain can also be defined as the ratio of the lifetime of minority charge carriers & the transit time.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
It mainly depends on the light, so its resistance will be decreased once light drops on it & enhances in the dark.
q These are cheap & available in different sizes & shapes
q They need less power & voltage for their operation.
q These are used to make simple circuits

Disadvantages
v These are less responsive as compared to phototransistors or photodiodes.
v When the Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is used in the construction of a photoresistor, then it is dangerous to the
atmosphere. Therefore they are accessible simply in preferred countries.
v Once applied voltage increases the maximum voltage then it will cause damage to the photoconductor.
v Its response time is very slow like 10sec or 100 milliseconds.
v It is sensitive to temperature
v These characteristics are nonlinear

Photo-diode
• The photodiode is a special kind of diode where a window is formed to let the light of an appropriate frequency drop on the
photodiode. Thus, new pairs of electron-hole are formed which take part within conductivity.
Photoconductor vs photodiode
Photoconductor Photodiode
The material which allows photoconductivity It is a p–n junction device used to convert the
is known as a photoconductor. light into current.

Examples of materials used in The materials used in photodiode are;

photoconductors are selenium, conductive Germanium, Silicon, Indium gallium arsenide
polymer polyvinyl carbazole, etc. & Indium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide.

These are used in street lights, infrared These are applicable in consumer electronics
detectors, camera light meters, etc devices like smoke detectors, compact disc
players, medical equipment & IR remote
control devices to control ACs & TVs.
 Photoresistor
A photoresistor is made with photoconductive materials. Once the light with appropriate
frequency drops on the photoresistor, then the pairs of charge carriers are formed which
enhances the resistor’s conductivity at the same time, the resistivity will be decreased.
Therefore, the photoresistor is responsive to incident light.

• These materials are mainly used to sense infrared radiation within military-based
applications from guiding missiles to heat-generating targets.
• Photoconductivity is used in the process of xerography or photocopying, which formerly
used selenium however now it relies on photoconductive polymers.
• Some photoconductors are used in street lights, camera light meters, clock radios,
nanophotonic systems, infrared detectors & photo-sensors devices with low-dimensional.
• Photoconductors are used for X-Ray image detectors
• These are used for relay control
• These are used to switch on & off transistors.
• These can be used with an op-amp-based Schmitt trigger circuit.
• These are used to control the level of current flow within an LED.
 Photoresistor
Photoresistor is the combination of words “photon” (meaning light particles) and “resistor”. True to its name, a photo-
resistor is a device or we can say a resistor dependent on the light intensity. OR
Photoresistor is a variable resistor whose resistance varies inversely with the intensity of light. These Photoresistors are
also known as photoconductive cells or just photocell. The idea of Photoresistor developed when photoconductivity in
Selenium was discovered by Willoughby Smith in 1873. Many variants of the photoconductive devices were then made.

Working principle:
As we know valence electrons are those found in the outermost
shell of an atom. Hence, these are loosely attached to the nucleus
of the atom. This means that only some small amount of energy is
needed to pull it out from the outer orbit.
Free electrons on the other hand are those which are not attached
to the nucleus and hence free to move when an external energy
like an electric field is applied. Thus when some energy makes the
valence electron pull out from the outer orbit, it acts as a free
electron; ready to move whenever an electric field is applied. The
light energy is used to make valence electron a free electron.
The light that falls on a photoconductive material is absorbed by it
which in turn makes lots of free electrons from the valence
electrons.
 Working principle

As the light energy falling on the

photoconductive material increases,
number of valence electrons that gain
energy and leave the bonding with the
nucleus increases. This leads to a large
number of valence electrons jump to the
conduction band, ready to move with an
application of any external force like an
electric field.

Thus, as the light intensity increases, the

number of free electrons increases. This
means the photoconductivity increases
that imply a decrease in photo resistivity
of the material.
 Photonic Cyrstal

• How humans communicate with universe

• Energy Information Sensation Perception
• Electromagnetic Waves (E.M. Waves)
• Colour: Information carrie dby EM waves realting to its energy
• Why we see different colours?
• Ans: A material selects reflex a certian wavelength absorbing all other
wavelenths . this selective reflection distinguish all other wavelengths due
to pigmentation.
• How animals change their colous?
 Photonic Crystal
• Photonic crystals are periodic optical nanostructures that can control light, specifically photons. Such crystals occur
in nature in the form of structural coloration – like the natural microstructures that give opal its iridescent color – or
animal reflectors, like the wings of certain butterflies. Their synthetic counterparts have a wide range of potential
applications, from reflection coatings to optical computers. eg Lasers, optical fibres, the cameras and screens in
our phones, optical tweezers, and lighting in our cars, homes, computer screens and TVs are just a few examples
of photonics. OR
These are the materials show different color due to their structure which can selectivity reflect certain band of wavelength

• Photonic crystal was discovered the first time in 1887 but at that time photonic crystal term was not it comes after
100 years later after Eli- Yablonovitch and Sanjeev John published two milestone articles on photonic crystals in
1987. Before 1987, One-dimensional photonic crystals with periodic multi-layer dielectric like Bragg mirror was
studied by Lord Reighlay showed that the first time that these structures have bandgap in the composite dielectric
layers. A wide spectral range of maximum reflectivity knows as stop band or reflective band. These type structures
are used in a diverse application in daily life from reflective coatings to enhancing LED efficiency to highly reflective
mirrors in certain laser cavities.

• Also known as photonic band gap materials, photonic crystals work on a principle similar to the way
semiconductors enable the creation of electronic devices. The crystals have band gaps that permit some
wavelengths of light to pass but not others, allowing the unparalleled control of the behavior of light. They are
composed of periodic dielectric, metallo-dielectric or superconductor microstructures or nanostructures.
Dielectric materials are essentially electrical insulators that are polarizable with an electric field and can affect
electromagnetic wave propagation by defining ‘allowed’ and ‘forbidden’ electronic energy bands.
 Basic Principle
• Photonic crystals are regularly repeating
regions of high and low dielectric constant.
• Photons behaving as waves proliferate
through a structure or not depending on
their wavelength; those that propagate are
called modes and groups of allowed
modes form bands, disallowed bands of
wavelengths are called photonic band
gaps. This gives rise to distinct optical
phenomena such as inhibition of
spontaneous emission (where a quantum
mechanical system transitions from an
excited to lower state an emits a photon),
high-reflection omnidirectional mirrors and
low-loss-waveguiding.
 How do photonic crystals reflect only a band of wavelength

Factors: [1] Refractive index of medium

(a) low to high refractive index medium (b) high to low refractive index medium
[2] Thickness
• Photonic crystals are composite with periodic dielectric, Metallo-dielectric,
or superconductor nanostructure that affects wave propagation with
allowed and forbidden electronic energy bands. The range of blocked
frequency or wavelengths is called photonic band gaps.

• Disallowed bands or range of wavelengths or frequency are called

photonic band gaps. Due to this photonic bandgap many of the optical
phenomena like as inhibition of spontaneous emission, low-loss-
waveguiding, intuitively, and high-reflecting Omni-directional mirrors. The
period of the photonic structure should be around half the wavelength of
the electromagnetic waves to be diffracted.

• Photonic crystal can be fabricated in one, two, and three-dimension by the

photolithography, or by drilling holes under different angles in a suitable
substrate. Photonic crystal has application include optics thin-film with
coating for lenses, nonlinear device and to guide exotic wavelengths.
Three dimension photonic crystals also use to lead more efficient
photovoltaic cells as a source of power for electronics.

• Higher-dimensional photonic crystals are of great interest in the field of

applied research and commercial applications. In the photonic crystal,
fibers use a microscale region to confine electromagnetic waves with
radically different characteristics compared to conventional optical fiber for
applications in nonlinear devices and guiding exotic wavelengths
• Band gaps in photonic crystals are thought to arise from the destructive interference of multiple reflections of
light propagating in the crystal at the interfaces of high- and low-dielectric constant regions, much like the band
gaps of electrons in solids. The periodicity of the crystal structure must be around half the wavelength of the
electromagnetic waves to be diffracted. In the visible part of the spectrum, this is around 350nm to 650 nm i.e.
blue to red light.
• Photonic crystals can be useful in a range of applications – in principle anywhere light must be controlled or
manipulated - and can be fabricated in one-, two- or three-dimensions.
• One-dimensional materials can be made of layers deposited or stuck together, and are already in widespread
use in the form of thin-film optics with applications from high and low reflection coatings on lenses and mirrors to
color changing inks and paints.
• Two-dimensional crystals can be fabricated by photolithography or drilling holes in a suitable substrate. These
materials are also widely used as photonic-crystal fibers, where microscale structures are used to confine light
with radically different characteristics compared to conventional optical fiber. They use the structural properties
of their construction materials to exercise greater control over light and are in applications for nonlinear devices
and to guide exotic wavelengths, in high-speed communications, fiber lasers and power transmissions.
• Three-dimensional materials can be made by drilling under different angles, stacking multiple two-dimensional
layers on top of each other, direct laser writing or by instigating self-assembly of spheres in a matrix before
dissolving said spheres. However, three-dimensional photonic crystals are far from being ready for
commercialization due to difficulties in their manufacture. Fabricating repeating regions of high and low dielectric
constant is problematic, and there are several major challenges that must be overcome to create high-
dimension photonic crystals. They need to be designed with enough precision to prevent scattering losses
blurring crystal properties and fabrication processes need to be robust enough to withstand the mass production
of crystals.
Applications

• Photonic devices include fiber optic

telecommunications
• Optical data storage
• displays
• optical pumping of high-power lasers
• laser printing.
 Shape memory alloys
• Shape-memory alloys are those that "remember" their original shape. When heated, an alloy that
has been distorted returns to its original shape. An alloy that has been deformed recovers its
original structure when heated. After the deformation process, either spontaneously or through
heating

History
• The pseudoelastic characteristics of Au-Cd alloy were found by A. Lander in 1932.
• Kurdjumov & Kandros report on the memory impact of Au-Cd in 1949.
• 1967 – Beuhler finds the form memory effect in the nickel-titanium alloy which proves to be a key
discovery in the area of SMA.
• From 1970 to 1980, the first studies of nickel-titanium grafts in medicinalapplications were
published.
• The mid-1990s — Memory alloys begin to be used widely in medicine, and they quickly extend to
other fields.
 Properties of SMA

• Although SMAs have a lower yield strength than ordinary steel, some SMAs
have a better yield strength than plastic or aluminum.
• Ni and Ti have a yield stress of up to 500 MPa.
• The highly elastic characteristics of SMA are demonstrated.
• SMA's extremely elastomeric features are illustrated.
• For some alloys, the greatest recoverable strain SMAs can withstand without
permanent damage is up to 8%. (It's only 0.5 percent for typical steels.)
• Metals are expensive, so efficient processing is necessary.
• Incorporating SMAs into a design is time-consuming and expensive.
Phases of SMA
• (1) Martensite is relatively soft
and it is easily deformable phase
which exists at low tempertaure.
• (2) Austenite is a phase that
occurs at high temperature
having crystal structure and high
degree of symmetry.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages:
• Compatibility with biological • Force of non-linear actuation
systems
• Weight is very less
• Actuators with a lower
maximum frequency
• High strength-to-weight ratio
• Stress in the long run
• Resistance to wear
• Resistance to fatigue
• A sensitive fabrication
• Exceptional elasticity • The initial outlay
• Extremely strong
 • ONE WAY- SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT
• Cooling from a high T does not result in a macroscopic form change in
this scenario. When the material is cooled, it will retain its hot shape
until it is bent once more. When heated, the form returns to its original
state. When an SMA is under a certain level of As, It can be stretched
or folded and will keep its form till it is heated over the transition
temperature T
• Or a material which exhibits shape memory effect only upon heating is
known as one way shape memory

TWO WAY- SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT

Two shapes are remembered by the material: one at high T and the
other at low T. During both cooling and heating, the form memory
effect is visible. The metal loses its two-way memory effect over a
certain T. This is referred to as "amnesia." In the high-temperature
stages, the metal can be educated to leave certain traces of the
deformed low-temperature situation
Or
A material which shows memory effect both heating and cooling
is known as two way shape memory
Example: Ni-Ti alloy, Cu-Al-Ni alloy.
 Method of Processing
• The shape memory alloys are generally prepared in vacuum or in an inert
gas atmosphere. Methods such as plasma are melting, electron beam
melting, etc., are used for the preparation of shape memory alloys.
• 1. Shape memory effect:
• The change of shape of a material at low tempertaure by loading and regaining of original
shape by heating it, is known as shape memory effect.
• While loading twinned martensite becomes deformed martensite at low temperature.
• On heating, deformed martensite becomes austenite and upen cooling it gets transformed
to twinned martensite.
2. SMAs exhibit changes in electrical resistance, volume and length during the
transformation with temperature.
3. The mechanism involved in SMA is reversible.
4. Stress and temperature have a great influence on martensite transformation.
5. The phenomenon of deformation of a SMA on application of large stress and regaining of
shape on removal of the load is known as Pseudo elasticity. This occurs without a change in
temperature.
6. The difference between the transition tempertaure upon heating and cooling is called
hystersis. The tempertaure range for teh martensite to austenite transformation which takes
place heating is somewhat higher than that for the reverse transformation upon cooling.
 Nickel-Titanium Alloys (NiTi)
• Nickel-Titanium alloys are one of the famous SMAs used in many
commercial applications. This structure is based upon the equiatomic
construct of titanium and nickel atoms. It can bear fairly large numbers of
shape memory strains.
• It is stable in structure, and resistant to corrosion as well.
• The temperature of transformation is very much dependent on the
composition and even a minute change in the nickel content could cause
sample change in the transformation temperature. This system also shows a
huge transformation temperature hysteresis loop, of about 50 0 C. A third
metal is generally induced to such a binary alloy to modify its properties for
commercial explorations.
• The shape memory effect almost remains the same if copper is added at the
place of nickel up to 30%. Whereas it just reduces the width of the hysteresis
to about 15 o C and it also makes it less sensitive towards the changes in
the nickel content. The addition of copper into the system is the most
beneficial up to 10% of concentration.
• The addition of copper beyond this level only adds a small modification to
the system. The manufacturing of NiTi alloys is not that easy just because
the melting of all the components and the reaction of titanium must be
performed in a vacuum or an inert atmosphere. That is also the reason
because of which joining such alloys using welding, or soldering is the most
difficult task. When it is done in a cold environment, the alloy becomes hard
very quickly but it consists of a fine grain structure. In this case, very fine
wires can be made easily. It is very hard to do machining with NiTi alloys. In
this way, the alloy becomes very expensive to construct for a variety of
applications. In spite of these drawbacks, its outstanding shape memory
properties and resistance towards corrosion have given rise to NiTi being
used in a vast variety of applications.
 Applications
• Medicine • They are used as blood clot filters and are
• Optometry used in artifical hearts.
• Engines • They are used to make toys and ornamental
• Aerospace OR goods.
• Robotics • They are used to make eye glass frames as
• Automotive tehy provide good confort and durability.
• Piping’s • They are used as couplings for metal pipes.
• Civil Structures
• They are used in aircraft engines and other
• Water sprinklers
high tempertaure environments.
• Textile
• Digital SMA stepping motors are used for
• Aeronautic coupling
robotic control.
• Eyeglass frame
• A stent that expands on its own
• Applications in transportation,
communication, and medicine
• Composite Materials
• Introduction: The mixing of two materials with different physical and chemical properties forms a composite.
In this way, the material is designed to outgrow providing the desired job. Sometimes they become stronger,
lighter, or electrically resistant.
• The utilization of composite materials is widespread and connected to almost all the industries we can think
of. With the industrial advancements in time, in the past four decades, the conventional building materials
were replaced by advanced materials designed for specific applications.
• In general, the industries of composite materials can be classified into the following categories: construction,
marine corrosion-resistant equipment, aerospace, automotive, consumer products, appliance/business
equipment, etc. Whereas, the materials available can be divided into these categories: polymers, ceramics,
metals, and inorganic glasses and composites.
• Generally, metals weaken in their strength as the ambient temperature increases. Several polymers can only
bear a low temperature. Ceramics surpass polymers and metals because of their ability to bear high
temperatures, excellent mechanical strength, and low thermal expansion, but they are brittle which becomes
the reason for its rejection from being a structural material. All these points converge to a common need for
composite materials.
• The major benefit of these advanced composite materials is that they are lightweight as well as carry high
building strength. By selecting the appropriate recipe of the matrix and reinforcement materials, the new
material can be designed that precisely meets the necessities of a specific application.
• Composites can also be designed in various ways because most of the composites can be molded into
complex shapes.
• Sometimes the costs of the raw materials are high which makes it hard to use such composite materials at
all places.
 1. Polymer-Matrix Composites:
• Applications of polymer-matrix Composite:
• Advanced composites and reinforced plastics
are two main categories of polymer matrix 1. Fatigue (durability)
composite (PMC). 2. Energy absorption (during accident)
• The mechanical properties such as strength and 3. Material stiffness in terms of ride quality,
stiffness of these materials are the basis of this vibration, and noise
classification. Comparatively inexpensive
reinforced plastics, generally carry polyester 4. Reduction of weight, which on the other
resins are reinforced with low-stiffness glass side makes vehicle fuel economy and
fibers. Being light weight is the main advantage enhances its performance.
of PMCs along with this they have good strength 5. Overall improvement in built quality and
in the direction of the reinforcement. Such a uniformity in manufacturing.
combination of properties is the reason for their
usefulness. Besides, these materials 6. The reduction of overall manufacturing
demonstrate excellent fatigue and corrosion costs.
resistance in comparison to metals. 7. Resistance towards corrosion
• The only drawback is that the matrix
decomposes at high temperatures, so, the
PMCs can only be used up to 600 °F (316 °C).
 2. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs):
• Metal matrix composites (MMCs), are not used as much as their plastic opponents, irrespective of their vital interest in
research groups. These materials offer high strength, and toughness comparative to those presented by their polymer
counterparts.
• They can bear high temperatures with much comfor rather than polymer composites.
• The non-reactive and highly stable over a range of temperature reinforcement materials are required to combine with a
matrix usually made up of any metal or alloy.
• The matrix material decides the guiding aspects of the structure of the matrix. Light metals are used to form the matrix for
temperature applications and the reinforcement material in addition to the above-mentioned reasons are categorized by the
high modulus of rigidity. Most metals and alloys make good matrices. But it cannot be used for low-temperature
applications.
• The use of light metals is advantageous in the manufacturing of these materials. The metals such as Al, Ti, and Mg are the
popular matrix metals presently being explored.
• These light metals are specifically useful for their application in aircraft industries if matrix materials are made up of light
materials and offer high strength. The high value of strength-to-weight ratios is required for these properties.
• Advantages: MMC is more preferred over polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) which can be operated at higher
temperatures, and have greater resistance to degradation caused by organic fluids. Whereas,higher cost of MMCs over
PMCs restricts their use to some extent.
 3.Ceramic Matrix Materials (CMM):
• Ceramic materials are defined as solid materials exhibiting strong ionic bonding and Applications of CMCs
covalent bonding in some cases. They usually have a high melting point, good
resistance towards corrosion, and high inertness for chemicals. These materials also • CMCs find applications in many
possess high compressive strength. That is the reason why ceramic-based matrix industrial applications. A suitable
materials are favorite for structural applications above a temperature of 1500 ºC. organization of the applications of
• In general, ceramic matrix materials are the obvious choice at elevated temperatures. • ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
Low tensile strain and high modulus of elasticity are possessed by the ceramics. is aerospace and non-aerospace.
These properties in combination became the reason for unsuccess in the attempts to CMCs used in the field of
add reinforcements in these materials to improve its material strength. This may aerospace are:
happen because the stress level at which a ceramic breaks, the elongation of the • High stiffness and better material
matrix is not sufficient; which does not allow the composite from transferring the load strength.
to the reinforcement and it fails until there is a sufficiently high percentage of fiber
present in the material. • Reduction in weight.
• Lower maintenance and fabrication
• On the other hand, the addition of a heavy quantity of high-strength fiber weakens the
cost.
ceramic most of the time. The reinforcement can be used in a material with a high
modulus of elasticity. It may work to some extent but not always. Ceramic materials • Highly thermal resistant.
are inherently resistant to oxidation and degradation at high temperatures. Some of
• Longer service life.
these materials would be ideal for use in high temperature and stress conditions,
especially in aircraft engines and heat portions in automobiles. The values of fracture • Valuable in stealth technology
toughness for these ceramic materials are not that high and generally lies between 1 (reduces the distance at which a
to 5 MPa. On the other hand, these values are very high for metals of the order of 15 vehicle can be detected).
to 150 or sometimes even more in MPa. Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are
formed to increase the fracture toughness of these materials. In these materials, fibers,
particulates, or whiskers of one ceramic material are embedded into the matrix formed
by another ceramic. The facture toughness of CMCs has been extended about 6 to 20
MPa.
 4. Carbon Matrix Composite
• Carbon fibers embedded in a carbonaceous matrix forms a
special kind of composite called carbon/carbon composite.
Applications of Carbon-Carbon
• Carbon is an excellent material that persists even up to high
temperatures when used in inert or non-oxidizing atmospheres. Composites
The major with carbon is that it easily reacts with oxygen,
forming oxides. • High-performance braking
• Carbon/carbon composite materials are commercially very
useful. Heat shields, heating elements, load plates, and X-ray
system
targets are made using this material. The nozzle of a rocket
exhaust must bear an extremely rapid increase in temperature • Turbojet engine
in a highly corrosive environment while sustaining its strength.
This is a fascinating material used in many applications in the components (rocket nozzles)
field of aerospace technology, wind energy production,
automotive engineering, mechanical engineering, medical • Hot-press die
technology, and the sports industry.
• Carbon composites have a wide range of advantages • Refractory material
such as: (protection tubes and grids)
• Extremely light weight
• Long-lasting
• Heating elements
• Non-corrosive
• Multifunctional
• High stability
• High energy absorption in an accident
• Attractive looks
Biomaterials:
The material which are used for structural applications in the field of medicines are known as Biomaterials.
these materials are used to make devices to replace damaged or diseased body parts in human and
animals bodies.

• Classification • Metals and Alloys

Based in application in the field of medicine, • Metals and alloys are used as biomaterials
biomaterials are classified as due to their excellent eelctrical and thermal
conductivity and mechanical properties
[1] Metals and alloys biomaterials
• Types of biomaterials using metals and alloys
[2] ceramic biomaterials
• [1] Cobalt based alloys
[3] Polymer biomaterials
• [2] Titanium
[4] Composite biomaterials
• [3] Stainless Steel
• [4] Protosal from cast alloy
• [5] Conducting metals such as Platinum
• Metals:
• Polymers
• The metallic systems most frequently used in the body are:
• There are a large number of polymeric materials that have
• (a) Iron-base alloys of the 316L stainless steel been used as implants or part of implant systems. The
polymeric systems include acrylics, polyamides, polyesters,
(b)Titanium and titanium-base alloys, such as polyethylene, polysiloxanes, polyurethane, and a number of
• (i)Ti-6% Al-4%V, and commercially pure 98.9% reprocessed biological materials.

• (ii) Ti-Ni (55% Ni and 45% Ti) • Some of the applications include the use of membranes of
ethylene-vinyl-acetate (EVA) copolymer for controlled
(c) Cobalt base alloys of four types release and the use of poly-glycolic acid for use as a
resorbable suture material.
• (i) Cr (27-30%), Mo (5-7%), Ni (2-5%)
• Some other typical biomedical polymeric materials
• (ii) Cr (19-21%), Ni (9-11%), W (14-16%) applications include: artificial heart, kidney, liver, pancreas,
bladder, bone cement, catheters, contact lenses, cornea
• (iii) Cr (18-22%), Fe (4-6%), Ni (15-25%), W (3-4%) and eye-lens replacements, external and internal ear
repairs, heart valves, cardiac assist devices, implantable
• (iv)Cr (19-20%), Mo (9-10%), Ni (33-37%)
pumps, joint replacements, pacemaker, encapsulations,
• The most commonly used implant metals are the 316L soft-tissue replacement, artificial blood vessels, artificial
stainless steels, Ti-6%-4%V, and Cobalt base alloys of type "i" skin, and sutures.
and "ii". • As bioengineers search for designs of ever increasing
• Other metal systems being investigated include Cobalt-base capabilities to meet the needs of medical practice,
polymeric materials alone and in combination with metals
alloys of type "iii" and "iv", and Niobium and shape memory
and ceramics are becoming increasingly incorporated into
alloys, of which (Ti 45% - 55%Ni) is receiving most attention. devices used in the body.
Metals and Alloys CoCr Alloys
• Metals are used as biomaterial due to their excellent There are basically two types of cobalt-chromium alloys:
electrical and thermal conductivity and mechanical
properties. Since some electrons are independent in metals, • 1- The CoCrMo alloy [ Cr (27-30%), Mo (5-7%), Ni (2.5%)] has
they can quickly transfer an electric charge and thermal been used for many decades in dentistry, and in making artificial
energy. The mobile free electrons as the binding force to joints;
hold the positive metal ions together. This attraction is • 2- The CoNiCrMo alloy [Cr (19-21%), Ni (33-37%), and Mo (9-
strong, as evidenced by the closely-packed atomic 11%)] has been used for making the stems of prostheses for
arrangement resulting in high specific gravity and high heavily loaded joints, such as knee and hip.
melting points of most metals. Since the metallic bond id
essentially non-directional, the position of the metal ions can • The ASTM lists four types of CoCr alloys, which are
be altered without destroying the crystal structure, resulting recommended for surgical implant applications:
in a plastically deformable solid.
• 1) CoCrMo alloy [Cr (29-30%), Mo (5-7%), Ni (2.5%)];
• Some metals are used as passive substitutes for hard tissue
• 2) CoCrWNi alloy [Cr (19-21%), W (14-16%), Ni (9-11%)];
replacement such as:
• 3) CoNiCrMo alloy [Ni (33-37%), Cr (19-21%), Mo (9-11%)];
1- Total hip;
• 4) CoNiCrMoWFe alloy [Ni (15-25%), Cr (18-22%), Mo (3-4%),
2- Knee joints;
W (3-4%), Fe (4-6%)].
3- For fracture healing aids as bone plates and screws;
• The two basic elements of the CoCr alloys form a solid solution
4- Spinal fixation devices; of up to 65% Co. The molybdenum is added to produce finer
grains, which results in higher strengths after casting. The
5- Dental implants, because of their excellent mechanical chromium enhances corrosion resistance, as well as solid
properties, and corrosion resistance; solution strengthening of the alloy.
6- Vascular stents; • The CoNiCrMo alloy contains approximately 35% Co and Ni
7- Catheter guide wires. each. The alloy is highly corrosion resistant to seawater
(containing chloride ions) under stress.
 Stainless Steels

Stainless steel was first used successfully as an important material in the surgical field.
• I- Type 302 stainless steel was introduced, which is stronger and more resistant to corrosion than
the vanadium steel;
• II- Type 316 stainless steel was introduced, which contains a small percentage of molybdenum (18-
8sMo) to improve the corrosion resistance in chloride solution (salt water);
• III- Type 316L stainless steel. The carbon content was reduced from 0.08 to a maximum amount of
0.03% for better corrosion resistance to chloride solution.
• The inclusion of molybdenum enhances resistance to pitting corrosion in salt water. Even the 316L
stainless steels may corrode in the body under certain circumstances in highly stressed and
oxygen depleted region, such as the contacts under the screws of the bone fracture plate. Thus,
these stainless steels are suitable to use only in temporary implant devices, such as fracture plates,
screws, and hip nails.
 • One titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) is widely used to manufacture
Titanium and its Alloys implants.
• The main alloying elements of the alloy are Aluminum
(5.5-6.5%) and Vanadium (3.5-4.5%). The addition of
• Titanium and its alloys are getting great attention alloying elements to titanium enables it to have a wide
in both medical and dental fields because of: (a) range of properties:
Excellent biocompatibility; (b) Light weight; (c)
Excellent balance of mechanical properties; and 1- Aluminum tends to stabilize the a-phase; it increases the
(d) Excellent corrosion resistance. transformation temperature from a- to b-phase.
2- Vanadium stabilizes the b-phase by lowering the
• They are commonly used for implant devices temperature of transformation from a to b. The titanium-
replacing failed hard tissue, nickel alloys show unusual properties, that is, after it is
• for example, (1) artificial hip joints, (2) artificial deformed the material can snap back to its previous shape
following heating of the material. This phenomenon is called
knee joint, (3) bone plate, (4) dental implants, (5) (shape memory effect) SME. The equiatomic TiNi or NiTi
dental products, such as crowns, bridges and alloy (Nitinol) exhibits an exceptional SME near room
dentures, and (6) used to fix soft tissue, such as temperature: if it is plastically deformed below the
blood vessels. transformation temperature it reverts back to its original
shape as the temperature is raised.
• In the elemental form, titanium has a high melting
point (1668 o C) and possesses a hexagonal • Another unusual property is super-elasticity, As can be
closely packed structure (hcp) a up to a seen the stress does not increase with increased strain
temperature of 882.5oC. Titanium transforms into after the initial elastic stress or strain, the metal springs
back to its original shape in contrast to other metals, such
a body centered cubic structure (bcc) above this as stainless steel.
temperature.