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METHODOLOGY

This chapter highlights the methodology of research. This chapter discusses the method of research or
research design, the sampling procedure, research instrument, data gathering procedures, and statistical
treatment of data used and employed in a research study.

Methods of Research/ Research Design

This section of this chapter compromises the methods and philosophy behind the research being conducted.
This section typically contains:

a. Research design – This part answers the research paradigm of the study (positivist, interpretivist)
and its goals (explanatory, exploratory, descriptive, etc.)
b. Methods of Research – This explains the approach used in the research together with the data
gathering techniques.
c. Units of Analysis – These are the elements from which the data originated in the study. They can be
the sources, receivers, groups, or organizations in the study.

Sampling Procedure

The sampling procedure is a part of the methodology that consists of the research population and sampling
technique.

Population
These are the set of elements in the study that possesses a common characteristic defined by the sampling
technique used by the researchers. The population is composed of two (2) groups mainly: target population
and accessible population (Populations and sampling, n.d.).

1. Target Population – They are the whole group that has met the criteria in which the researcher
wants to generalize the study findings. Examples of a target population are all teenage parents,
All 3rd Year BMMA Students, and all people who experienced Dengue fever.
2. Accessible Population – These are the portion of the population in which the researchers choose
because of accessibility. Compared to the target population, they may be limited to a region,
city, or institution. Examples of these may be all teenage parents in Metro Manila, All 3 rd Year
BMMA Students of STI, and all people who experienced Dengue fever at a barangay in Antipolo.

Slovin’s Formula
𝑛= 𝑁
1 + 𝑁𝑒2
Slovin’s Formula is used in determining the sample size (n) of the population. Where N is the known
population and e being the margin of error or the confidence level. The margin of error is typically 0.05 or
95% confidence level.

Sampling Technique
There are different techniques in sampling. Here are some sampling techniques in a research (Bairagi &
Munot, 2019):

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Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is used to select samples in a fair manner. In this type of sampling, each sample gets a
fair chance of getting selected. Here are the different variants of probability sampling:
i. Simple random sampling
If a population is small, homogeneous, and easily available, this type of sampling technique is used.
In simple random sampling, once a sample is selected, it will not be included again in the sample. An
example of the use of this technique is the random selection of students studying at STI. A random
number generator technique can be used to have the selection.
ii. Systematic sampling
This sampling technique considers the target population with ordering and selects samples with
every ith intervals. It begins with a random number, and every ith is selected from the population. For
example, there are 100 students who are numbered one (1) to a hundred according to height. If we
are going to make the i=10, then, initially, people in every 10 th will be included in the list (See Figure
1). Unlike random sampling, this technique can be used when the sample size is large.

Figure 1. Systematic Sampling

iii. Stratified Sampling
In this sampling technique, the sample set constitutes distinct categories of samples. When a
population is heterogenous, this sampling technique is used. If the population is nonhomogeneous,
the sampling technique must compromise every representative of the nonhomogeneous group.
Hence, in this sampling technique, the population is split into groups called strata (See Figure 2).
Each stratum is more homogenous and exhibits the same characteristics. For example, suppose that
the population has 6,000 data items; this data will be represented by P. From this, we need to have a
sample set of 20. This number will be represented as n (n=20). Assume that there are three (3) strata
mainly S1= 3,000; S2 = 1,800; and, S3 = 1,200. From these strata, the samples that needed to be
selected in 20 were based on the sample set given.

So, the number of samples from each stratum can be taken using the equation below:

Where SSi represents the number of the ith strata selected. n is the count of the sample set, Si is the
samples existing in the ith, and P is the population.

From these, we can get:

SS1 = 20 * (3000/6000) =
10 SS2 = 20 * (1,800/6000=
6
SS3= (1,200-6,000=4)

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Figure 2. Stratified Sampling

iv. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a type of sampling technique wherein the population is grouped to form
relatively smaller groups or clusters. This sampling technique is used if the population is large
enough and its entire population can be divided into clusters.

For example, if the total population is 6,000, 120 clusters can be formed with 50 data items. From
these clusters, samples are randomly selected.

Figure 3. Cluster Sampling

v. Multistage Sampling
This sampling technique is an extended form of cluster sampling. It contains levels of sampling from
the clusters. For example, is an experiment will be performed to understand the use of social media
on teenagers in school in Metro Manila, Philippines. The initial cluster could be on the basis of the
cities within Metro Manila. From this initial cluster, each city could be selected and then from them
the schools and so on.

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Nonprobability Sampling Figure 4. Multistage Sampling

This sampling technique is not based on the probability of the sample selection. Unlike probability sampling,
where every sample has the chance of getting selected, the nonprobability technique is where the
researchers personally select the samples. It is upon the researchers’ discretion which samples to include.
This method is also known as deliberate or judgment sampling.

i. Quota Sampling
This sampling technique is somewhat related to stratified sampling. This approach works on the
selection of representatives but without probability. The population is divided into subgroups
based on the judgment of the researchers so the samples could be selected. In selection for the
quota, the researchers may be biased where known candidates are likely to be on the sample
set.

ii. Convenience Sampling

As the name suggests, this sampling technique relates to getting samples that the researcher
finds convenient. This is where researchers, at a given point of time, draw and select samples
that are readily available. The inclusion of these samples will be biased and limited. This
sampling technique lacks generalization and is preferred for pilot testing.

iii. Snowball Sampling

This type of sampling technique is used when researchers face the problem of data collection
and locating the samples. For example, if the researcher is working on a population involving
tribal people, homeless families, or such, there lies a great difficulty in reaching out and getting
data. This is where researchers generally locate several participants for the study and then rely
on the information and sources given by them to locate more participants.

Respondents

In quantitative research, respondents are the people that play a vital role in the research process. They are
groups or individuals that respond to the researcher’s questions which are typically structured and in a close-
ended format.

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Similarly, in qualitative research, they are labeled as “participants” because their roles go beyond responding
to the questions. The participants elaborate on the interviewer’s question about a certain topic to convey an
idea that provides qualitative data to the researchers (Research Design Review, 2020).

Research Instrument and Data Gathering Procedures

Data collection is the process of collecting information on selected variables in a systematic manner.
Systematic data collection enables researchers to answer relevant questions and evaluate their outcomes.
Data collection methods vary by discipline to ensure accurate and honest collection of data.

Types of Data
To decide the method of data collection, a researcher should know the types of data to reduce the likelihood
of errors in the data collection instrument. The data has been divided into two types mainly, primary and
secondary data (Bairagi & Munot, 2019).

i. Primary Data
These are data that are collected fresh from the first time. Collecting primary data can be in the
form of interviews, focus group discussions, telephone surveys, questionnaires, and so on. In
primary data, it ensures the authenticity of data in a specific nature. The information is up to
date and reliable as it aligns with the objectives of the research. However, this method of data
collection can be time-consuming and expensive.

ii. Secondary Data

These are the data that has been previously collected by someone and has been analyzed and
statistically processed. Researchers use this data to make a conclusion. These data may be
available in written, typed, or electronic forms. These data are easily accessible to the
researchers, which is sometimes outdated. It requires little to no cost in acquiring such data.
However, these data may not be authentic and reliable, and a researcher needs to verify the
data further.

Sources of Data Collection

After knowing the types of data, a researcher must determine the data collection process to ensure that the
data gathered are both systematic and accurate. Here are some sources where you can get primary data
(Bairagi & Munot, 2019).

i. Observation
Observation is a complex source of primary data in data collection. This method forces
researchers to multitask and use various techniques continuously, including the use of his/her
five (5) senses to collect data. Observation can be participant and nonparticipant based on the
participation of researchers.
 Participant: The researchers observe the actual situation, carefully putting themselves in
that situation. The results of participant observation completely depend on the talent
and skills of the researcher.
 Nonparticipant: The researchers do not take active participation in this data collection
method. The data obtained can be invalid as observed people may behave differently;
hence, this approach is often criticized.

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ii. Interviewing
This is a method of primary data collection wherein the interviewer (researcher) communicates
with the informants by asking required questions about the research topic.
 Structured: A set of questions related to the topic of the research study is prepared by
the researchers. This type of interviewing gives quantitative data and evaluates explicit
data. This method is applicable to validate the information.
 Unstructured: In this type of interview, the questions to be asked to the participants are
not prepared in advance. This method is unrehearsed and very casual, and it gives
qualitative information to the researchers.

iii. Questionnaire
These are a set of questions prepared by the researchers to ask and collect answers from the
respondents related to the topic. This can be printed or in electronic form. Questionnaires are
used to obtain statistically useful information about the given topic.

Statistical Treatment of Data

Treatment of data varies depending on the research paradigm. In quantitative research, statistical analysis is
employed in treating the data. On the other hand, qualitative research offers approaches to interpreting
qualitative data.

Statistical Analysis of Data

The body of mathematical technique used in gathering, organizing, and interpreting numerical data is
statistics. In quantitative research, statistics is a basic tool of measurement of research, and it deals with two
(2) types of statistical data application, mainly descriptive statistical analysis and inferential statistical analysis.
1. Descriptive Statistical Analysis
This type of statistical analysis deals with the numerical description of a particular group observed,
and any similarities to those outside the group cannot be taken for granted. This provides simple
concepts in statistical analysis as it summarizes information from the datasets.

Here are the most commonly used methods of descriptive statistical analysis (Singh, 2006):
 Frequency distribution
 Percentiles and percentile ranks
 Mean, median, and mode
 Dispersion standard deviation, quartile deviation, and range
 Relationship-coefficient of correlation
 Graphical representation of data-frequency using a polygon curve, histogram, ogive, and etc.

2. Inferential Statistical Analysis

This type of statistical analysis is used to compare differences between groups. It uses the data to
make an inference or draw a conclusion about the population. It also uses probability to determine
how confident the researchers if their conclusions are correct.

Here are the most commonly used methods of inferential statistical analysis (Singh, 2006):
 Chi-square testing
 Biserial and Tetrachoric
 Multiple correlations and of Bivariate and Multivariate Regression Equations

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 Factorial analysis
 Analysis of variance and co-variance

Interpretation in Qualitative Research

Interpretation is the heart of qualitative research because this type of research is more concerned with
meaning and the process of meaning-making. Researchers of the qualitative paradigm assume that people’s
actions are meaningful in some way. Here are some approaches of interpretation in qualitative research
(Willig, 2012):

 Hermeneutics of Suspicion
It is an interpretation done top-down. It is generated based on suspicion, which aims to reveal a
deeper meaning beyond the surface. This approach typically finds different types of meaning in a text
and generates different kinds of insights and is motivated by the desire to get close t the meaning of the text.
Suspicious interpretations seek to reveal hidden meaning in the text.

 Hermeneutics of Empathy
This type of interpretation focuses on the text-based on how it is presented without seeking what is
hidden. It seeks to elaborate and amplify the meanings within the text and pays attention to the
characteristics of an account and making connections between its attributes. Overall, this type of
interpretation is concerned with how something is experienced and presented.

References:
Bairagi, V., & Munot, M. V. (2019). Research methodology: A practical and scientific approach. CRC Press.
Populations and sampling. (n.d.). University of Missouri–St. Louis. Retrieved March 22, 2021, from https://www.umsl.edu/~lindquists/sample.html
Qualitative research “Participants” are not “Respondents” (& other misplaced concepts from quantitative research). (2020, June 20). Research Design
Review. Retrieved March 22, 2021, from https://researchdesignreview.com/2016/03/10/qualitative-research-participants-are-not-
respondents-other-misplaced-concepts-from-quantitative-research/
Singh, Y. K. (2006). Fundamental of research methodology and statistics. New Age International.
Willig, C. (2012). Qualitative interpretation and analysis in psychology. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).

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