Instrumentation and Process Control

Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 15
MECHANICAL INPUT TRANSDUCERS

15.1 Introduction

A generalized mechanical system consists of a sensing element which responds directly by reacting to the
measurand and a transducing element which is responsible for conversion of measurand into analogous driving
signal. The sensing element may also serve to transducer the measurand and put it into more convenient form.
The unit is then called as detector-transducer. Most of the detector transducer devices employ the devices such as
a diaphragm, a Bourdon tube or a bellow. All of these are the elastic elements. The action of these elements is
based on elastic deformation brought about by the force resulting from pressure.
15.2 Mechanical Elastic Elements

Mechanical detector-transducer elements are generally elastic elements. These units are frequently employed to
furnish an indication of the magnitude of applied pressure/force through a displacement measurement. Operation
of the elastic elements is based on one or the combination of following acts:
i) Compression that tends to force the molecules of the solid close together.
ii) Tension that tends to force the molecules further apart.
iii) Torsion that tends to twist the solids.

15.3 Principle of Operation of Elastic Elements

The measurement of force or pressure can be done by converting the applied force or pressure into a
displacement by elastic elements which act as primary transducer. This displacement, which is a function of
pressure, is then measured by other transducers which act as secondary transducers. The output of the secondary
transducer becomes a function of displacement, which in turn is a function of pressure. Mechanical methods are
thus used to convert the applied force or pressure into displacement. These devices are also known as Force
Summing Devices.
The mechanical elastic elements possess elasticity. When deformed, the stresses developed in the summing
device establish equilibrium with the pressure applied on it. As the pressure is removed the elastic element
regains its original position. The choice and design of the type of force summing elements depends on the
magnitude of the force or pressure to be measured.

15.4 Types of Force Summing Devices

Mechanical input transducers generally use one of the following types of force summing devices:
i) Diaphragm
ii) Bellows
iii) Bourdon tube
15.4.1 Diaphragms

The movement of diaphragm is a convenient way of sensing pressure differential. The diaphragm is a flexible
disc made up of sheet metal with precise dimensions. It could be either flat or with concentric corrugations on it.
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The edge of the diaphragm is rigidly fixed. When the unknown pressure is applied to one side of the diaphragm,
the centre of the diaphragm is displaced. This displacement which is proportional to the applied pressure is
measured. Some instruments use the diaphragm as the pressure sensor, while others use it as a basic component
of capsular element. The capsules consist of two diaphragms welded together at their peripheries. Evacuated
capsules are used for detection of absolute pressure and single element diaphragm for highly sensitive
measurement.

The sensitivity of a capsule increases in proportion to its diameter and inversely proportional to the thickness of
sheet used. Multiple capsule elements can be built from the capsules. These elements are useful in increasing the
output motion resulting from a pressure change.
The diaphragm pressure element, shown in Fig. 15.1 B, employs a thin flexible diaphragm of such material as
brass or bronze. The non-metallic-diaphragm pressure element employs a flexible diaphragm of high quality
leather or a thin neoprene-like material. ‘PEXT’ is the external pressure, ‘P REF’ is the reference pressure and ‘w’
is the deflection at the centre point of the diaphragm. The extent of this deflection depends upon the pressure
applied on the diaphragm. This deflection of the diaphragm operates an indicating or recording type instrument.
The resulting displacement of a diaphragm can be multiplied by a suitable linkage and a pointer is made to
operate over a scale. Diaphragm gauges are normally employed for low pressure or vacuums up to about 5 psi.
Differential pressure can be measured by applying the second pressure to the other side of the diaphragm and
using a sealed means of detecting the motion of diaphragm as shown in Fig.15.1 A.

Fig. 15.1 Diaphragm pressure element

15.4.2 Bellows

The bellows pressure sensor is made of a sealed chamber that has multiple ridges like the pleats of an accordion
that are compressed slightly when the sensor is manufactured. It is a thin walled tube having a corrugated shape.
When pressure is applied to the chamber, the chamber will try to expand and open the pleats. Essentially it is a
pressure activated spring. The stiffness or in other words the displacement for a particular pressure depends upon
the type and thickness of the material used. The most commonly used material for bellows pressure sensing
elements are steel, phosphor bronze and beryllium copper.
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The Fig. 15.2 shows an example of a bellows sensor, which uses a spring to oppose the movement of the bellows
and provides a means to adjust the amount of travel the chamber which it will have when pressure is applied. In
low-pressure bellows sensors, the spring is not required. The travel of the bellows can be converted to linear
motion so that a switch can be activated, or it can be connected to a potentiometer. This type of sensor is used in
low-pressure applications usually less than 30 psi. The bellows sensor is also used to make a differential pressure
sensor. In this application two bellows are mounted in one housing, so that the movement of each bellows
opposes the other. This will cause the overall travel of the pair to be equal to the difference of pressure that is
applied to them.

Fig.15.2 Schematic diagram of bellows pressure element

Generally, metallic bellows acting with pressure on one side and a spring on the other is used. The pressure
range of the system is determined mainly by the effective area of the bellows and the spring gradient. Often the
inside of the entire assembly is tinned for further protection against corrosion. Bellows gauges are generally
employed for measuring gauge pressures or vacuums up to 100 psi. Precision bellows are available with
minimum error due to drift, friction and elastic hysteresis. Sensitivity of bellows increases as a function of size.
In general, it can be said that bellows elements will deliver high forces and can detect slightly higher pressures
than the diaphragm capsules. The disadvantages of the bellows element include being subject to work hardening
a sensitive to ambient temperature variations.

15.4.3 Bourdon tube

It is most widely used force summing or pressure sensing element. The device was invented by Eugene Bourdon
in the year 1849. The basic idea behind the device is that, cross-sectional tubing when deformed in any way will
tend to regain its circular form under the action of pressure. The Bourdon pressure gauges used today have a
slight elliptical cross-section and the tube is generally bent into a Ì or C-shape or arc length of about 27 degrees.
The detailed diagram of the Bourdon tube is shown in Fig. 15.3.

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Fig. 15.3 Bourdon tube element

It consists of a narrow bore tube of elliptical cross-section Fig. 15.3 (a), sealed at one end. The pressure is
applied at the other end which is open and fixed. The tube is formed into a curve, a flat spiral or a helix. When
the pressure is applied, the effect of the forces is to straighten it so that the closed end is displaced.

A ‘Ì or C Bourdon tube’ as used in direct indicating gauge usually has an arc of 250°. The process pressure is
connected to the fixed socket end of the tube while the tip end is sealed. As the fluid pressure enters the Bourdon
tube, because of the difference between inside and outside radii, the Bourdon tube presents different areas to
pressure, which causes the tube to be reformed, and because of a free tip available, this action causes the tip to
travel in free space and the tube unwinds. The resulting tip-motion is non-linear because less motion results from
each increment of additional pressure. This non-linear motion has to be converted to linear rotational pointer
response. This travel of tip is suitably guided and amplified for the measurement of the internal pressure. But the
main requirement of the device is that whenever the same pressure is applied, the movement of the tip should be
the same and on withdrawal of the pressure the tip should return to the initial point.
Other than C-type, Bourdon gauges can also be constructed in the form of a helix or a spiral. The types are
varied for specific uses and space accommodations, for better linearity and larger sensitivity. For thorough
repeatability, the bourdon tubes materials must have good elastic or spring characteristics. The surrounding in
which the process is carried out is also important as corrosive atmosphere or fluid would require a material
which is corrosion proof. The commonly used materials are phosphor-bronze, silicon-bronze, beryllium-copper,
and other C-Cr-Ni-Mo alloys. Like all elastic elements a bourdon tube also has some hysteresis in a given
pressure cycle. By proper choice of material and its heat treatment, this may be kept to within 0.1 and 0.5
percent of the maximum pressure cycle.

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Fig. 15.4 Helical bourdon element
Figure 15.4 shows the construction of a helical Bourdon element. This sensor produces a greater motion of the
free end eliminating the need for amplification. Other advantages of this design include the high over range
protection available, for example, a 0 to 1000 psig element man safely be exposed to 10,000 psig pressure and it
suitable for pressure measurement on continuously fluctuating services. Helical elements can also be used as the
element in differential pressure sensors if one of the pressures is acting on the outside surface and the other on
the inside of the coil.
The displacement created by the action of the elastic deformation element may also be converted into a change
of some electric parameter. The force summing member actuates a transducer which converts the displacement
into an output of electrical format. The resistive and inductive transducers have been successfully used as
secondary transducers along with a diaphragm for measurement of pressure. Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT) is used as a secondary transducer for measurement of pressure with bellows or Bourdon
tube acting as a primary transducer. The pressure is converted into displacement which is sensed by LVDT and
transduced into a voltage.

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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 16
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS: RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS

16.1 Introduction

The electrical measurements are used for measurement of electrical quantities but its use in measurement of non
electrical quantities is growing. In the measurement of non electrical quantities a detector is used which usually
converts the physical quantity in displacement. The displacement actuates an electric transducer, gives an output
which is electrical in nature. The electrical quantity so produced is measured by standard methods used for
electrical measurements. The resultant electrical output gives the magnitude of the physical quantity being
measured. The advantages and limitations of electric measurements have been presented in Lesson 3.
The electrical signal could be a voltage, current or frequency. The production of these signals is based upon the
resistive, inductive or capacitive effects. These phenomena may be combined with appropriate primary sensing
elements / detectors to produce different types of transducers.

16.2 Resistive Transducers

The resistive transducers or resistive sensors are also called as variable resistance transducers. The variable
resistance transducers are one of the most commonly used types of transducers. They can be used for measuring
various physical quantities, such as, temperature, pressure, displacement, force, vibrations etc. These transducers
are usually used as the secondary transducers, where the output from the primary mechanical transducer acts as
the input for the variable resistance transducer. The output obtained from it is calibrated against the input
quantity and it directly gives the value of the input.

The variable resistance transducer elements work on the principle that the resistance of the conductor is directly
proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor.

Fig. 16.1 Resistance element

Thus, if ‘L’ is the length of the conductor (m) and ‘A’ is its area (m2) as shown in Fig.16.1, then its resistance
‘R’ (ohms) is given by:
R = ρL/A
Where ‘ρ’ is called as resistivity of the material measured in ‘ohm-m’ and it is constant for the given material.
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Some of the popular variable resistance transducers that are being used for various applications are as below:

16.2.1 Sliding contact devices

In the sliding contact type of variable resistance transducers, there is a long conductor whose effective length is
variable. One end of the conductor is fixed, while the position of the other end is decided by the slider or the
brush that can move along the whole length of the conductor. The slider is connected to the body whose
displacement is to be measured. When the body moves the slider also moves along the conductor so its effective
length changes, due to which it resistance also changes. The effective resistance is measured as the resistance
between the fixed position of the conductor and the position of the sliding contact as shown in Fig. 16.2. The
value of the resistance is calibrated against the input quantity, whose value can be measured directly. One of
most popular sliding contact type of variable resistance transducer is the potentiometer. These devices can be
used to measured translational as well as angular displacement and are shown in Fig 16.2 and 16.3.

Fig. 16.2 Sliding contact type of variable resistance element

Fig. 16.3 Rotational potentiometer

16.2.2 Wire resistance strain gauge

The strain gauge is a fine wire which changes its electric resistance, when mechanically strained. When an
electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently
deform, it will become narrower and longer, changes that increase its electrical resistance end-to-end.
Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten in size, the
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changes that decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end. A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive
strip, as shown in Fig. 16.3 (a), made in a zigzag pattern of parallel lines such that a small amount of stress in the
direction of the orientation of the parallel lines results in a multiplicatively larger strain over the effective length
of the conductor Fig. 16.3 (b). The change in resistance of a strain gauge can be measured using a Wheatstone
bridge.

Fig. 16.3 Working principle of strain gauge

A fundamental parameter of the strain gage is its sensitivity to strain. It is expressed quantitatively as the gauge
factor (GF). Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to the fractional
change in length (strain). The gage factor for metallic strain gages is typically around 2.

Where:
ΔR = change in resistance caused by strain
RG = resistance of the undeformed gauge

ε = strain
The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide choice of shapes and sizes to suit a variety of
applications. They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing material. They operate on

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the principle that as the foil is subjected to stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a defined way. Foil gauges
typically have active areas of about 2–10 mm2 in size. With careful installation, the correct gauge, and the
correct adhesive, strains up to at least 10% can be measured. The strain gauge has been in use for many years
and is the fundamental sensing element for many types of sensors, including pressure sensors, load cells, torque
sensors, position sensors, etc.

16.2.3 Thermistor
Thermistor works on the principle that resistance of some materials changes with the change in their
temperature. When the temperature of the material changes, its resistance changes and it can be measured easily
and calibrated against the input quantity. Thermistor has high negative temperature correlation. The commonly
used thermistors are made up of the ceramic like semiconducting materials such as oxides of manganese, nickel
and cobalt. Thermistor can be used for the measurement of temperature, as electric power sensing devices and
also as the controls for various processes. Thermistors are discussed in detail in Lesson 21.

16.2.4 Resistance temperature detector

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), commonly referred to generally as resistance thermometers, is a
temperature sensor which measures temperature using the principle that the resistance of a metal changes with
temperature. RTDs work on a basic correlation between metals and temperature. As the temperature of a metal
increases, it’s resistance to the flow of electricity increases. An electrical current is transmitted through a piece
of metal, that is, the RTD element or resistor located in proximity to the area where temperature is to be
measured. The resistance value of the RTD element is then measured by an instrument. This resistance value is
then correlated to temperature based upon the known resistance – temperature characteristics of the RTD
element. Thermistors have been discussed in detail in Lesson 20.

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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 17
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS: CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS

17.1 Capacitive Transducers

A capacitor consists of two conductors (plates) that are electrically isolated from one another by a nonconductor
(dielectric). When the two conductors are at different potentials (voltages), the system is capable of storing an
electric charge. The storage capability of a capacitor is measured in farads.The principle of operation of
capacitive transducers is based upon the equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor as shown in
Fig.17.1

Where, A = Overlapping area of plates; m2,

d = Distance between two plates; m,
e = Permittivity (dielectric constant); F/m.

Fig.17.1 Parallel plate capacitor

The capacitance is measured with a bridge circuits. The output impedance ‘Z’ of a capacitive transducer is:

Z = 1/2πfC
Where: Z = Impedance
f = frequency, 50 Hz.
C = capacitance
In general, the output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high. This fact calls for a careful design of the
output circuitry. The capacitive transducers work on the principle of change in capacitance of the capacitor. This
change in capacitance could be caused by change in overlapping area ‘A’ of the plates, change in the distance ‘d’
between the plates and change in dielectric constant ‘ e’.

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In most of the cases the above changes are caused by the physical variables, such as, displacement, force or
pressure. Variation in capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the plates changes, as in the
case of measurement of liquid or gas levels. Therefore, the capacitive transducers are commonly used for
measurement of linear displacement, by employing the following effects as shown in Fig. 17.2 and 17.3.

i) Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.

ii) Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
iii) Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates

Fig. 17.2 Variable capacitive transducer varies; (a) area of overlap, (b) distance between plates, (c)
amount of dielectric between plates

Fig. 17.3 Differential capacitive transducer varies capacitance ratio by changing: (a) area of overlap, (b)
distance between plates, (c) dielectric between plates
As may be seen in Fig.17.3, all of the differential devices have three wire connections rather than two: one wire
for each of the ‘end’ plates and one for the ‘common’ plate. As the capacitance between one of the ‘end’ plates
and the ‘common’ plate changes, the capacitance between the other ‘end’ plate and the ‘common’ plate also
changes in the opposite direction.

a) Transducers Using Change in Area of Plates

Examining the equation for capacitance, it is found that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area, A of
the plates. Thus, the capacitance changes linearly with change in area of plates. Hence this type of capacitive
transducer is useful for measurement of moderate to large displacements say from 1 mm to several cm. The area
changes linearly with displacement and also the capacitance.
For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is:

Where, l = length of overlapping part of plates; m, and

w = width of overlapping part of plates; m.

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The sensitivity is constant and therefore there is linear relationship between capacitance and displacement.
This type of a capacitive transducer is suitable for measurement of linear displacement ranging from 1 to 10 cm.
The accuracy is as high as 0.005%.

b) Transducers Using Change in Distance between Plates

Fig. 17.2(b) shows the basic form of a capacitive transducer employing change in distance between the two
plates to cause the change in capacitance. One plate is fixed and the displacement to be measured is applied to
the other plate which is movable. Since, the capacitance, C, varies inversely as the distance d, between the plates
the response of this transducer is not linear. Thus this transducer is useful only for measurement of extremely
small displacements.

Thus the sensitivity of this type of transducer is not constant but varies over the range of the transducer. The
relationship between variations of capacitance with variation of distance between plates is hyperbolic and is only
approximately linear over a small range of displacement. The linearity can be closely approximated by use of a
piece of dielectric material like mica having a high dielectric constant, such as, a thin piece of mica.

c) Transducers Using Change in dielectric constant between Plates

If the area (A) of and the distance (d) between the plates of a capacitor remain constant, capacitance will vary
only as a function of the dielectric constant (e) of the substance filling the gap between the plates. If the space
between the plates of a capacitor is filled with an insulator, the capacitance of the capacitor will change
compared to the situation in which there is vacuum between the plates. The change in the capacitance is caused
by a change in the electric field between the plates.
The value of dielectric constant is initially set by design in the choice of dielectric material used to make the
capacitor. Many factors will cause the ‘e’ to change, and this change in ‘e’will vary for different materials. The
major factors that will cause a change in ‘e’ are moisture, voltage, frequency, and temperature. The dielectric
constant of a process material can change due to variations in temperature, moisture, humidity, material bulk
density, and particle size etc. The ‘e’ in the basic formula is the effective dielectric constant of the total ‘space’
between the electrodes. This space may consist of the dielectric material, air, and even moisture, if present. The
figure 17.4 shows that how in a capacitor the position of the dielectric is varied to vary the capacitance. Physical
variables, such as, displacement, force or pressure can cause the movement of dielectric material in the capacitor
plates, resulting in changes in the effective dielectric constant, which in turn will change the capacitance.

Fig.17.4 Change in capacitance due to movement of dielectric between plates

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The major advantages of capacitive transducers are that they require extremely small forces to operate them and
hence are very useful for use in small systems. They are extremely sensitive and require small power to operate
them. Owing to their good frequency response they are very useful for dynamic studies.
The disadvantages of capacitive transducers include their non-linear behaviour on account of edge effects and
the effects of stray capacitances especially when the transducers have a low value of capacitance. Therefore
guard rings must be used to eliminate this effect. The metallic parts of the capacitive transducers must be
insulated from each other. In order to reduce the effects of stray capacitances, the frames must be earthed.
Capacitive transducers can be used for measurement of both linear and angular displacements. The capacitive
transducers are highly sensitive and can be used for measurement of extremely small displacements down to the
order of molecular dimensions, i.e., 0.1x10-6 mm. On the other hand, they can be used for measurement of large
displacements up to about 30 m as in aeroplane altimeters. The change in area method is used for measurement
of displacements ranging from 10 to 100 mm. Capacitive transducers can be used for the measurement of force
and pressure. The force and pressure to be measured are first converted to displacement which causes a change
of capacitance. Capacitive transducers can also be used directly as pressure transducers in all those cases where
the dielectric constant of a medium changes with pressure. They can be used for measurement of humidity in
gases and moisture content in soil / food products etc.

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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 18
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS: INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCRES

18.1 Inductance

Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store energy in a magnetic field. Inductors generate an opposing
voltage proportional to the rate of change in current in a circuit. Inductance is caused by the magnetic field
generated by electric currents. It is typified by the behavior of a coil of wire in resisting any change of electric
current through the coil. Arising from Faraday’s law, the inductance L may be defined in terms of the emf
generated to oppose a given change in current. The quantitative definition of the self inductance L of an
electrical circuit in SI units (Webbers per ampere, known as henries) is:

Where:
v = voltage in volts
i = current in amperes.

This property can be of two types, the self inductance and the mutual inductance. Self-inductance, or simply
inductance, is the property of a circuit whereby a change in current causes a change in voltage in the same
circuit. When one circuit induces current flow in a second nearby circuit, it is known as mutual-inductance. The
self-inductance, L, of a circuit component determines the magnitude of the electromagnetic force (emf) induced
in it as a result of a given rate of change of the current through the component. Similarly, the mutual inductance,
M, of two components, one in each of two separate but closely located circuits, determines the emf that each
may induce in the other for a given current change. The phenomenon of mutual induction is used as the
mechanism by which transformer work.

The schematic symbol of inductance and the air-coiled solenoid producing self inductance is shown in Fig. 18.1.
Solenoid is a long straight coil of wire and can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to
that of a bar magnet. The magnetic field can be greatly strengthened by the addition of an iron core. Such cores
are typical in electromagnets. Solenoids have enormous number of practical applications.

Fig. 18.1 Self-inductance

The emf induced in a coil can be given by the following expression

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Where;

N= Number of turns in the coil

Φ = BA = magnetic flux
B = external magnetic field
A = area of coil
The mutual inductance, M, is a measure of the coupling between two inductors. The mutual inductance due the
voltage induced in coil 2 due to the current in coil 1 has the following relationship:

M21 = -N1N2P21

Where:

M21 = mutual inductance

N1 = number of turns in coil 1,
N2 = number of turns in coil 2,
P21 = permeance of the space occupied by the flux.

The circuit diagram representation of mutually coupled inductors is shown in Fig. 18.2. The two vertical lines
between the inductors indicate a solid core that the wires of the inductor are wrapped around. "n:m" shows the
ratio between the number of windings of the left inductor to windings of the right inductor.

Fig. 18.2 Mutual-inductance

18.2 Inductive Transducers

The inductive transducers work on the principle of the electromagnetic induction. Just as the resistance of the
electric conductor depends on number of factors, the induction of the magnetic material depends on a number of
variables like the number of turns of the coil on the material, the size of the magnetic material, and the
permeability of the flux path. In the inductive transducers the magnetic materials are used in the flux path and
there are one or more air gaps. The change in the air gap also results in change in the inductance of the circuit
and in most of the inductive transducers it is used for the working of the instrument.

There are two common type inductive transducers: simple inductance type and two-coil mutual inductance type.
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18.2.1 Simple inductance type inductive transducers
In the simple inductance type of the inductive transducers simple single coil is used as the transducer. When the
mechanical element whose displacement is to be measured is moved, it changes the permeance of the flux path
generated by the circuit, which changes the inductance of the circuit and the corresponding output. The output
from the circuit is calibrated directly against the value of the input, thus it directly gives the valve of the
parameter to be measured. Fig. 18.3 shows the single coil inductive circuit. Here the magnetic material is
connected to the electric circuit and it is excited by the alternating current. At the bottom there is another
magnetic material that acts as the armature. As the armature is moved, the air gap between the two magnetic
material changes and the permeance of the flux generated by the circuit changes that changes the inductance of
the circuit and its output. The output meter directly gives the valve of the input mechanical quantity. This type of
transducer can be used in a filpack machine to count the number of packets filled with milk.

Fig. 18.3 Single coil inductive circuit

Fig. 18.4 Hollow Coil inductive circuit

In the Fig. 18.4, coil is wound around the round hollow magnetic material and there is magnetic core that moves
inside hollow magnetic material. In the above circuits the change in the air gap or the change in the amount of
the magnetic material in the circuit can be used to produce the output proportional to the input. In the above
arrangements the supply of the current and the output is obtained from the same coil or circuit.
18.2.2 Two-coil mutual inductance type inductive transducer
In the two coil arrangement there are two different coils. In the first coil the excitation is generated by external
source of the power and in the second coil the output is obtained. The output is proportional to the mechanical
input. As shown in the figure 18.5 below, A is the excitation coil and B is the output coil. The inductance of the
output coil changes due to change in position of the armature which is connected to the mechanical element

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whose motion is to be measured. As the armature position changes, the air gap between the fixed magnetic
material and the armature changes.

Fig. 18.5 Two-Coil mutual inductance type inductive transducer

18.3 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is the most widely used inductive transducer to translate
linear motion into electrical signal.
18.3.1 Construction
A differential transformer consists of a primary winding and two secondary windings. The windings are
arranged concentrically and next to each other. They are wound over a hollow bobbin which is usually of a non-
magnetic and insulating material. A ferro-magnetic core (armature) in the shape of a rod of cylinder is attached
to the transducer’s sensing shaft. The core slides freely within the hollow portion of the bobbin. In the simplex
winding configuration, the linear variable displacement transformer LVDT is shown in Fig.18.6. There is one
primary and two secondary windings. The secondaries are connected so their outputs are opposite. If an AC
excitation is applied across the primary winding then voltages are induced in the secondaries. A movable core
varies the coupling between it and the two secondary windings. When the core is in the centre position, the
coupling to the secondary coils is equal. As the core moves away from the centre position, the coupling to one
secondary becomes more and hence its output voltage increases, while the coupling and the output voltage of the
other secondary decreases.

Fig. 18.6 Linear variable differential transformer

18.3.2 Working principle
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Any physical displacement of the core causes the voltage of one secondary winding to increase while
simultaneously, reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding. The difference of the two voltages appears
across the output terminals of the transducer and gives a measure of the physical position of the core and hence
the displacement.
When the core is in the neutral or zero position, voltages induced in the secondary windings are equal and
opposite and cancel out. The net output is negligible. As the core is moved in one direction from the null
position, then there will be more voltage in one secondary than the other. The voltages will not cancel out and
there will be an AC signal at the output proportional to the distance the core has moved. The differential voltage,
i.e., the difference of the secondary voltages, will increase while maintaining an in-phase relationship with the
voltage from the input source. In the other direction from the null position, the differential voltage will again
increase, but will be 180°C out of phase with the voltage from the input source. Using a phase detector circuit it
is also possible to indicate the direction the core has moved. By comparing the magnitude and phase of the
output (differential) voltage with the input source, the amount and direction of movement of the core and hence
of displacement may be determined. Variation of output voltage with core position is shown in Fig.18.7.

Fig. 18.7 Variation of output voltage in LVDT with core position

The output voltage of these transducers is practically linear for displacement up to 5 mm. The transducer has
infinite resolution and a high sensitivity. It is simple, light in weight, and easy to align and maintain. These
transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of shock and vibration without any adverse effects. In addition to
this they have low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under all conditions.

The disadvantages of LVDT include their relatively large displacements are requirement for appreciable
differential output. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but this can be overcome by providing appropriate
shielding. Temperature affects the performance of the transducer.

18.3.3 Numerical
1. The output of an LVDT is connected to a 10 V voltmeter through an amplifier with a gain of 250. The
voltmeter scale has 100 divisions and the scale can be read up to 1/5th of a division. An output of 2 mV appears
across the terminals of the LVDT, when core is displaced through a 0.5 mm. Determine the following:

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i) Sensitivity of the measuring system
ii) Resolution of instrument
Solution

Given that
The output voltage of LVDT: V0 = 2 mV

Displacement = 0.5 mm

Sensitivity of LVDT = Sensitivity of the measuring system = Amplification factor x Sensitivity of

LVDT
= 250 x 4 mV/mm = 1000 mV/mm or 1 V/mm.

Full-scale of voltmeter = 0 – 10 V
No. of divisions on voltmeter scale = 100
1 Scale division = 10 / 100 = 0.10 V or 100 mV

Minimum voltage that can be read on voltmeter =

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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 19
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE – I

19.1 Introduction

Pressure measurement is one of the most common of all measurements made on systems. Pressure along with
flow measurements is extensively used in industry, laboratories and many other fields for a wide variety of
reasons. Pressure measurements are concerned not only with determination of force per unit area but are also
involved in many liquid level, density, flow and temperature measurements.

19.2 Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a fluid on the surface of the container. Pressure measurements, are
usually made relative to some reference. Everyday pressure measurements, such as, the pressure in a car tire, are
usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to
some other ad hoc reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:

i) Atmospheric pressure

The pressure due to air surrounding the earth’s surface is called as atmospheric pressure.
ii) Absolute pressure

It is known that pressure is force per unit area when the interaction of fluid particles among themselves is zero, a
zero pressure intensity will occur. This is possible only when the population of molecules is negligibly small
which means perfect vacuum. Hence the pressure intensity measured from a state of prefect vacuum is called as
absolute pressure. So it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure

iii) Gauge Pressure

A pressure measuring instrument generally measures the difference between the unknown pressure (P) and the
atmospheric pressure (Pata). When the unknown pressure (P) is greater than the atmospheric pressure (Patm), the
pressure measured by the instrument is called as the gauge pressure. In Gauge pressure is zero referenced against
ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually
omitted.
iv) Vacuum pressure

A Pressure measuring instrument generally measures the difference between the unknown pressure (P) and the
atmospheric pressure (Patm). When the atmospheric pressure (Patm) is greater than the unknown pressure (P), the
pressure measured by the instrument is called as the vacuum pressure

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Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and weather. If the
absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure
changes. Use of the atmosphere as reference is usually signified by a (g) after the pressure unit e.g. 30 psi g,
which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric pressure.
Following table presents various units of pressure measurement and their equivalents to each other:

Table 19.1

v) Static and Dynamic Pressure

Static pressure is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are independent of direction in an
immovable (static) fluid. Flow, however, applies additional pressure on surfaces perpendicular to the flow
direction, while having little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow direction. This directional component of

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pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is called dynamic pressure. An instrument facing the flow direction
measures the sum of the static and dynamic pressures; this measurement is called the total pressure or stagnation
pressure. Since dynamic pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is neither gauge nor absolute; it is a
differential pressure. While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe
walls, dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be measured by
taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow. Pitot-static tubes, for
example perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed. The presence of the measuring
instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence, so its shape is critical to accuracy and the
calibration curves are often non-linear.
In processing industries the measurement of pressure is required to maintain safe operating conditions, to help
control a process and to provide test data. In industrial applications the pressure is usually measured by means of
indicating gauges or recorders. These instruments could be mechanical, electro-mechanical or electronic in
operation. The mechanical instruments include those instruments in which pressure measurement is made by
balancing unknown force with a known force and those instruments which employ quantitative deformation of
air elastic member for pressure measurement. The electro-mechanical instruments usually employ a mechanical
means for detecting the pressure and the electrical means for indicating or recording the detected pressure. The
electronic pressure measuring instruments normally depend upon some physical change that can be detected and
indicated or recorded electronically. In this text, the description will be limited only to the elastic deformation
elements and transducers employed in mechanical or electro-mechanical measurement of pressure.

19.3 Measurement of Pressure

Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with different advantages and disadvantages.
Pressure range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders of magnitude from one
instrument design to the next. The oldest type is the liquid column (a vertical tube filled with mercury)
manometer. Following table gives the instruments which are used in various situations:

Table 19.2

Type of pressure to be measured Pressure Measuring instrument to be used

Low pressure Manometer
High and medium pressure Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
Diaphragm gauge.
Bellows Gauges.
Low vacuum and ultra high vacuum McLeod vacuum gauge
Thermal conductivity gauges.
Ionisation gauges.
Very high pressures Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
Diaphragm gauge.
Bulk modulus pressure gauge.

19.4 Manometer Gauges

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The difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is proportional to the pressure difference. Liquid
column gauges consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures.
The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends
of the tube. A very simple version is a U-shaped tube manometer (Fig. 18.1) is half-full of liquid, one side of
which is connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure, which could be the atmospheric
pressure or a vacuum, is applied to the other. The difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure.

Fig. 19.1 U-Shaped tube manometer

The pressure (P) exerted by a column of fluid of height h and density ρ is given by the hydrostatic pressure
equation
P = hgρ.
Therefore the pressure difference between the applied pressure Pa and the reference pressure P0 in a U-tube
manometer can be found by solving
Pa − P0 = hgρ.
In other words, since the liquid is static, the pressure on either end of the liquid shown in the figure 19.1 must be
balanced and so
Pa = P0 + hgρ.
If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height
between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is
desired.

Although any fluid can be used in the manometer, mercury is preferred for its high density (13.534 g/cm3) and
low vapour pressure. For low pressure differences well above the vapour pressure of water, water is commonly
used and “mm or inches of water" is a common pressure unit. Liquid-column pressure gauges are independent of
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the type of gas being measured and have a highly linear calibration. However, they have poor dynamic response.
When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if its vapor pressure is
too high. When measuring liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent
them from mixing. This may not be required when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure
differential pressure of a fluid such as water. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a
few Torr (a few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres. (Approximately 1,000,000 Pa)

A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-tube and has a scale
beside the narrower column. The column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement.
Based on the use and structure following type of manometers are used
1. Simple Manometer
2. Micro manometer
3. Differential manometer
4. Inverted differential manometer

19.5 Bourdon Tube

It is most widely used as a pressure sensing element. It consists of a narrow bore tube of elliptical cross-section,
sealed at one end. The pressure is applied at the other end which is open and fixed. The tube is formed into a
curve, a flat spiral or a helix. When the pressure is applied, the effect of the forces is to straighten it so that the
closed end is displaced. Fig.19.2 illustrates a C bourdon tube as used in direct indicating gauge which usually
has an arc of 250°. The process pressure is connected to the fixed socket end of the tube while the tip end is
sealed. Because of the difference between inside and outside radii, the bourdon tube presents different areas to
pressure, which causes the tube to tend to straighten when pressure is applied. The resulting tip-motion is non-
linear because less motion results from each increment of additional pressure. This non-linear motion has to be
converted to linear rotational pointer response. This is done mechanically by means of a geared sector and pinion
movement as shown in figure. The tip motion is transferred to the tail of the movement sector by the connector
link. The angle between the connecting link and the sector tail is called the ‘travelling angle’. This angle changes
with tip movement in a non-linear fashion and so the movement of the pinion and, therefore, pointer is linear.

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Fig. 19.2 Bourdon pressure gauge
Frequently used bourdon tube materials include bronze, alloy and stainless steel. These elements are not ideally
suited for low pressure, vacuum or compound measurements because the spring gradient of bourdon tube is too
low.
The advantages of Bourdon tube pressure gauges are that they give accurate results. Bourdon tubes are simple in
construction and their cost is low. They can be modified to give electrical outputs. They are safe even for high
pressure measurement and the accuracy is high especially at high pressures. The Bourdon gauge coupled with a
S.S, capsule type sensing bulb is used in milk homogenizer.
The Bourdon tube pressure gauges have some limitations also. They respond slowly to changes in pressure.
They are subjected to hysteresis and are sensitive to shocks and vibrations. As the displacement of the free end
of the bourdon tube is low, it requires amplification. More over, they cannot be used for precision measurement.
19.6 Elastic Diaphragm Gauges
As already discussed that when an elastic transducer, such as diaphragm, is subjected to a pressure, it deflects.
This deflection is proportional to the applied pressure when calibrated. Elastic diaphragm gauges are built on
this principle. The main part of the diaphragm gauge is a thin circular plate which is firmly fixed around its
edges. The diaphragm may either be flat, dish, corrugated or corrugated as shown in Fig 19.3.

Fig. 19.3 Diaphragm elements

The top portion of the diaphragm is fixed with a bourdon tube of negligible weight. This bourdon tube is in-turn
connected to a link – sector – pinion arrangement using mechanical means for displacement magnification. A
pointer is connected to the pinion which makes it sweep over a pressure calibrated scale. The bottom side of the
diaphragm is exposed to the pressure which is to be measured. Due to the applied pressure, the diaphragm
deforms. That is the diaphragm tends to move upwards. This deformation of the diaphragm is proportional to the
applied pressure. In a mechanical system, this deformation is magnified by the link – sector – pinion
arrangement. That is, the linear displacement of the diaphragm is converted to a magnified rotary motion of the
pinion. When the pinion rotates, it makes the pointer attached to it to assume a new position on the pressure
calibrated scale which becomes a measure of the applied pressure. As the top side of the diaphragm is usually
subjected to the atmospheric pressure, generally less than the applied pressure, the elastic diaphragm gauges
usually read gauge pressure.

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Fig. 19.4 Elastic diaphragm gauges

If the displacement is sensed by a secondary transducer such as a parallel plate capacitor, its movable plate is
connected to the external circuit. In such arrangement the movable plate moves upwards, thus reducing the gap
between the plates. This makes the capacitance of the capacitor becomes a measure of the applied pressure.
Elastic diaphragm gauges are they are used to measure medium pressure. But they can also be used to measure
low pressures including vacuum. They are used to measure draft in chimneys of boilers and as level gauges for
milk in silos, which are fitted at floor level.

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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 20
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE – II

20.1 Dead Weight Tester

The dead weight tester is basically a pressure producing and pressure measuring device. It is used to calibrate
pressure gauges. The dead weight tester apparatus consists of a piston – cylinder combination fitted above the
chamber as shown in Fig. 20.1.The chamber below the cylinder is filled with oil. The top portion of the piston is
attached with a platform to carry weights. A plunger with a handle is provided to vary the pressure of oil in the
chamber. The pressure gauge to be tested is fitted at an appropriate place as shown in the Fig. 20.1.

Fig. 20.1 Dead weight tester

To calibrate a pressure gauge, an accurately known sample of pressure is introduced to the gauge under test and
then the response of the gauge is observed. In order to create this accurately known pressure, the valve of the
apparatus is closed and a known weight is placed on the platform above the piston. By operating the plunger,
fluid pressure is applied to the other side of the piston until the force developed is enough to lift the piston-
weight combination. When this happens, the piston weight combination floats freely within the cylinder between
limit stops. In this condition of equilibrium, the pressure force of fluid is balanced against the gravitational force
of the weights plus the friction drag on the piston. The pressure which is caused due to the weights placed on the
platform is calculated using the area of the piston. Now the pressure gauge to be calibrated is fitted at an
appropriate place on the dead weight tester. Now the valve in the apparatus is opened so that the fluid pressure P
is transmitted to the gauge, which makes the gauge indicate a pressure value. This pressure value shown by the
gauge should be equal to the known input pressure P. If the gauge indicates some other value then the gauge is
calibrated, adjusting the pressure on the gauge so that it reads a value equal to input pressure. Gauge tester is
used to calibrate all kinds of pressure gauges and a wide range of pressure measuring devices. It is simple in
construction and easy to use.
20.2 McLeod Vacuum Gauge

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The McLeod Gauge is used to measure vacuum pressure. It also serves as a reference standard to calibrate other
low pressure gauges. The components of McLeod gauge include a reference column with reference capillary
tube. The reference capillary tube has a point called zero reference point. This reference column is connected to
a bulb and measuring capillary and the place of connection of the bulb with reference column is called as cut off
point. It is called so because if the mercury level is raised above this point, it will cut off the entry of the applied
pressure to the bulb and measuring capillary. Below the reference column and the bulb, there is a mercury
reservoir operated by a piston.

Fig. 20.2 McLeod vacuum gauge

The pressure to be measured (P1) is applied to the top of the reference column of the McLeod Gauge as shown
in Fig. 20.2. The mercury level in the gauge is raised by operating the piston to fill the volume as shown by the
dark shade in the diagram. When the applied pressure fills the bulb and the capillary, again the piston is operated
so that the mercury level in the gauge increases. When the mercury level reaches the cut-off point, a known
volume of gas (V1) is trapped in the bulb and measuring capillary tube. The mercury level is further raised by
operating the piston so the trapped gas in the bulb and measuring capillary tube is compressed. This is done until
the mercury level reaches the “Zero reference Point” marked on the reference capillary. In this condition, the
volume of the gas in the measuring capillary tube is read directly by a scale besides it. That is, the difference in
height ‘H’ of the measuring capillary and the reference capillary becomes a measure of the volume (V2) and
pressure (P2) of the trapped gas. Now as V1, V2, and P2 are known, the applied pressure P1 can be calculated
using Boyle’s Law given by:

P1V1 = P2 V2

The working of McLeod Gauge is independent of the gas composition. A linear relationship exists between the
applied pressure and height and there is no need to apply corrections to the readings. The limitations are that the
gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey the Boyle’s law and the presence of vapours in the gauge
affects the performance.

20.3 Pirani Gauge

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The Pirani gauge consists of a metal wire open to the pressure being measured. The wire is heated by a current
flowing through it and cooled by the gas surrounding it. If the gas pressure is reduced, the cooling effect will
decrease; hence the equilibrium temperature of the wire will increase. The resistance of the wire is a function of
its temperature and by measuring the voltage across the wire and the current flowing through it, the resistance
can be determined and so the gas pressure is evaluated.

Fig. 20.3 Pirani gauge

Fig. 20.3 shows a Pirani gauge withtwo platinum alloy filaments which act as resistances in two arms of a
Wheatstone bridge. One filament is the reference filament and the other is the measurement filament. The
reference filament is immersed in a fixed-gas pressure, while the measurement filament is exposed to the system
gas. A current through the bridge heats both filaments. Gas molecules hit the heated filaments and conduct away
some of the heat. If the gas pressure around the measurement filament is not identical to that around the
reference filament, the bridge is unbalanced and the degree of unbalance is a measure of the pressure. The
unbalance is adjusted and the current needed to bring about balance is used as a measure of the pressure.

20.4 Ionization Gauge

These gauges are the most sensitive gauges for measuring very low pressures or high vacuum. The principle of
operation of these gauges sensing pressure of gas by measuring the electrical ions produced when the gas is
bombarded with electrons. Fewer ions will be produced by lower density gases. The electrons are generated by
thermo ionic emission. These electrons collide with gas atoms and generate positive ions. The ions are attracted
to a suitably biased electrode known as the collector. The current in the collector is proportional to the rate of
ionization, which is a function of the pressure in the system. Hence, measuring the collector current gives the gas
pressure.

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Fig. 20.4 Hot filament ionization gauge

The ionization gauges are of two types, the hot cathode ionization gauges and the cold cathode ionization
gauges. In hot cathode (Fig. 20.4) version an electrically heated filament produces an electron beam. The
electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions are collected at a
negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the pressure in the gauge. The
working of cold cathode gauge is also same with the only difference in the production of electrons which are
produced in the discharge of a high voltage.
20.5 Thermal Conductivity Vacuum Gauge
The thermal conductivity vacuum gauge works on the principle that at low pressure the thermal conductivity of a
gas is a function of pressure. The Fig. 20.5 shows the basic elements of a thermocouple vacuum gauge. It
consists of a linear element which is heated by a known current source and is contact with a thermocouple
attached to its centre. The heater element together with the thermocouple is enclosed in a glass enclosure. The
vacuum system to be evaluated is connected to this enclosure. The heater element is supplied with a constant
electrical energy. The temperature of the heating element is a function of heat loss to the surrounding gas, which
in turn is a function of thermal conductivity of gas that is dependent on the pressure of the gas. The temperature
is measured by the thermocouple and is calibrated to read the pressure of the gas.

Fig. 20.5 Thermal conductivity vacuum gauge

This gauge is inexpensive and rugged in construction. It provides a convenient and continuous reading with a
possibility of remote display. It however needs an individual and frequent calibration for different gases.

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Module 5: Transducers
Lesson 21
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE – III

21.1 Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

The strain gauge, as explained in Lesson 16, is a fine wire which changes its resistance when mechanically
strained. A strain gauge may be attached to the diaphragm so that when the diaphragm flexes due to process
pressure applied on it, the strain gauge stretches or compresses. This deformation of the strain gauge causes the
variation in its length and cross sectional area due to which its resistance changes.

The small change in resistance that occurs in stain gauge is measured using a Wheatstone bridge. Fig. 21.1
shows the null type bridge circuit.

Fig. 21.1 Strain gauge resistance measurement using wheatstone bridge

The strain gauge represents the resistance R4 whose value depends upon the physical variable being measured.
Under balanced conditions;

R4 = R2 (R3 / R1)

The ratio of resistors R3 and R1 is fixed for a particular measurement. The bridge is balanced by varying the
value of resistor R2. Thus if three resistances are known the fourth may be determined.

21.2 Capacitive Pressure Transducer

The capacitance between two metal plates changes if the distance between these two plates changes. A variable
capacitance pressure transducer is as shown in Fig. 21.2. The movable plate in the capacitor is the diaphragm.
When the pressure is applied on the diaphragm it deflects and changes its position, due to which the distance
between the plates is changed. The change in capacitance between a metal diaphragm and a fixed metal plate is
measured and calibrated to the change in pressure. These pressure transducers are generally very stable and
linear. They can withstand vibrations. But they are sensitive to high temperatures and are more complicated to
setup than most pressure sensors. Their performance is also affected by the dirt and dust as they change the
dielectric constant

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Fig. 21.2 Variable capacitance pressure transducer

21.3 Potentiometric Pressure Sensors

The potentiometric pressure sensor provides a simple method for obtaining an electrical output from a
mechanical pressure gauge. The device consists of a precision potentiometer, whose wiper arm is mechanically
linked to a Bourdon or bellows element (Fig. 21.3). The movement of the wiper arm across the potentiometer
converts the mechanically detected sensor deflection into a resistance measurement, using a Wheatstone bridge
circuit.

Fig.21.3 Potentiometric pressure sensors

Potentiometric pressure sensors drive a wiper arm on a resistive element. It consists of a potentiometer (a
variable resistance) which is made by winding resistance wire around an insulated cylinder. A movable electrical
contact, called a wiper slides along the cylinder, touching the wire at on point on each turn. The position of
wiper determines the resistance between the end of the wire and the wiper. A potentiometric pressure sensor has
a Bourdon tube as the detecting element that moves the wiper. As the wiper moves the change in resistance
between the terminals is equivalent to the pressure sensed by the Bourdon tube.
These devices are simple and inexpensive. Resistance can easily be converted into a standard voltage or current
signal. They also provide a strong output that can be read without additional amplification. This permits them to
be used in low power applications. They are however used in low-performance applications, such as, dashboard
oil pressure gauges.

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For reliable operation the wiper must bear on the element with some force, which leads to repeatability and
hysteresis errors. They have finite resolution, as the wiper moves from one turn to the next the resistance jumps
from one value to the other. Errors also will develop due to mechanical wear of the components and of the
contacts. Each time the wiper makes and breaks contact with a turn of wire, it causes an extra electrical signal,
which is called noise. The addition of noise to the standard electrical signal makes the signal some what
confusing. The amount of noise becomes greater as the potentiometer wears out. To reduce the noise some
potentiometer are made by depositing a resistance material on a non-conducting ceramic surface. The wiper
moves over this surface just as in a wire wound potentiometer, but the resistance can change continuously rather
than in increments and is less electrical noise.
21.4 Inductive Pressure Transducer

Reluctance in a magnetic circuit is equivalent to resistance in the electric circuit. Whenever the spacing or
coupling between two magnetic devices or coils changes, the reluctance between them also changes. Thus a
pressure sensor can be used to change the spacing or coupling between two coils by moving one part of the
magnetic circuit. This changes the reluctance between the coils, which in turn changes the voltage induced by
one coil in the other. This phenomenon has been explained in the construction and working of LVDT in Lesson
17.

Fig. 21.4 Inductive pressure transducer

LVDTs and other inductive devices are used to convert the displacement motion of bellows or Bourdon tube into
proportional electrical signals. Fig. 21.4 shows how an LVDT can be connected to the bellows so that the
pressure measurement is converted directly from displacement to voltage. In addition, the displacement and
pressure are nearly linearly related, and because the LVDT voltage is linear with displacement, the voltage and
pressure are also linearly related.

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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 22
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE – I

22.1 Introduction

Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the hotness or coldness of an object or
a process. The objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to
as warm or hot. For most temperature measurements the Celsius scale (°C) is used. The freezing point of water
in the Celsius scale is 0°C and boiling point is 100°C. The Celsius scale has the same incremental scaling as the
Kelvin scale, however, the 0°C on Celsius scale is equal to 273.15K. A few countries, most notably The United
States, use the Fahrenheit scale for common purposes. On this scale the freezing point of water is 32 °F and the
boiling point is 212°F.
Several methods have been developed for measuring temperature. Most of these methods depend upon
measuring some physical property of a working material that varies with temperature. One of the most common
devices for measuring temperature is the glass thermometer. Other important temperatures measuring
transducers are the bimetallic strips, resistance temperature detector, thermocouples, thermistor, pyrometers etc.
22.2 Thermometers

22.2.1 Liquid-in-glass thermometer

This type of thermometer consists of a liquid-filled glass bulb and connecting micro-fine size of capillary tube.
The bulb is filled with mercury or some other liquid, which acts as the working fluid. The increase in
temperature causes the fluid in the bulb to expand and to contract as the temperature falls. Thus, the temperature
can be determined by measuring the volume of the fluid. The differential expansion between the glass and the
liquid causes the liquid to rise in the capillary. Such thermometers are usually calibrated so that one can read the
temperature simply by observing the level of the fluid in the thermometer.
A variety of liquids, such as mercury, alcohol, toluene and pentene are used in thermometer construction to
cover diverse ranges of temperature. These thermometers are available in many configurations, such as, the read
out thermometers, the digital readout thermometers and the recording thermometers which uses a pen on a
rotating drum to continuously record temperature readings.

22.2.2 Gas filled thermometer

This type of thermometer has a Bourdon tube connected to a hollow bulb by a capillary tube. The system is
filled with a gas which is usually nitrogen or helium. The pressure in the system follows the gas law and the
indication of temperature is obtained from the Bourdon tube. The temperature-pressure-motion relationship is
nearly linear. The effect of atmospheric pressure is minimized by filling the system to a high pressure. These
systems are also available with liquid filled designs. In such a system, the volume change of the liquid actuates
the Bourdon tube for temperature indication.
22.2.3 Vapor-pressure thermometer

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The construction of such thermometer is same as that of the gas filled thermometer. Only difference is instead of
gas pressure they utilize the vapor pressure of certain stable liquids to measure temperature. Since a nonlinear
relationship exists between the temperature and the vapor pressure, the motion of the bourdon tube is greater at
the upper end of the vapor-pressure curve.

22.3 Bimetallic Thermometers

The bimetallic thermometer is based on the principle that all metals change in their dimension, that is, expand or
contract whenever there is a change in temperature. The rate at which this expansion or contraction takes place,
depends on the ‘temperature co-efficient of expansion’ of the metal. This temperature coefficient of expansion is
different for different metals. This difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce deflections which are
proportional to temperature changes.
A bimetallic strip is thus used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement. The device
consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they are heated. Invar is commonly
used as the low expansion metal. It is an iron-nickel alloy containing 36% nickel and its co-efficient of thermal
expansion is around 1/20th of the other metals. Brass is used as high expansion material. These strips are joined
together throughout their length by riveting, brazing or welding so that there is no relative motion between them.
The different expansions of both the metals force the flat strip to bend one way if heated, and in the opposite
direction if cooled below its initial temperature. The metal with the higher coefficient of thermal expansion is on
the outer side of the curve when the strip is heated and on the inner side when cooled. Thus an increase in
temperature will result in the deflection of the free end of the strip as shown in the Fig. 22.1. This deflection is
linear and can be related to temperature changes.

Fig. 22.1 Bimetallic strip

Different common forms of bimetallic sensors include Flat, Spiral or Cantilever, type. Metals used in bimetallic
strips are Brass and Nickel-iron alloyed with chromium & manganese as high expansion metal and Invar (alloy
of nickel & iron) as low expansion metal. The bimetallic thermometers are simple, robust and inexpensive. Their
accuracy is between +or- 2% to 5% of the scale. The only limitation is that when regularly used, the bimetallic
may permanently deform, which will introduce errors. They are not recommended for temperature above 400’C.
The bimetallic strip is also used in control devices. The spiral strip is used in air conditioning thermostats. A
helical strip put inside a SS tube as sensor is used for horizontal milk tanks.

22.4 Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The electrical resistance of some metals change with change in temperature. Resistance thermometer utilizes this
characteristic. With the increase of temperature, the electrical resistance of some metals increases in direct

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proportion to the rise of temperature, so if the electrical resistance of a wire of known and calibrated material is
measured, the temperature of the wire can be determined.

Fig. 22.2 Resistance thermometer

In this type of thermometer, a temperature sensitive resistance element is fabricated in a suitable probe form to
insert in a medium whose temperature is to be measured. Resistance elements are generally long, spring like
wires enclosed in a metal sheath as shown in Fig. 22.2. The conductors used for resistance thermometer are
platinum, nickel of various purities. Platinum is the most commonly used metal for RTD elements due to its
chemical inertness, nearly linear and large enough temperature versus resistance relationship and stability. The
resistance element is surrounded by a porcelain insulator which prevents short circuit between wire and the
metal sheath. Two leads are attached to each side of the platinum wire. When this instrument is placed in a liquid
or a gas medium whose temperature is to be measured, the sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the
medium. This change in temperature causes the platinum wire inside the sheath to heat or cool, resulting in a
proportional change in the wires resistance. This change in resistance can be directly calibrated to indicate the
temperature.
Resistance of metal at temperature ‘t’ is given by:
Rt = R0 (1 + α0t)
Where:
Rt = Resistance at t°C
R0 = Resistance at 0°C
α0 = Temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C

The common configuration of RTD has the platinum resistance element range in length from 1/8" to 3". There
are many options. The standard resistance is 100 Ω at 0° C. The most common outside diameter is 1.5 to 12.5
mm. The 316 Stainless steel is commonly used tubing material. RTDs are available in 2, 3 and 4 wire
configuration and 3 wire configurations are the most common for industrial applications. Teflon and fiberglass
are the standard wire insulation materials. Three wire RTDs normally use a Wheatstone bridge measurement
circuit to measure the resistance. Now when sensing element resistance changes, the wheat-stone bridge
becomes unbalanced and thus galvanometer will give deflection which can be calibrated to give suitable
temperature scale.
Resistance thermometers possess high accuracy of measurement. They have a wide temperature range from –
200 to 650°C. They are fast in response and have good reproducibility. The limitations include their high cost,
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requirement of a bridge circuit and power supply.

They are widely used in HTST pasteurizer and spray dryers.

22.5 Thermocouples
The working principle of a thermocouple depends on the thermo-electric effect. When two dissimilar metals are
joined so as to form a closed circuit, there are two junctions where they meet each other. If one of those
junctions is heated, then, a current flows in the circuit which can be detected by a galvanometer. The amount of
the current produced depends on the difference in temperature between the two junctions and on the
characteristics of the two metals. This was first observed by Seebeck in 1821 and is known as Seebeck effect.

Fig. 22.3 Thermocouple

Instrument based on the above principle is known as thermocouple. Fig. 22.3 shows a thermocouple made from
two different kinds of metals. The wires are joined at the ends which form two junctions – a measuring junction
and a reference junction. Heating the measuring junction produces a voltage greater than the voltages across the
reference junction the difference between two voltages is measured and voltmeter reading is converted to its
corresponding temperatures. The conversion table is generally supplied by the thermocouple manufacturers.
There are various types of thermocouples which are used in industries, viz. Copper constantan, iron constantan,
chromel alumel, platinum rhodium and chromels-constantan.

Thermocouples can be classified in two categories

i) Base metal thermocouples
ii) Rare metal thermocouples
Base-metal thermocouples use the combination of pure metals and alloy of iron, copper and nickel and are used
up to 1450 K. These types of thermocouples are more sensitive, cheaper and have nearly linear characteristics.
But operating range is low and vulnerable to oxidation. Rare-metal thermocouples use a combination of pure
metal and alloys of platinum, tungsten, rhodium, molybdenum etc. which are used for higher temperature
measurement up to 2500oC. The characteristics of thermocouples are given in the Table 22.1.
Table 22.1 Characteristics of thermocouples

Sr. No. Type Thermocouple Useful temperature range ( Sensitivity

oC) (μV/oC)

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1. T Copper-Constantan -180 to 400 20-60
2. J Iron-Constantan -180 to 850 50-55
3. K Chromel-Alumel -200 to 1300 40-55
4. E Chromel-Constantan -180 to 850 50-80
5. R Platinum-Platinum/13%Rhodium 0 to 1600 5-12
6. S Platinum-Platinum/10%Rhodium 0 to 1400 5-12

When high sensitivity is required, thermocouples are attached in series. This is known as thermopile.

The thermocouples used in industries consist of a protective well and head across the measuring junction to
protect thermocouples from harmful atmospheres, corrosive fluids, mechanical damage and to support the
thermocouples to avoid damages in pressurized systems. Thermocouples can be connected in parallel to provide
the average temperature in a system. They can also be used to measure the difference between two temperatures.
A single thermocouple can be utilized by two separate measuring instruments, with proper precautions. The
e.m.f. charts and tables for various thermocouples are available. The thermocouple tables are based upon the
reference junction temperature of 0°C, therefore, a direct conversion from the tables can be made only when an
ice bath is used at the reference junction. If it is not possible to maintain the reference junction temperature at
0°C a correction factor must be applied to the milli volt values shown in the thermocouple tables.
Thermocouples are cheaper than RTD. They are rugged in construction and can be used for wide temperature
range. No external power is required. They are simpler to use than resistance thermometers. There is no need of
a bridge circuit. They have extremely wide temperature range from – 270°C to 2800°C. Their electrical output is
adaptable to a variety of readout and / or control devices. They can process long transmission distances.
However they have some disadvantages, such as, their instability, low and non-linear output signal. They need to
hold reference junction temperatures constant or compensation for any deviations. They require signal
amplification for many applications and need expensive accessories for control applications

Example: A T type thermocouple has linear calibration between 0 and 500 oC with emf at maximum
temperature (reference temperature oC) equal to 21.5 mV. Determine the correction to be made to the indicated
emf, if the cold junction temperature is 25 oC. If the indicated emf is 9.0 mV, determine the temperature of the
hot junction.
Solution:
Sensitivity = 2.15 / 500 = 0.043 mV/ oC
E correction = 0.043 x 25 = 1.075 mV
Difference of temperature between hot and cold junction = 9.0/0.043 = 209.30 oC
The reference junction temperature = 25 oC
The hot junction temperature = 209.30+25 = 234.3 oC

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Module 5. Transducers
Lesson 23
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE – II

23.1 Thermistor

Thermistor or thermal resistor is thermal sensitive resistor. Its resistance changes with temperature. Depending
upon the way it responds to temperature, the change in resistance character divides the thermistor into two types.
The positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor is that in which resistance of the thermistor increases with
the increase in temperature. These thermistors are usually made from Barium, Titanate. The negative
temperature coefficient thermistor (NTC) in which, resistance of thermistor decreases with increase in
temperature. In broad term a thermistor is semiconductor component that behave as a resistor with usually,
negative temperature coefficient of resistance. In some cases, resistance of a thermistor at room temperature may
decrease to 5 percent for each one degree Celsius rise in temperature.

Fig. 23.1 resistance-temperature characteristics of RTD and thermistors

Fig. 23.1 gives the comparison between the changes in resistance due to change in temperature for both the
thermistors and the RTD. Positive resistance-temperature correlation in RTD and high negative correlation for
thermistors is clearly illustrated. Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium. They are available in a number of configurations, as shown
in Fig. 23.2. Most familiar is the bead type, usually glass coated. They can also be made into washers, discs or
rods. Different types of thermistors configurations are shown in the figure below. Thermistors can also be
encapsulated in plastic, cemented, and soldered in bolts, encased in glass tubes, needles or a variety of other
forms. These assemblies serve to support the sensors, protect against damage to the wires, direct flow across the
unit uniformly, permit sealing of conduits or flow lines, and provide for easier handling.

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Fig. 23.2 Different types of thermistor configurations

Bead thermistors are the smallest thermistors which are in the form of heads with a diameter of 0.15mm to
1.25mm. This is the most familiar type of thermistor and is usually glass coated. Beads may be sealed in the tips
of solid glass rods to form probes. Glass probe have a diameter of about 2.5mm. The probes are used for
measuring temperature of liquids.
Thermistors are also made into discs by pressing material under high pressure into cylindrical flat shapes with a
diameters ranging from 2.5mm to 25mm. they are mainly used for temperature control. The washer type
thermistors are usually long cylindrical units. Leads are attached to the ends of the rods. The advantage of this
type is, it produce high resistance under moderate power.

To measure temperature with a thermistor, it is placed in the environment whose temperature is to be measured.
As the temperature of the substance or environment increases, the resistance of the thermistor decreases, and
vice-versa. This change in thermistor resistance can be detected which will be the measure of the temperature of
the substance. Generally, the thermistor is placed as one leg of a wheat-stone bridge circuit. At balanced
condition, when there is no change in temperature the galvanometer indicates zero. As the temperature increases
or decreases, the resistance of the thermistor also decreases or increases due to which the wheat-stone bridge
circuit becomes unbalanced. Thus an electric current flows through the galvanometer which indicates on the
calibrated scale. The deflection of the galvanometer can be calibrated as a temperature scale.

All types of thermistors are of small sizes and have fast response. These are most sensitive and are suitable for
narrow spans. The thermistor is at least 10 times more sensitive than the platinum resistance element. Since the

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resistance is a function of absolute temperature, cold junction compensation is not necessary. Due to the large
resistance, the contact or lead-wire resistance is considered as negligible as compared to the resistance of
thermistors. The cost of thermistors is very low. The major limitations of using thermistors are that they have a
highly non-linear resistance-temperature characteristic and the problems of self-heating effects necessitate the
use of much lower current levels than those with metallic sensors. The temperature-resistance characteristic of a
thermistor is of exponential type and is given by:

Where, R0 is the resistance at the reference temperature T0 (Kelvin)

R is the resistance at the measured temperature T (Kelvin)
b is the experimentally determined constant for the given thermistor material.

The values of b usually lie between 3000 and 4000 K depending on the formulation or grade.

Example: A thermistor used for temperature measurement has b=3140 K and the resistance at 27°C is 1050 W.
If the resistance of the thermistor is measured as 2330 W, find the temperature.
Solution. The resistance-temperature characteristic of the thermistor is given by:

As per the data given in the statement:

R0 = 1050 W
T0 = 273 + 27 = 300 K
b = 3140 K
R = 2330 W
Taking the logarithm of both sides of equation and rearranging we get,

= 3.587 x 10-3
= 278.78 K

23.2 Pyrometers
When temperature to be measured is high and physical contact with the hot body or medium is not possible,
pyrometers are used to measure the temperature. Pyrometers are used under conditions where corrosive vapours
or liquid could damage the thermocouples, resistance thermometer and Thermistor. The pyrometers also find
applications where the temperatures are above the range of thermocouple. There are two types of pyrometers
which are commonly used, viz. radiation pyrometers and optical pyrometers.

23.2.1 Radiation pyrometer

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The radiation pyrometer measures the heat emitted by a hot object. The radiation pyrometers operate on the
principle that the energy radiated from a hot body is a function of its temperature. Basically, thermal radiations
are electromagnetic radiation lies in the wavelength region from about 0.1 to 100 micrometer. The energy
radiated by the hot body whose temperature is measured is focused by the lens to the detector. The detector is
usually a thermocouple and the detector output is given to a PMMC instrument, digital display or recorder.

There are two principles used for the construction of radiation temperature measuring devices. The Total
radiation pyrometer is one in which the total radiant energy from a heated body is measured, and the Selective
radiation pyrometer in which the radiated energy from the heated body is measured at a given wavelength.

Fig. 23.3 Radiation pyrometer

A total radiation pyrometer is shown in Fig. 23.3. Radiations from hot object is collected and focussed on a
thermocouple with the help of a mirror. This increases the thermocouple temperature and generates an emf. The
rise in temperature is the function of amount of radiation emitted by the hot object. This instrument has a high
speed of response and is primarily used to measure the temperature in the range of 700 to 2000°C. Direct contact
is not necessary with the object whose temperature is to be measured.
23.2.2 Optical pyrometer
The principle of temperature measurement by brightness comparison is used in optical pyrometer. A colour
variation with the growth in temperature is taken as an index of temperature. The optical pyrometer compares
the brightness of image produced by temperature source with that of reference temperature lamp. The current in
the lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the lamp is equal to the brightness of the image produced by the
temperature source. Since the intensity of light of any wave length depends on the temperature of the radiating
object, the current passing through the lamp becomes a measure of the temperature of the temperature source
when calibrated. The current in the lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the lamp is equal to the brightness of
the image produced by the temperature source. The main parts of an optical pyrometer are shown in the Fig.
23.4.

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Fig. 23.4 Optical pyrometer

The instrument has an eye piece at one end and an objective lens at the other end. A power source (battery),
rheostat and multimeter to measure current are connected to a reference temperature bulb. An absorption screen
is placed in between the objective lens and reference temperature lamp. The absorption screen is used to increase
the range of the temperature which can be measured by the instrument. The red filter between the eye piece and
the lamp allows only a narrow band of wavelength of around 0.65µm.

When a temperature of the source is to be measured, the radiations from the source are focused onto the filament
of the reference temperature lamp using the objective lens. The eye piece is adjusted in such a way that the
filament of the reference temperature lamp is in sharp focus and the filament is seen super imposed on the image
of the temperature source. The lamp current is then controlled. The filament will appear dark as in first image
(A) of the Fig. 23.5, if the filament is cooler than the temperature source. The filament will appear bright as in
second image (B) of the figure if the filament is hotter than the temperature source. If the filament and
temperature source are in the same temperature the filament will disappear (C).

Fig. 23.5 Images of temperature source in Optical pyrometer

Hence the lamp current is controlled until the filament and the temperature source have the same brightness
which will be noticed when the filament disappears on the superimposed image of the temperature source. At

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this instance, the current flowing through the lamp which is indicated by the multimeter connected to the lamp
becomes a measure of the temperature of the temperature source when calibrated.
Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of furnace and hot bodies. Physical contact of the
instrument is not required to measure temperature of the temperature source.
Accuracy is high (± 5°C) and is easy to operate.

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