TRANSDUCERS

A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical, electro-

magnetic, photonic, or photovoltaic that converts one type of energy or physical attribute to
another (generally electrical or mechanical) for various measurement purposes including
measurement or information transfer.

The term transducer is commonly used in two senses- the sensor used to detect a
parameter as a form of energy and a translator which translates that form to an easily
measurable form.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A TRANSDUCER

Main objective of a transducer is to react only for the measurement under specified limits
for which it is designed. A transducer should have the following basic requirements:
LINEARITY

Its input versus output characteristics should be linear and it should produce these
characteristics in a balanced way.
RUGGEDNESS

It should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety arrangements must be

provided with it for overload protection.
REPEATABILITY

It should be capable of reproducing the same output signal when the same input signal is
applied again and again under unchanged environmental conditions, e.g., temperature,
pressure, humidity, etc.
HIGH RELIABILITY AND STABILITY

The transducer should give minimum error in measurement for temperature variations,
vibrations and other various changes in the surroundings.
HIGH OUTPUT SIGNAL QUALITY

The quality of output signal should be good, i.e., the ratio of signal to the noise should be
high and amplitude of the output signal should be enough.
NO HYSTERESIS

It should not give any hysteresis during measurement while input signal is varied from its
low value to its high value and vice versa.
RESIDUAL REFORMATION

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 There should not be any deformation on removal of input signal for a long period of use.

ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

Electrical transducers are defined as the transducers which convert one form of energy to
electrical energy for measurement purpose. The quantities which cannot be measured directly
like pressure, displacement, temperature, etc. Are required to be sensed and changed into
electrical signal for easy measurement.

Advantages of electrical transducers are:-

 Power requirement is very low for controlling the electrical or electronic system.

 An amplifier may be used to amplify the electrical signal according to requirement.

 Friction effect is minimised

 Mass-inertia effect is also minimised, because in case of electrical or electronics

signals the inertia effect is due to the mass of electrons, which can be negligible.

 Output can be indicated and recorded remotely from the sensing element.

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

This is the most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into
electrical signal. The transformer consist of a single primary winding “P” and two secondary
windings “S1” and “S2” wound on a cylindrical former. A sinusoidal voltage of amplitude 3
to 15 volt and frequency 50 to 20,000 Hz is used to excite the primary. The two secondary’s
have equal no. of turns and are equally placed in either side of primary winding.

A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is
applied to the arm attached to the soft iron core. The core is made up of high permeability,
nickel iron. The whole assembly is placed in stainless steel housing to provide electrostatic
and electromagnetic shielding.

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 The two secondary’s are placed or connected in series to one another but in opposition
such that the output secondary voltage is E 0 = ES1 – ES2 , where ES1 and ES2 are the induced
alternating voltages of the two secondary windings S1 and S2 respectively.

OPERATION:

When the core is at the normal null position then flux linking with both the secondary
winding is equal and hence ES1 = ES2 and therefore ES1 – ES2 = 0 and hence output voltage is
zero.

Now if core is moved to the left then more flux links with the secondary S1and less with
the other winding therefore the output E S1 is greater than ES2. The magnitude of the output
voltage is thus ES1 – ES2 and in phase with the primary voltage.

Similarly when the core is moved towards the right of null position then E S2 will be more
than ES1 and the output voltage ES1 – ES2 is 180 out of phase with the primary voltage.

Therefore the amount of change in voltage in either of the secondary’s is proportional to

the amount of movement of the core. Hence, we have an indication of the linear motion of
the core. And by noticing the output voltage is increased or decreased, we can determine the
direction of motion.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LVDT

Advantages

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  Linearity is good up to 5mm of displacement.

 Output is rather high and hence immediate amplification is not required.

 Output voltage is step less and hence the resolution is very good.

 Sensitivity is high (about 40 V/mm).

 It does not load the measurand mechanically.

 Consumes low power and has low hysteresis loss.

Disadvantages

 LVDT has a large threshold.

 It is affected by stray electromagnetic field. Hence copper shielding of device is

necessary.

 The ac inputs generate noise.

 Its sensitivity becomes low at higher temperature.

 Being a first-order instrument, its dynamic response is not instantaneous.

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 STRAIN GUAGES
A strain gauge is an electrical transducer; it is used to measure the mechanical surface
tension. Strain gauge can detect and convert force of small mechanical displacement into
electrical signals. On the application of force a metal conductor is stretched or compressed,
its resistance changes owing to the fact that both length and diameter of the conductor
changes. Also, there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained
and this property of the metal is known as piezoresistive effect. Therefore resistance strain
gauges are also known as piezoresistive gauges.

Since value of resistance is R= ρ (L/A)

The change in the value of resistance by the application of force can be explained by
normal dimensional changes of elastic material. If a positive strain occurs, its longitudinal
dimension (x-direction) will increase while there will be a reduction in the lateral dimension
(y-dimension). The reverse happens for a negative strain. Now since the resistance of a
conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely to its cross sectional area, hence
the resistance changes.

TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS
Application of heat or its withdrawal from the body produces many primary effects on the
body such as:-

 Change in the physical or chemical state such as phase transition.

 Change in physical dimensions.

 Variations in its electrical properties.

 Generation of an emf at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

 Change in the intensity of emitted radiation.

Any of these effects can be used to measure the temperature of the body.

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER

Resistance temperature detectors or resistance thermometers employ a sensitive element of

extremely pure platinum, copper or nickel wire that provides a definite resistance value at
each temperature within its range. The relationship between temperature and resistance of
conductors in temperature range near 00 C can be calculated from the equation:-

Rt = Rref ( 1 + Δt )

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Where Rt= resistance of conductor at temperature t0C

Rref =resistance at reference temperature 00C

 = temperature coefficient of resistance

Δt = difference between operating and reference temperature.

Almost all conductors have positive temperature coefficient of resistance, that is,
resistance increases with an increase in temperature. But some materials such as carbon and
germanium have negative temperature coefficient of resistance that signifies that the
resistance decreases with an increase in temperature.

Type Temperature Accuracy Advantages Disadvantages

Range

Platinum -30000F to +/- 0.10F Low cost, high Relatively slow

+150000F stability response time (15
sec), not as linear as
Wide operating copper thermometers
range

Copper -32500 F to +25000 +/- 0.500F High linearity, Limited temperature

F high accuracy range to 25000F

High stability

Nickel -3200F to +15000F +/- 0.500F Longer life, high More non linear than
sensitivity, high copper, limited
temperature temperature range to
coefficient. 15000F

THERMOCOUPLE

In 1871, Thomas Seeback discovered that when two dissimilar metals comes in contact, a
voltage is generated where the voltage is a function of the temperature. The device consisting

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of two dissimilar metals are joined together is known as thermocouple and the voltage

generated is known as Seeback voltage, on the name of the discoverer.

Magnitude of this voltage depends on

i) materials used for the wires

ii) amount of temperature difference between the joined ends

For example, joining copper and constantan produces a voltage of the order of a few
milivolts with the positive potential at the copper side. An increase in temperature causes an
increase in the voltage.

There are several methods of joining two dissimilar metal :-

 one is to weld the wires together, but this process causes a brittle joints and may
fracture on application of stresses.

 Another method is by soldering the two wires together, which suffers from the
disadvantage that a third dissimilar metal is introduced.

PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

These transducers use the properties of photo emissive cells or phototube. The vacuum
photoelectric cell consist of a curved sheet of thin metal with its concave surface coated with
photo-emissive material, which forms the cathode and the rod anode mounted at the centre of
curvature of the cathode. The whole assembly ids mounted on an evacuated glass envelope.
The material, coated cathode, emits electrons when light radiation strikes them. The emitted

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electrons from the cathode are collected by the positive electrode (anode) forming an electric
current.

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 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:

The pressure or force measurement can be done by converting the applied force or
pressure into a displacement by elastic elements which acts as a primary transducer. Now this
displacement of the primary transducer, which is the function of the force, can be measured
by a secondary transducer. Mechanical devices that are used to convert applied pressure or
force to displacement are called force summing devices. Some of them are:

 Flat or corrugated diaphragms

 Pivot torque

 Straight tube

 Bellows

 Circular or twisted Bourdon tube.

Secondary transducers which are used to convert the displacement into change of some
electrical parameter are:-

 Resistive transducers

 Inductive transducers

 Capacitive transducers

 Differential transformers or LVDT

PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

When piezoelectric crystals are under the influence of some external force or pressure, they
produce an emf. The force or displacement or pressure to be measured is applied to the
crystal. The pressure is applied to the crystal through a force summing device. This cause a
deformation which produces an emf which is a function of the deformation. This output emf
may be measured to know the value of applied force and hence pressure.

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 IONISATION TRANSDUCERS

Ionisation is the process of removing an electron from an atom producing a free electron
and a positively charged ion. Ionisation may be produced by the collision of high speed
electron from the atom.

Electrons are emitted from heated cathode using a filament and are accelerated towards the
grid, which is positively charged. Some of the electrons are captured by the grid producing
grid current. Electrons having high kinetic energy pass through and cause ionization of the
gas atoms.

The positive ions so produced are attracted to the plate, which is at negative potential and a
current is produced in the plate circuit. It is found that the pressure of gas is proportional to
the ratio of plate to grid current.

OSCILLATION TRANSDUCERS

These type of transducers use force summing device to change the capacitance, C, or
inductance, L of an LC oscillation circuit. Its output frequency is affected by the change in
the inductance of the coil. The change in the inductance is caused by the force summing
device acting upon an inductive device. The output of the oscillator is the modulated output
and can be demodulated and calibrated in terms of the pressure or force applied.

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