Heat Engine

(Converts heat energy from combustion into

mechanical work)

External Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)
(ECE)

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 Spark Ignition (SI)
According to Type of
Ignition
Compression Ignition (CI)

2-stroke
Engine
Cycle
4-stroke

Valves in head (I-head)

Valve Overhead valves
Location Valves in block (L-head, T-
head) Flat head

Reciprocating
Basic
Design
Rotary 2
Position and No. of Single cylinder
cylinders
Multi-cylinder In-line (4C, 6C,8C)

V-engine (60-90°)

Opposed Cylinder (2C-8C,

180°)

W-engine (12C, at 60°, not

common)

Opposed Piston (separate

crankshaft)

Radial engine (3-13C, max.

54C, 9C in each block,
Propeller driven aircrafts)

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 Naturally Aspirated (NA)
Air/charge Intake
Process Supercharged

Turbo-charged

Crankcase compressed

Carbureted

Method of Fuel Multipoint Port Fuel Injection

Input
Throttle Body Fuel Injection

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 Gasoline

Diesel oil

Natural Gas

Fuel used LPG

Alcohol (methyl, ethyl)

Dual Fuel (methane-

diesel, gasoline-alcohol)

Gasohol (90%
gasoline,10% alcohol)

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 Automobile

Locomotive

Stationary
Application

Marine

Aircraft

Portable ,
chainsaw, model
airplane

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 Air cooled

Type of Cooling

Liquid cooled, water cooled

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 Engine Classification by Valve Location. (a) Valve in block, L head.
Older automobiles and some small engines. (b) Valve in head, I head.
Standard on modern automobiles. (c) One valve in head and one valve in
block, F head. Older, less common automobiles. (d) Valves in block on
opposite sides of cylinder, T head.
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 Cross-section of four-stroke cycle S1 engine showing engine
components; (A) block, (B) camshaft, (C) combustion chamber, (D) connecting
rod, (E) crankcase, (F) crankshaft, (G) cylinder, (H) exhaust manifold, (I) head,
(J) intake manifold, (K) oil pan, (L) piston, (M) piston rings, (N) push rod, (0)
spark plug, (P) valve, (Q) water jacket
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  The performance of the internal combustion
engine is characterized with several geometric and
thermodynamic parameters

 The following geometric parameters are of

l particular interest : bore(B), connecting rod
length(l), crank radius(a), stroke(S) and crank
angle(ө)

For any single cylinder, the crank shaft,

connecting rod, piston, and head assembly can
be represented by the mechanism
Shown to the left

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  The top dead center TDC of an engine
refers to the crank shaft being in a
position such that ө=0°.

 The volume at TDC is minimum and is

often called the clearance volume Vc

 The bottom dead center (BDC) refers to

the crank shaft being at ө=180° , the
l volume at BDC is maximum and often
denoted by VT

 The difference between the VT and Vc is

the displacement volume Vd

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Engine Capacity (Ve)

Ve = (Vd x n) = nS { πB2/4 }

Where, n= number of cylinders

Vd = cylinder swept volume

Displacement rate

4-stroke

Compression ratio

r = max. cylinder volume/ min. cylinder volume

= (Vd + Vc )/Vc r = 8 to 12 for SI engines and

r = 12 to 24 for CI engines;

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 B/S=0.8 to 1.2 for small-and medium-size engines, about 0.5 for large slow-speed
CI engines;
Ratio of Connecting rod length to crank radius

R= l / a
R = 3 to 4 for small-and medium-size engines, increasing to 5
to 9 for large slow-speed CI engines.

Stroke and Crank radius are related

S= 2a

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Displacement volume = (Maximum - minimum) cylinder volume

Vd = VT – Vc

At a given crank angle the volume is given by

V = Vc + {πB2 X(θ)/4}

Where

X(θ) = a + l – [ (l2 – a2 Sin2 θ)1/2 + a Cos θ]

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The cylinder volume at any crank angle is represented by
V = Vc + {πB2 X(θ)/4}

V = (Vd /r-1) + ( πB2 /4) [a + l – { (l2 – a2 Sin2 θ)1/2 + a Cos θ}]

V = (Vd /r-1) + ( πB2 /4) a [1 + l/a – { (l2 /a2 – Sin2 θ)1/2 + Cos θ}]

a=S/2 & R= l/a

V = (Vd /r-1) + (V d /2) [1 + R – Cos θ - (R2 – Sin2 θ)1/2 ]

Non-dimensional form of the above equation is

V/ Vd = (1 /r-1) + (1 /2) [1 + R – Cos θ - (R2 – Sin2 θ)1/2 ]

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The combustion chamber surface area A at any crank position θ
A= Ach + AP + πB(Xθ)

Where , Ach = cylinder head surface area

AP = Piston crown surface area = πB2 /4 (for flat topped piston)

A= Ach + AP + πBX(θ)

A= Ach + AP + πB [a + l – {(l2 – a2 Sin2 θ)1/2 + a Cos θ}]

A= Ach + AP +( πBS/2) [R +1– {(R2 – Sin2 θ)1/2 + Cos θ}]

A= Ach + AP +( πBS/2) [R +1– Cos θ-(R2 – Sin2 θ)1/2 ]

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Mean Piston Speed is given by

U̅P = 2SN
where, S= stroke length
N= rotational speed of crank shaft

Instantaneous piston speed is obtained from

UP = dX(θ)/dt

UP / U̅P = (π/2) Sinθ[1+ Cosθ/√ R2 – Sin2 θ ]

 Piston speed is zero at the beginning of stroke, reaches to maximum near middle
of the stroke and decreases to zero at the end of the stroke
 Due to inertia of moving parts, max. mean piston speed is limited within the range
8 –15 m/s. Automobiles at higher side while large marine engines at lower range

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 Typical values for engine displacement
 0.1 cm (small model airplanes) _______ 8 l ( large automobiles)
> (large ship engines)
 ≈ 2-3 l (modern average automobiles)

 For a given displacement volume :

# Longer stroke allows smaller bore (under square)
Less surface area, less heat loss, higher thermal efficiency

Longer stroke , higher piston speed, higher friction losses

# Shorter stroke allows greater bore (over square) , more heat loss

# Most modern automobile engines are near square

# Very large engines have stroke to bore ratios as high as 4:1

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 The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship between power
developed, speed and the specific fuel consumption at each operating condition
within the useful range of speed and load.

 Internal combustion engine should generally operate within a useful range of

speed.

 Some engines are made to run at fixed speed by means of a speed governor which
is its rated speed

 At each speed within the useful range, the power output varies and it has a
maximum usable value.

 The specific fuel consumption varies with load and speed

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 Absolute Rated Power: The highest power which the engine could develop at sea
level with no arbitrary limitation on speed , fuel-air ratio or throttle opening

 Maximum rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop for
short periods of operation.

 Normal rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in

continuous operation.

 Rated speed: The crankshaft rotational speed at which rated power is developed

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 The performance of an engine is judged by quantifying its efficiencies

 Five important engine efficiencies are

o Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith) Indicated Power

o Brake thermal efficiency(ηbth) Brake Power
o Mechanical efficiency (ηm)

o Volumetric efficiency (ηv)

o Relative efficiency or Efficiency ratio (ηrel)

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 Other Engine performance Parameters
o Mean effective pressure (mep or Pm)
o Mean piston speed (UP)
o Specific power output (Ps)

o Specific fuel consumption (sfc)

o Fuel-air or air-fuel ratio (F/A or A/ F)
o Calorific value of the fuel (CV)

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 The term brake power, Pb, is used to specify that the power is measured at the
output shaft, this is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load.

 Part of the gross indicated work per cycle or power is used to expel exhaust gases
and induct fresh charge.

 An additional portion is used to overcome the friction of the bearings, pistons, and
other mechanical components of the engine, and to drive the engine accessories
 Ratio of the BP to IP is Mechanical efficiency ηm

 Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position as well as engine design and

engine speed.

 Typical values of ηm for a modern automotive engine at wide open or full throttle
are 90 percent at speeds below about 30 to 40 rev/s (1800 to 2400 rev/min), decreasing to
75 percent at maximum rated speed

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 MEP is a fictitious pressure that, if acted on the piston during the entire power
stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as that produced during the
actual cycle

 Mean effective pressure (mep) is the work done per unit displacement volume.
 mep = W/Vd mep = P×nR /Vd ×N

 The net indicated mean effective pressure for the whole cycle,
imepnet = imep – pmep
 Mean effective pressure in terms of torque
mep = 2πT×nR /Vd
 Indicated mean effective pressure and brake mean effective pressure

imep = Pi ×nR /Vd ×N , bmep = Pb ×nR /Vd ×N

nR = 1 for 2-stroke
= 2 for 4-stroke
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 Typical values for maximum bmep

o 850 –1050 kPa for NA type SI engines at max. torque speeds (~ 3000 rpm)

o 1250 – 1700 kPa for turbocharged automotive SIE

o 700 – 900 kPa for NA type 4-stroke Diesel engine

o 1000 – 1200 kPa for turbocharged Diesel engine

o 900 – 1400 kPa at maximum rated power

 Maximum torque for modern automobiles, 200 – 300 N-m at engine speeds 4000-

6000 rpm

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 Specific power output of an engine is defined as the power output per unit piston area.
 It is a measure of the engine designer’s success in using the available piston area
regardless of cylinder size
 SP = Pb /Ap

 Other parameters
 Specific output = Brake power output per unit piston displacement, Ps =Pb /A×L

 Engine specific weight= engine weight/rated power, SW= weight/ Pb

 Engine specific volume = engine volume/rated power, SV=Vd /Pb

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 A part-load power level useful for testing car engines is the power required
to drive a vehicle on a level road at a steady speed.
 The road-load power, Pr, is the engine power needed to overcome rolling
resistance and the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle.

Pr  (CR M v g  1  aCD Av Sv2 )  Sv

2

Where, CR = coefficient of rolling resistance (0.012 - 0.015)

Mv = mass of vehicle
g = gravitational acceleration
ra = ambient air density
CD = drag coefficient (for cars: 0.3 - 0.5)
Av = frontal area of the vehicle
Sv = vehicle speed

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 sfc shows how much fuel is consumed by an engine to do a certain amount of
work.
 Specific fuel consumption represents the mass or volume of fuel an engine
consumes per hour while it produces 1 kW of power.
 It depends on
o Engine size

o Operation load

o Engine design

 Specific fuel consumption is given in kilograms of fuel per kilowatt-hour.

sfc = ṁf /P , bsfc = ṁf /Pb , isfc = ṁf /Pi
 Low values of sfc are desirable
Typical best value of bsfc is about 75 µg/J = 270 g/kW.h (SIE)
Typical best value of bsfc is about 55 µg/J = 200 g/kW.h (CIE)
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 Fuel conversion efficiency ηf = P/ ṁf QHV (also called thermal efficiency)
 Typical heating values for commercial hydrocarbon fuels, 42-44 MJ/kg

Air-Fuel Ratio:
 A/F or F/A is used to describe mixture strength
Equivalence ratio ϕ = (F/A)act / (F/A)stoich = (A/F)stoich / (A/F)act
o Typical A/F operating range for SI engines is 12- 18
o CI engines is 18-70
o The relative air-fuel ratio is defined as the reciprocal of equivalence ratio
λ = 1/ϕ = (F/A)stoich / (F/A)act

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 The time for combustion in the cylinder is very short so not all the fuel may be
consumed or local temperatures may not favour combustion
 A small fraction of the fuel may not react and exits with the exhaust gas

 The combustion efficiency is defined as:

ηc = (actual heat input)/(theoretical heat input) = Qin /mf×QHV
Where
Qin = heat added by combustion per cycle
mf = mass of fuel added to cylinder per cycle
QHV= heating value of the fuel (chemical energy per unit mass)

 Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith) is the ratio of energy in the indicated power,
Pi , to the input fuel energy in appropriate units
ηith = Pi /mf QHV ηc
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The thermal efficiency is defined as:
work per cycle W W
th   
heat input per cycle Qin c  m f  QHV

or in terms of rates

power out W W
th   
rate of heat input Q in c  m
 f  QHV

o Thermal efficiencies can be given in terms of brake or indicated values

o Indicated thermal efficiencies are typically 50% to 60% and brake thermal
efficiencies are usually about 30%

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Volumetric Efficiency
• Due to the short cycle time and flow restrictions less than ideal amount of air enters the
cylinder.

• The effectiveness of an engine to induct air into the cylinders is measured by the
volumetric efficiency:

actual air inducted ma nR  m a

v   
theor. air  a  Vd  a  Vd  N
Where, a is the density of air at atmospheric conditions Po, To and for an
ideal gas a =Po / RaTo and Ra = 0.287 kJ/kg-K (at standard conditions
a= 1.181 kg/m3)

• Typical values for WOT are in the range 75%-90%, and lower when the
throttle is closed
 Can be measured: *At the inlet port *Intake of the engine *Any suitable location
in the intake manifold
• If measured at the intake of the engine, it is also called the overall volumetric
efficiency 42
 Can be measured: *At the inlet port
*Intake of the engine
*Any suitable location in the intake manifold
If measured at the intake of the engine, it is also called the overall volumetric
efficiency

Volumetric efficiency depends upon

* throttle opening and engine speed
* induction and exhaust system layout,
* port size and
* valve timing and opening duration.

 High volumetric efficiency increases engine power.

Volumetric Efficiency can be greater than one where Super charger or
turbocharger fitted
Turbo charging is capable of increasing volumetric efficiency up to 50%.
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Engine Performance Characteristics:

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Power and Torque versus Engine Speed

Rated brake power

There is a maximum in the brake power

versus engine speed called the rated
Max brake torque
brake power (RBP).

At higher speeds brake power decreases as

friction power becomes significant compared
to the indicated power
There is a maximum in the torque versus
speed called maximum brake torque (MBT).

Brake torque drops off:

• at lower speeds due to heat losses
• at higher speeds it becomes more difficult to
ingest a full charge of air. 45
 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Size

• bsfc decreases with engine size due to

reduced heat losses from gas to cylinder
wall, being best (lowest) for very large
engines ie, for higher volume to surface
area ratio
•Also large engines operate at lower
speeds which reduce friction losses

• cylinder surface to volume ratio

cylinder surface area 2rL 1
 2 
increases with bore diameter. cylinder volume r L r

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 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Speed

• There is a minimum in the bsfc

versus engine speed curve
•At high speeds the bsfc increases
due to increased friction i.e. smaller
Pb

• At lower speeds the bsfc increases

due to increased time for heat losses
from the gas to the cylinder and
piston wall, and thus a smaller Pi

• bsfc increases with compression

ratio due to higher thermal efficiency

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 Volumetric Efficiency Vs Engine Speed

 For conventional NA , 2-valve/cylinder , pushrod engine, ηv = 95% is excellent

 Specialized complex system design like intake passages, combustion chambers, exhaust
passages and valve system can give ηv = 110%
 Practical limit for NA type, DOHC layout with 4 or more valves/cylinder ηv is about 115%
 Generally, the speed at which peak ηv occurs coincide with the speed for peak torque
Automotive engines rarely exceed 90% limit

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1. imep
2. bmep and torque
3. Indicated power
4. Brake power
5. Indicated thermal efficiency
6. Brake thermal efficiency
7. Specific fuel consumption

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