History Notebook

MODULE 02

TOPIC 01 - RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL INSTITUTION OF THE

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION1

There are three early civilizations known to the world

1. The Egyptian civilization
2. The Mesopotamian civilization
3. The Indus valley/the Harappan civilization/ Sindhu Saraswati sabhyata

● Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni discovered Harappa in the year 1920
● RD Banerjee discovered Mohenjo Daro in 1921
● John Marshall declared to the world in 1921 that a new civilization in the world
was discovered

Physical features of the Harappan civilization

● There are more than 1000 sites of the Indus valley civilization that lie in
Afghanistan, Pakistan(Balochistan, Punjab, Sindh, north west frontier
province), India (Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujrat, West UP)

● There are three stages in which the Indus valley civilization can be divided i,e.
Early age 3200BC to 2600 BC
Mature age 2600 BC to 1900 BC
Later age 1900 BC
Characteristics to determine whether a civilization is Harappan or not
1. Pottery: also known as mridbhand they are of red colour with black design on
them
2. Terracotta cakes : terracotta cakes are found in almost all Harappan sites
3. Bricks of standard size: standard size of bricks is seen i.e. 1X2X4

1
Upinder Singh Chapter 04 The Harrapan Civilization]
 4. Stone and copper artefacts: stine and copper figurines form a major part of
harappan site excavations

The Indus valley civilization can be divided into two parts i.e. Harappa and Mohenjo
Daro(larger)

Characteristics of harappa
● Large in size
● Middle in size: 10 to 50 hectares like kalibangan
● Small sites: Lothal is 10 to 50 hectares and is believed to be a dockyard
Chanhudaro is 5 to 10 hectares
● Very small sites: less than 5 hectares like kot diji and sikotoda

Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilisation;

● Very well structured civilization,
● Villages are made up of mud brick and stone was rarely used they followed
grid system of houses
● In cities and towns, burned bricks were used (sun-dried bricks) which shows
that the bricklaying technique was very advanced. This is called the English
bond laying style of two sequences of bricks (longitudinal and lateral rows in
an alternative way and consecutive row) It gives them maximum load-bearing
strength. Bricks were 7X14X28 cm
● The walls of houses were up to 5 metres this proves that the walls were very
powerful. City walls had a standard size 10X20X40 cm. It can be inferred that
there was a central authority to manage the construction of the similar
structure
● All houses have a similar structure A courtyard and rooms around the
courtyard the doors and windows never open on the main road always facing
the side street/lane. It shows that there was a sense of privacy. In most of the
houses, we see staircases and roofs which shows that the houses were
multi-storied. Windows are in the form of shutters, ventilation has been kept in
mind. One big house is surrounded by small houses which shows that servant
quarters might have been present. Each and every house has a toilet which
shows that Harrapans gave significant importance to hygiene and all toilets
 were connected to a very efficient drainage system. The streets are very built
and laid out and the houses have good side lanes. Both cities and villages
had roads and side lanes; the sewage pipes have been separated from
rainwater pipes which shows they practised rainwater harvesting. (Pipes were
made up of terracotta covered with bricks and stones). The pipes used to
carry the waste outside the city opened up to the fields. For collecting the
solid waste numerous pits were dug for discarding solid waste. These pits
were cleaned at regular intervals. All the Harappan houses had bathrooms
and there were public bathrooms as well

Mohenjo Daro
● R.D. Banerjee (1921)discovered Mohenjo Daro and found two magnificent
mounds. In lower mounds, the entire city was discovered and the upper
mound had a citadel. When he started excavation of upper mound Fair servis
started excavation of lower town he estimated that 41,250 people had lived in
that area which indicates a significant population
● Citadel is 12 m above the plain; it is surrounded by 6m; a thick mud-brick wall
surrounds the upper mound. Inside that citadel, there is a huge platform and a
tower and historians say it was a watchtower. There are four great buildings
found in the building: great bath, granaries, college of priests(it is like the
classroom), a huge hall has been found in the citadel people must have
gathered and sat here
● THE GREAT BATH - It is considered the greatest example of the Harappans
14.5X7 m. The great bath was meant for bathing purposes; the water tank in
the great bath is 2.4m deep. On the north and south sides, there are
staircases, the floor and walls have been made watertight using very finely
fitted bricks and a material Gypsum mortar has been used. This water tank
has been made waterproof, even now. These settlements used Bitumen for
waterproofing. This is the first example of waterproofing in the entire world. It
has one single outlet whenever the water had to be removed this outlet was
opened and water to let the water out. There were huge staircases from which
people entered. Two large doors were these must have been used. There
were 4 entries. There are a series of rooms in the eastern side of the great
bath one of these 8 rooms has a well and maybe this well was used to supply
 water. The other seven are private bathrooms. Mohenjo Daro is the largest
settlement of 200 hectares.
● There is a statue in the college of a priest who is wearing shawl pearls.
Historians who have researched say that he might be a political leader(he has
a crown) also the beads tell he is related to religion. He is called priest-king.
There are granaries. Historians call it a granaries because they are very dark
and cool with no windows. Not a single piece of evidence has been found
here. As such they have started questioning this notion

● THE LOWER TOWN Lower houses have a lot of houses. It is around

80 hectares. The walled city, In all the town of Harappa we had
fortification walls and gates. Now lower Mohenjo Daro town is divided
into four parts with lanes around 9 m broad; they run parallel to each
other. Apart from these main streets, there are smaller streets and also
allies. The width of narrow lanes is 1.5 to 3 m. There were various
kinds of houses which had varied statuses. Only two blocks have been
studied: the HR area and the DK area. The remaining two blocks
excavation and research is still going on. There is a huge building
there. Inside the building, there are a lot of seals. This large building
has a lot of seals, they are thought to be used for various purposes.
Another thing that has been found is a stoned sculpture. It is a seated
man who has a shawl on his left shoulder. He is called the priest-king .
This has been called the temple or house of this leader. When one
comes outside there are two rows of houses 16 on either side there is
one big room that has a bathroom attached to it and smaller rooms.
These houses have been identified as shops and houses of these
shopkeepers. Lots of pots, copper shell pearls, and dying evidence.
There are 700 wells that have been found in the area. There are
around 10 to 15 m deep and most of the houses have private wells

HARAPPA
● Harappa is 10 km from Ravi river
● The Harappan has a huge cemetery
● Harappa is smaller than Mohenjodaro (150 hectares)
● The important Harappan site is known as Kalibangan. Kalibangan has thick
clusters of black bangles.
● The other site is Lothal in Saurashtra Gujarat it is said to be one of the oldest
dockyards of world history
● The other important site is Dholavira. Dholavira has a huge field that might
have been there for sports activities
Socio-economic condition may be asked when we talk about the economy we
talk about their agriculture production consumption and trade and the craft
items

PRODUCTION
● They called the Harappan and the immortals of Meluha
● So harappans were called the meluhas
● All the products had standard state and standard form seals standard is
maintained by all the Harappan
● All the products are produced on the massive scale
● 10 most important items
1. Ceramics: including all items formed by beating of clay, ceramics also
consist of bricks
2. Pottery: red paint and black designs the red color was geru and the
black color was formed by mixing iron oxide and manganese. The art
had different motifs. They are small and large. The interesting thing is
the perforated jars with bores/holes (archaeologists predict and
brewing fermenting beverages ), shallow bowls, pottery is an important
part of the Harappan economy the pots were not only made up of clay
and ceramics but also metal.
3. Terracotta: most probably they were used for children. They could
have been religious figures (bulls, buffaloes, monkeys, and dogs). We
have also found some cards there are human figures of terracotta and
bangles and masks have also survived. Faience has also been used
4. Stonework : blades were made up of stone may be used for shaving
and also knives have been found they were called churt blades
5. Copper and bronze artifacts: Copper alloyed with arsenic tin and
nickel, spears, knives, short swords, arrowheads, 16 copper furnaces
 have been found and at Lothal many copper workshops have been
found
6. Gold and silver jewelry: necklaces, bracelets pendants
7. Seals: aa number of seals have been found these seals have been
rectangular shapes most of them are of side 2.5 cm. Most of the seals
are made up of speatide and calcite was also used they have motifs of
horse unicorns one horn rhino
8. Bead: ajad carnelian lapis lazuli shell
9. Shells
10. Clothing textiles; they wore both cotton and woolen textiles they were
appreciated worldwide for their cotton and woolen
11. Weights and measures: uniform weights
● Some historians inform us about authority. One school of thought talks about
political authority other about guilds other about specialized families

● In one seal there is one peepal tree and seven people surrounding the tree
and then we have a one-horned animal. Many people say they are saptarishi
(Vashistha, Vishvamitra, Jamadagni, Gautama, Bharadvaja, Gungu,
Agastya, and Kashyapa.). One school of thought say that they are the seven
mother goddesses
● Everywhere bull was a symbol of male

HARAPPAN RELIGION
● John Marshall began research on Harappan religion
● The most important goddess in the Indus valley civilization was the ‘mother
goddess’ the power of fertility was venerated by Harappan
● A lot of terracotta figures have been found in the Harappan civilization
beautifully decorated wearing various ornaments dresses and beautiful
dresses designs and symbols over the figures they have been depicted as
pregnant
● Another important god was a male god referred to as ‘Pashupati. He is
described as proto shiva he has buffalo horns sitting in the yogic position he is
touching his knees with his arms outstretched both his arms are covered by
bangles his hands are resting on his knees he is surrounded by four animals
 one elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, tiger below the dias are two antelopes.
Marshall said that he had three heads. There are a lot of similarities between
Shiva. john marshall found those on seal for the first time
● They made stone icons of male(linga) and female(yoni) sexual organs and
worshipped them
● In a Kalibanggan in a seal, we have found yoni peet and linga
● We have found many amulets
● We have also found copper tablets for worshipping these copper tablets have
been found with a number of images of plants trees and animals the most
important tree is the peepal tree
● One of the interesting things is that a spirit is seen coming out of the tree
inferred to be a peepal spirit
● virility we have a lot of seals and statue symbols of the bull
● A number of figures of carts carrying animals; composite animals have also
been found. there is a man with a sword carrying animals there are two men
with swords carrying a woman to some statue
● Fire altars have also been found
● A lot of graveyards and cemeteries have been found along with dead bodies
food pots and tools
● Harappan civilization was a highly centralized administration and according to
him(john marshall) the priest-king was the head and he had two capitals
Harappa and Mohenjo Daro

POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

● It is debatable
● Debate on the state. Whether a state existed in the Indus valley or not? When
we talk about a state in history, it is an institution of power. In history, we
talk about how state emerged for the first time
● The Indus valley civilization
● If there is a king there must be a kingdom then there must be a state but
historians question their belief the main controversy is whether there was a
state or if the civilization was stateless.
● In the 1920s the research on Indus valley civilization started there was a lack
of war and conflicts so they started comparing it with other civilizations the
 number of weapons with respect to population was very less. As such the
historians say that there was no violence and conflict in the Indus valley
civilization. These views are ascribed to early historians
● Two more things were found: terracotta tablets had some depictions of war
scenes. The major discovery that changed our conception of war was the
fortification wall.
● There were craft items and seals as they were repetitive for 700 years, there
must have been some kind of rulers
● Stuart Piggott gave the theory of Harappan polity according to him
Mohenjodaro and Harappa had a central authority for evidence he says that
standardized and similar objects. He talks about the planning and
monumental masterpieces in Harappa and Mohenjodaro and the grannies.
There has been very little evidence of wars so it is possible that there was
only one authority.
● Fairservis challenged the idea of Pigott he said that there was no state
As there was no standing army. There was no slavery system. Then he says
when he started working on Mohenjodaro it did not look like an administrative
center, it was more of a religious ceremonial center. All the administrations
were managed by the village administration. He later says that these villages
might have come and formed some kind of the central authority

● Sc Mullick started researching the political theory of Harappan civilization.

there are three stages of state formation
1. Kinship society: Human beings lived together when they first arrived they
lived together like kins the this was the kinship society
2. Chiefdom society: gradually conflicts started emerging when human beings
had children. They needed some property land and resources as such human
developed tribes regions territories and land got divided this led to the
formation of different groups these tribes elected a leader from themselves
called the chief this chief was not the king.
3. Civil state society is the stage where state emerged for the first time the
chiefs started conquering territories now the person who conquered the land
and everything and this was the emergence of the king and this was the
emergence of state civil society
 ● SHIRIN RATNAGAR said that Pigott was right and there must have been an
empire because of similar uniform objects of seals and terracotta. She was
challenged by Jim Shaffer she said maybe trade could have been so good
that it resulted in import and export of all these craft items why ain't there
special urns and palaces and forts he has presented the similarity between
civilizations
● UPINDER SINGH says that maybe Shaffer could have been right but who
built these buildings and she discussed a site in Afghanistan a trading
Shortughai in Afghanistan a trading site culture is the same upper class and
lower class is also. Jacobson said there it might be that these political
institutions on very early state Possehl said maybe Harappans were not ruled
by kings but councils that could be governing the Indus valley civilization
● Very recently a new historian Kenoyer has worked in the area. It might be
that the civilization had important families that they gave to the Indus valley
civilization. We see that there are 10 animals that have been repeated again
and again so the horse, buffalo, unicorn, bull, elephant, rhinoceros hare,
gharial, and others might be used.

HARAPPAN CIVILISATION craft and sculptures

● WE know about Harappan society from terracotta and bronze
structures/sculptures
● There are three kinds of structures terracotta stone and bronze
● We have a huge no of statues and sculptures of various things and people
● We have divided the sculptures on basis of gender
1. Female: we get a sense of clothing in Harappan people. We see that all
statues are wearing short skirts. The historians have been able to determine
that they were made up of both cotton(in summers) and wool (in winter). We
get to know about the ornaments like necklaces and hair ornaments. The
heads of female statues were always covered. They are also wearing a lot of
bangles and belts on their waists
2. Male: all the male statues are bare-headed. This is in sharp contrast with the
female statues. In all the male statues we have found dhoti-like a lower
garments. Sometimes they are wearing a shawl or a cloak. All the male
 structures had beards so no male is clean shaved. Although they had different
styles of beard. If we compare the male and female statues there are a lot of
similarities AWA differences. Both males and females had bangles in their
arms

A lot of statues of children have been found and a lot of toys have been found we
have found animal figures we agave found whistles and carts used by children as
toys. It seems Games like pidhu were popular. A lot of balls of clay were found and
the clay disc has been found in houses. We have also found a lot of terracotta
figures have been found all dogs had collars. It shows that there were pet dogs.
There are statues of women doing household work it shows that the food working job
was allotted to women. Both rural society and urban society sculpt people of
agricultural fields. We have found fossils of crops and animals. There were hunters
in the Harappan civilization and we have found many hunting tools. We have
evidence for craftspeople and we have found painting instruments and statues of
craft people. There were a lot of fishers fishing equipment was found. Merchants
were important, part sailors were there the presence of dockyards in Lothal.
carpenters, brick masons were there, granaries, well diggers, boat makers, sailors,
sculptors, shopkeepers. Garbage disposal system. Sweepers
Out of some statues that were there
Gender not clear both female and male attributes maybe they are structures of
transgender people. Males in feminine dress
● British historians divided the society on basis of race
● Indian historians realized that the concept of race was flawed there has been
so much intermixing that there is no pure race
● American historian called Kennedy came to India with the latest technology he
said that there is biological heterogeneity, but they cannot be divided into
races there is biological difference were because of regional differences he
compared the DNAs of Harraps to today's Indians and Pakistanis and
similarity was found

END OF CIVILIZATION
● Aryan invasion theory the mention of Rigveda (scientist names ought to be
mentioned Rama Prasad Chanda and Motemier )
 ● This was challenged by PV Kane,
● They classified the skeletons into 37 sub people.
● Historian Mr. Sahani first talked about the floods at Mohenjodaro talked about
tectonic movement, Lambrick gave the theory that it was not the flood but the
Indus changing its course and it moved 30 miles eastwards but no strong
evidence
● Upinder Singh proposed drying of the river she has talked about the
Ghaggar and Hakra she tells us that there was a time when the Ghaggar river.
Satluj and Yamuna were also part of Ghaggar but then there were some
tectonic movements that led to river capture this has happened many times in
history and Yamuna joined the Ganga river system and the Satluj was
captured by the Indus
● MR Mughal researched on the theory of Upinder Singh and he concluded that
it was correct that the Ghaggar was getting dried up and the civilization was
disappearing
● Other aspects have also been highlighted like climate change
● Gurdeep Singh researched pollen from the lake of Rajasthan’s lakes and he
concluded that the climate of Rajasthan got dried and lack of rainfall led to the
decline of Harappan of Rajasthan. He has used climate to prove his
contention
● Overexploitation of resources, overpopulation, deforestation
● Shirin Ratnagar Decline of trade in lapis lazuli and deurbanization took place

Major trade networks of trade of the Harappan people

● stones/stonework obtained from Sindh
● Two sites in sindh sukkur and rohri
● Factories have been found and charred blades have been found in massive
quantity provided blades for the masculine diaspora of the Harappan
civilization with limestone hills
● Copper deposits khetri deposits in Rajasthan entire Harappan civilization got
its copper from khetri mines
● Tin found in Haryana
● It is a possibility that the neolithic civilization gave Harappans gold from Kolar
mines in exchange for charred blades
 ● The most[ important trade vehicle is supposed to be the bullock cart
● The sea route was the Sindh to Punjab to Gujrat (Lothal dockyard)
● The horse wasn’t a really popular animal

TOPIC 02- Vedas and epics as sources of law2

● Early Vedic: 1500 BC to 1000BC
● Later Vedic: 1000 to 500 BC
● It is the shruti literature. We do not have a complete written form of Vedas
● Vishvamitra, Vashista, Bharadwaja, Vamadeva, Atri, Gritsamada wrote the
Rigveda Samhita(book no. 2 to 7). Rigveda Samhita is the first book of the
law in Indian society. The first mention of law is in Rigveda
● They start talking about law or the varna system usually they mention colors.
The colors mentioned the colors like Aryas and the Dasas. Historians
translate the term dasa as slaves who were tribes defeated
● Arayas were considered people who follow the varna system.
● We have found a sukta in book 10 purushasukta we find the first description
of the varna system
● The purushsukta divided into 4 varnas brahaman, rajanya, vaishya shudra
● One god named Purusha was a supreme being and a huge Yagya was
organized and the four varnas originated. From the mouth of the Purusha
from the mouth the brahmana came, from arms rajanya, from thighs, the
vaishyas came and from the feet, the Sudras came.
● The purushsukta explains that there was a hierarchy in the varna system
● The sukta say that when the sky sun and moon were created when
everything else was created it implied that the varna system is eternal
● Concept of 3 types of marriages polygamy, monogamy, polyandry,
● Post puberty marriage
● Women had the right to choose their husbands
● Women could remarry if their husbands die

2
Professor document on law
 ● The Varna system and the ashram system are together called the
varnashrama dharma. In the first ashram, they have to learn their jobs in
society. Then in the second ashram, they have to marry. In the third ashram is
when they have to go to the forest and finally they have to take sanyas.
● Every person had to follow all had to follow the dharma and who did not was
called the adharmi
● Later the notion that Sudras should not follow the varnashrama and then the
question of women rights also arose
● Law of the ashram was written in the Grihya sutra around 300bc

EPICS AS SOURCES OF LAW

● In the epics law is equal to dharma and dharma is equal to the law. The law
official/the judge was called Dharm Adhikari
● Dharma and law meant the same thing the course of conduct
● In Mahabharata there are 18 parts while in the Mahabharata and 7 kandas in
the Ramayana

Ramayana
● There is an important coc “The virtue of the administrator consists in humbly
and freely dispensing justice and administrative favor and punishments they
should not follow their whims and passion”
● The Ramayana talks about the ideal conduct of women. Sita is portrayed as
an ideal woman. She is called the obedient wife she was a combination of
artha and kama
● Rama talks about the biggest crime of the age stri hatya
● The path of dharma has to be pragmatic
● There is one thing about the law that has to be ideal: this justice. The meaning
of ideal justice is when people transgresses from the path of justice/ norms of
the society they should purification and also be punished
● The norms are pertaining to both men and women living in the society

Mahabharata
● Mahabharata has 18 parvas
 ● Mahabharata has a lot of laws all the laws of war/military law is in
Mahabharata
● The twelfth part has the most law. The twelfth part is the Shanti parvam, when
Bhismapitamha was lying on an arrow bed Yudhishthira went to Bhishma
pitamah to learn how to learn about the state he told him about the structure
of states, the law, and statecraft (this is the example of the first statecraft)
laws that should be made to make Hastinapura kingdom of dharma criminal
codes that supposed to be made
● Bhagavad Gita is a great source of law. Krishna tells Arjuna about various
laws that a person should follow to walk in the path of dharma. Krishna talks
about the theory of devotion. A person should be completely devoted to the
path of bhakti and dharma.
● Bhagavad Gita is the first book that talks about the law of karma. The law of
karma says that whatever things you do in your life you will get your result
either you will get the result in this birth or the other birth. One should do good
karma to liberate herself from the cycle of life.
● From this law of karma, another doctrine of incarnation can be inferred.
● The Law of salvation is the last law that the Bhagavad Gita talks about.
Bhagavad Gita combines two laws karma yoga: the path of actions Sankhya
yoga: knowledge
● Any meditation that flouts laws of nature
● The law of karma

TOPIC 03- Law and society: Varnashrama, Purusharthas,

Samskaras

Purusharthas
● The goals of life are defined in the purusharthas the word purushartha comes
from purush + artha meaning object of human pursuit, the four purusharthas
are-
1. Dharma(righteousness)- The first of the goals is dharma. The word
Dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘dhṛi’ which means to
hold together or to preserve. Hence, the social implication of
Dharma as a principle to maintain the stability of the society is
brought out in various classical Hindu texts. Dharma is a concept
of central importance in Indian Philosophy and religion . Dharma
includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each
individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right
conduct and those that are virtuous.Dharma is so called because it
protects all.
2. Artha(wealth)- Artha means the economic and the material aspects
of life. Hinduism recognizes the importance of material wealth for
the overall happiness and well being of an individual. Artha is also
a broader concept in the scriptures of Hinduism.Artha is one of the
four goals of human life, in Hindu traditions. It includes career,
skills, health, wealth, prosperity and means of fulfilling life.A
house holder requires wealth, because he has to perform many
duties to uphold dharma and take care of the needs of his family
and society. A person should not seek wealth for wealth sake but to
uphold dharma and help the members of his family and society
achieve their goals
3. Kama (desire)- concept broadly refers to any desire, wish, passion,
longing, pleasure of the senses, aesthetic enjoyment of life,
affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations. Kāma refers
to the art of enjoying pleasures
 4. moksha(liberation)- refers to various forms of emancipation,
liberation, and release.Moksha means liberation, realisation of the
self and is the ultimate destination of this human birth.In its
soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from
saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth.In its epistemological and
psychological senses, moksha refers to freedom from
ignorance,self realisation

Samskaras
The upanayana samskara is also known as the janev samskara or thread
ceremony; it is the inception of the Brahamacharya ashram. The second
samskara is the Vivaha which is the inception of the grihastha ashram and the
last samskara is Antyeshti which is performed when a person dies by his kins.
● The Grihya Sutra provides for four ashrams the first is brahmacharya or the
student it is characterised by chastity simplicity and devotion to one’s teacher
the second is grihastha or the householder requiring marriage , begetting of
children, sustaining one’s family , helping support priest and holy men and
fulfilment of duties towards gods and ancestors. the third is vanaprasta or the
forest dweller this consists of withdrawal from the material world pursuit of
solitude and yogic practises and the last is sanyas or the renouncer involving
renouncing all one’s possessions to wander from place to place begging for
food, concerned only with union with brahman (the Absolute).
Varnashrama

TOPIC 04- Concept of Nyaya and Dharma in Vedic and Upanishadic

traditions
● There is no use of law without Nyaya
● A chief function of law is the facilitation of justice, the law means dharma, this
was the major part of law related to dharma is the concept of Nyaya when
Upanishad focus more on the concept of Nyaya (justice)
● Nyaya means both judgment and judgment
● Dharma and nyaya together form nyaya
● The word Upanishad literally meant to sit
● Upanishads are lectures and stories of priests and teachers there is a story of
yaraj and nachiketa
● There are six schools of Indian philosophy they are called the astika schools:
1. Orthodox school of Indian philosophy- old school having old ideas
Mithila was an important school where Nyaya shastra was taught
2. Nyaya was one of them
3. Purva Mimamsa
4. Uttar Mimamsa
5. Vaisheshika
6. Yoga
● In earlier India Nyaya was a school of thought. It is concerned with two things
i.e. logic epistemology. The concepts have emerged from the concept of
Nyaya
1. Logic:
2. Epistemology: theory regarding the nature and basis of knowledge. It is not
concerned with the nature and source of the subject
● The father of Nyaya philosophy is Rishi Akshapada Gotama he wrote the
book Nyayasutra he lived in the third century BC
● In Nyaya sutra laid down a formal method of reasoning that could lead to
liberation and said that reasoning leads to true knowledge, the dharma talks
of code of conduct, and the Nyaya sutra talks about true knowledge and
Nyaya.
● Teachings of Vivekananda are based on Upanishads while for teachings of
Swami Dayananda Saraswati are based on Vedas
● Nyaya philosophy should be
1. Inquired only when there is doubt
2. The inquiry should be done when you know there is the conclusion
3. Such an inquiry should contribute to your liberation
4. Data has to be done by observing and collecting data and then decide

1. Statement: What is your research

2. What is the reason of reason
3. Examples
4. Connect your thesis with other things
5. Proof your knowledge