The Government of Nepal:

Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation

Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
Making Renewble Energy Mainstream Supply in Nepal

GUIDELINES FOR THE FEASIBILITY STUDY OF

SOLAR MINI GRID PROJECTS
GUIDELINES FOR THE FEASIBILITY STUDY OF
SOLAR MINI GRID PROJECTS

June 2022
Published by:

The Government of Nepal

Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre

Mid Baneshwor: +977-1-4498013/4498014

Post Box No.: 14364, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel: +977-1-4498013/4498014
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.aepc.gov.np

The following people have provided valuable contribution to prepare this guideline

Jiwan Kumar Mallik, Dipesh Shrestha, Dr. Madhusudhan Adhikari, Khem Raj Bhandari, Dr. Anusuya Joshi, Dr. Narayan
Prasad Adhikari, Nagesh Singh, Nawaraj Dhakal, Santosh Rai, Dr. Laxman Prasad Ghimire, Chaitanya Prakash Chaudhary,
Satish Gautam, Shiva Hari Budhathoki, Sunita Khatiwada, Muhan Maskey, Srijana Shrestha

Recommended Citation:

The use of this document must be acknowledged using a citation which would include: - Alternative Energy Promotion
Centre (AEPC) Nepal, Guidelines for The Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 2022.
List of Figures
Figure 1: Solar radiation components resulting from interactions with the atmosphere 10

(Source: NREL)

Figure 2: Pre-feasibility Process 15

Figure 3: Peak Sunshine Hour (source: PVeducation) 19

Figure 4: General Architecture of Solar Mini Grid 19

Figure 5: AC Coupled System 20

Figure 6: DC Coupled 22

Figure 7: DC and AC Hybrid Coupled System 23

Figure 8: DC-AC coupled with distributed generation 23

Figure 9: Row Spacing Calculation 27

Figure 10: Temperature dependence of solar cell, Credit Canadian solar (source: Canadian solar) 28

Figure 11: Array and PV Inverter Voltage Matching 29

Figure 12: Small fixed modular system with four layers with concrete foundation (Source: Italy 31

Grid System)

Figure 13: Pile driven pier system (Source: Conergy SAS) 32

Figure 14: Solar tracking system in a field in La Calahorra, Granada, Spain (Source: Encyclopedia) 34

Figure 15: Flooded Lead Acid Batteries (Sacred Sun) 35

Figure 16: Lithium Ion Phosphate Batteries, Credit Iron Edison. 35

Figure 17: Zinc Bromide Flow Battery, Credit Redflow 35

Figure 18: Battery Series-Parallel (credit Torjan Battery) 37

Figure 19: Battery and Battery Inverter Connection in an AC coupled system (credit SMA) 43

Figure 20: PV Inverter clipping effect 44

Figure 21: Earthing and Lighting Protection System of Mini Grid Systems 47

Figure 22: Typical powerhouse plan 50

Figure 23: Fence and entrance gate 50

Figure 24: Barbed Fencing 51

Figure 25: Chain link mesh fencing 51

Figure 26: Example of PV Module Degradation 68

Figure 27: Financial Assessment Process 70

Figure 28: Environment Impact Assessment Process 74

Figure 29: Uncertainty in Meteo Data 79

List of Tables
Table 1: Sample Demand Analysis Table 07

Table 2: Acquiring Solar Resource Data 12

Table 3: Site Selection Parameters 13

Table 4: Comparison of Battery Technologies (Source: Electricity Storage Valuation Framework 36

2020 and AEPC analysis)

Table 5: Correction of density from measuring temperature to nominal temperature 41

Table 6: Physical requirements of purified water for electrolyte 41

Table 7: Sizes and designations of ACSR conductors used in mini grid schemes 56

Table 8: Comparison between overhead line and cable 57

Table 9: Minimum Ground Clearances 57

Table 10: Minimum Clearances between live wires and structures or trees. 57

Table 11: Sag for spans of overhead cables 57

Table 12: Pole Specifications 58

Table 13: Insulator specifications 58

Table 14: Minimum Electrical Clearance between conductors 59

Table 15: Features for distribution transformers 59

Table 16: Electrical properties of ABC cable 62

Table 17: Summary of Project Cost 64

Table 18: Type of Losses and Loss Estimation: 66

Table 19: Environmental Impacts of large scale solar PV and Wind project 77

Table 20: Questionnaire for Demand Survey in Individual Household 86

Table 21: Questionnaire for Focused Group Discussion 89

List of Abbreviations
°C Degree Centigrade
AC Alternating Current
AEPC Alternative Energy Promotion Center
ADB Asian Development Bank
AM Air Mass
Amp Ampere
a-Si Amorphous Silicon
BoS Balance of System
c-Si Crystalline Silicon
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CB Circuit Breaker
CUF Capacity Utilization Factor
DC Direct Current
DNI Direct Normal Irradiation
DSCR Debt Service Coverage Ratio
DHI Diffuse Horizontal Irradiation
DoED Department of Electricity Development
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
IEC International Electro technical Commission
IFC International Finance Corporation
IEE Initial Environment Examination
EPC Engineering, Procurement, Construction
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
GCR Ground Coverage Ratio
GESI Gender Equality and Social Inclusion
GHI Global Horizontal Irradiation
GTI Global Tilted Irradiation
HV High Voltage
IEE Initial Environmental Examination
IPP Independent Power Producer
IPPAN Independent Power Producer Association of Nepal
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
IRR Internal Rate of Return
Isc Short Circuit Current
kV Kilo Volt
kW Kilo Watt
kWh Kilowatt Hour
LCOE Levelised Cost of Energy
LV Low Voltage
LPS Lightning Protection System
LVRT Low Voltage Ride Through
MCB Miniature Circuit Breaker
MV Medium Voltage
MCCB Molded Case Circuit Breaker
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
MW Mega Watt
MVA Mega-Volt Ampere
MWp Mega Watt Peak
MoPE Ministry of Population and Environment
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NPV Net Present Value
NEA Nepal Electricity Authority
NOCT Normal Operating Cell Temperature
NPV Net Present Value
NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OPEX Operational Expenditure
Pmp Maximum Power Point Power
PPA Power Purchase Agreement
PR Performance Ratio
PV Photovoltaic
RERL Renewable Energy for Rural Livelihood
RAP Resettlement Action Plan
ROI Return on Investment
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SPV Special Purpose Vehicle
STC Standard Test Conditions
TL Transmission Line
ToR Terms of Refernce
ToC Table of Contents
TCO Total Cost of Ownership
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
UL Underwriters Laboratories
Voc Open Circuit Voltage
Vmp Maximum Power Point Voltage
WACC Weighted Average Cost of Capital
Wp Watt Peak
WB World Bank
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 01
GUIDELINES FOR FEASIBILITY STUDY OF SOLAR MINI GRID PROJECTS 02
I. BACKGROUND 02
II. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE GUIDELINES 02
III. SCOPE OF GUIDELINES 02
IV. LIMITATION OF GUIDELINES 03
V. DOCUMENT STRUCTURE 03

CHAPTER 1: SOLAR MINI GRID SECTOR IN NEPAL 04

1.1. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY PROMOTION CENTRE (AEPC) 04
1.2. POLICIES AND OTHER PROGRAMS INCORPORATING SOLAR ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES 04
1.3. PAST EXPERIENCES IN SOLAR PV AND WIND 06

CHAPTER 2: DEMAND ASSESSMENT 07

2.1. LOAD ASSESSMENT 07
2.2. POWER AND ENERGY DEMAND FORECAST 07
2.3. PRODUCTIVE END USE POSSIBILITIES 08
2.4. COMMUNITY BENEFIT ASSESSMENT 09
2.5. FEASIBILITY STUDY SURVEY 09

CHAPTER 3: SOLAR RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 10

3.1. SOLAR RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 10
3.2. IRRADIATION AND PEAK SUN HOURS (PSH) 10
3.3. SOLAR RESOURCE PARAMETERS 10
3.4. SOURCES OF SOLAR RESOURCE DATA 11
3.5. ACQUIRING SOLAR RESOURCE DATA 12

CHAPTER 4: SURVEY AND INVESTIGATION 13

4.1. INTRODUCTION 13
4.2. SITE SELECTION FOR SOLAR MINI GRID 13
4.3. PRE-FEASIBILITY PLANNING 14
4.4. FEASIBILITY PLANNING 14
4.5. GENDER EQUALITY AND SOCIAL INCLUSION 16

CHAPTER 5: SYSTEM DESIGN 18

5.1. SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 18
5.2. MINI GRID ARCHITECTURES 19
5.3. MODELING AND SIMULATION 24
Table of Contents
5.4. METEOROLOGICAL MODELING DATA 24
5.5. SIMULATION SOFTWARE 25
5.6. GENERATION SYSTEM DESIGN 26
5.7. WIND GENERATOR CONFIGURATION FOR HYBRID SYSTEM 51
5.8. TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LINE DESIGN 56

CHAPTER 6: PROJECT COST ESTIMATE 64

6.1. INTRODUCTION 64
6.2. GENERAL METHODOLOGY 65

CHAPTER 7: ESTIMATION OF ENERGY YIELD 66

7.1. ESTIMATION OF ENERGY YIELD 66
7.2. LOSS CALCULATION (TYPES OF LOSSES, METHODS OF LOSS ESTIMATIONS) 66
7.3. PV SYSTEM PERFORMANCE 67
7.4. DEGRADATION AND LIFE CYCLE ENERGY YIELD ESTIMATION 68

CHAPTER 8: FINANCIAL ANALYSES 69

8.1. GENERAL 69
8.2. GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS 69
8.3. FINANCIAL ANALYSIS AND PLANNING 70

CHAPTER 9: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS 73

9.1. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ASSESSMENT 73
9.2. PROCESS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ASSESSMENT 74
9.3. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS 76
9.4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC BASELINE SURVEY 78

CHAPTER 10: RISK ASSESSMENT 79

10.1. UNCERTAINTY IN METEO DATA 79
10.2. FINANCIAL RISK 80
10.3. OTHER RISKS 80

CHAPTER 11: FEASIBILITY STUDY REPORT FORMAT 81

REFERENCES 85
ANNEX 1- DEMAND ASSESSMENT SURVEY FORM 87
ANNEX 2- BILL OF QUANTITY- SAMPLE 93
ANNEX 3 - GLOSSARY 96
ANNEX 4 - WIND GLOSSARY 104
 Executive Summary
In the context of Nepal, solar and solar-wind This Guideline also identifies the key planning and
hybrid mini grids are one of the most innovative strategic aspects of solar energy development
technologies deployed to provide energy access in Nepal. It provides guidelines for site selection,
to rural and isolated communities, and meet their demand assessment, renewable resource
development needs. In 2011, the first solar-wind assessment, design considerations, uses of
hybrid mini grid of 12 kW installed capacity (10 simulation software, environment and social impact
kW wind + 2 kW solar PV) was implemented in assessment, cost estimation, and financial analysis
Dhaubadi village of Nawalparasi district. By 2021, used by the Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
65 solar and solar-wind hybrid mini grids with a (AEPC) while designing solar mini grid systems.
cumulative installed capacity of 2697 kW were in Nonetheless, the document is not intended to
operation serving more than 8,600 rural households address every circumstance and consideration such
and powering around 6050 rural enterprises. that it may not be relevant to every project. Rather,
Subsequently, to further maximize the positive this Guideline endeavors to be a blueprint document
socio-economic impact of installed solar mini grids, for development of solar mini grid projects in Nepal
the Government of Nepal has launched the “Mini with consideration of the major design principles and
Grid Special Programme” in 2019 with ambitious the country context.
targets that will ultimately contribute to the
Government’s target of Electricity for All by 2023.

Further, solar and solar-wind hybrid mini grids are

of strategic importance to Nepal in meeting the
challenges of energy security. Solar mini grids are
complementary energy producers that can deliver
electricity at the household, business/commercial,
community, or industrial/utility levels. Thus, the
application of solar mini grids in adequately meeting
the local energy demand is flexible and far reaching.

This Guideline for the Feasibility Study of Solar Mini

Grid Project provides information and guidance
on the planning, design and implementation
framework to consultants, developers, investors,
and renewable energy enthusiasts of solar mini grid
projects. Furthermore, this Guideline will serve as a
reference to authorities while reviewing feasibility
study reports from consulting firms in the process of
implementing solar mini grid projects. This Guideline
provides a detailed explanation of the procedures
required during project planning, study and
implementation of solar mini grid projects in Nepal.

01 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

GUIDELINES FOR FEASIBILITY
STUDY OF SOLAR MINI GRID
PROJECTS

I. BACKGROUND II. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF

THE GUIDELINE
Solar energy technology is an emerging field with
high potential for significant technological advances The objectives of this Guideline are to provide
in the future. Nepal has committed to the SDG-7 detailed guidance on the preparation of Pre-
target of providing affordable, reliable, sustainable Feasibility, Detailed Feasibility, and Environmental
and modern energy for all by 2030. Consequently, and Social Safeguards studies. Specifically, this
Nepal has set a target to provide access to electricity Guideline will help with:
for 99% of the households by 2030. Moreover, the • Suitable site selection for mini grid
White Paper 2018 has also set several targets related • Demand and resource assessment
to energy access. It has set ambitious projections • Defining minimal design standards and/or design
and targets such as: (i) the per capita energy considerations for major components of solar
consumption shall be 700 units and 1,500 units mini grid
in next five and ten years respectively, (ii) “Harek • Design and the design tool for system
Basti Urja Basti” shall be implemented under which configurations of the solar mini grid
100 – 500 kW of renewable distributed generation • Cost estimation and preparation of bill of quantity
will be made available in each of the 753 local units, • Defining the financial model considerations
(iii) 5-10% of generation will be sourced from RE during project development
to ensure diversity in the power generation, and • Facilitation for better outcomes by early
(iv) 200 MW SPV projects will be implemented in identification of impacts
Province 2. Although the Constitution has envisioned
education and health services as basic rights,
the lack of electricity access is a major hurdle in III. SCOPE OF GUIDELINE
promotion of these rights. Further, the Government
will accelerate the promotion of mini grid Primarily, this Guideline provides information on
programmes to fulfill the targets set by White Paper major design considerations of solar mini grid
2018 and other international commitments. In line projects in Nepal. However, this Guideline also covers
with these targets, AEPC has planned to implement feasibility study guides for solar-wind hybrid mini
a large number of solar mini grid projects in areas grid projects. The technical aspects defined in this
that are distant from the central grid. In 2019, AEPC Guideline are equally applicable for both solar and
launched “Mini Grid Special Programme” which solar-wind hybrid mini grid projects.
further simplified the implementation process of
solar mini grid systems. Further, to provide adequate The basic principles along with the standards and
support and capacity building of the stakeholders, criteria for technical design and illustration of the
there is a necessity of quality guidelines to carry out connection process are provided for Nepal-specific
the feasibility study of solar mini grid projects. conditions. Thus, this Guideline shall serve as a
basis for the designers in the planning and decision-
making process.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 02

 This Guideline also provides information on specific Chapter 3 presents the solar resource parameters,
aspects to clarify certain provisions of the standards, sources of solar resource data, and the major
in particular the environmental and social safeguard available satellite-based meteorological databases.
aspects that should be considered while developing
the solar mini grid projects. Chapter 4 presents the description of methodology
for conducting pre-feasibility and feasibility study
The site selection, environmental assessment, and including energy assessment, productive uses of
design considerations outlined in this guideline are electricity, consideration of gender equality and
primarily related to the development of ground- social inclusion, land acquisition, etc.
mounted solar mini grid systems. They are not
intended to apply to rooftop mounted systems; Chapter 5 presents design considerations for the
nonetheless, the assessment principles and solar mini grid components including PV module/
outcomes of the solar energy elements may be array, array mounting structure & foundations,
applicable to some degree. battery, inverter, safety and system protection, DC
and AC cable, civil engineering works, and monitoring
Although the focus of this Guideline is on solar mini system. It also includes design consideration of wind
grid, it can also be used for solar-wind hybrid mini generation components as well as the transmission
grid projects. and distribution line.

Chapter 6 presents the basis for project cost

IV. LIMITATION OF THE GUIDELINE estimation and preparation of the bill of quantities
(BoQ).
The Guidelines’ scope is limited to Pre-Construction
and it does not provide guidance for construction Chapter 7 presents the estimation of energy yield,
supervision of solar mini grid systems. It focuses loss types & loss calculation, PV plant performance
mainly on the Feasibility and Environmental Study, parameters, degradation, and life cycle energy yield
Technical Design Considerations and Financial estimation.
Analysis. Hence, the Guideline does not include the
standards or requirements related to: Chapter 8 presents the financial and economic
• Installation analysis parameters such as CAPEX, OPEX, LCOE,
• Engineering, Procurement, and Construction NPV, IRR, Payback period, revenue analysis,
(EPC) works financing parameters, financing output, and
• Post-construction considerations such as Testing sensitivity analysis.
and Commissioning requirements
• Post-commissioning stages such as Operations Chapter 9 presents the format for environment and
and Maintenance (O&M) aspects of the solar PV social safeguards.
system
• Structural analysis of mounting structure of wind Chapter 10 elaborates the risk assessment related
turbine to solar mini grid project development.

Chapter 11 presents the detailed feasibility study

V. DOCUMENT STRUCTURE report format and the table of content to be included
by consultant
The document is structured as follows:
Chapter 1 presents the solar mini grid related policy This document also includes a sample bill of
and the scenario of the solar mini grid sector in quantity, glossary, wind glossary, useful information
Nepal. and conductor current ratings as ANNEXES to the
Guideline.
Chapter 2 presents the site selection criteria and the
demand assessment of the solar mini grid system.

03 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

CHAPTER 1:
SOLAR MINI GRID
SECTOR IN NEPAL
1.1. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY focused on technological innovation. AEPC has been
PROMOTION CENTRE (AEPC) working on standardization, affordable maintenance,
capacity development, and integration in planning,
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) is monitoring and networking activities to ensure
the apex government body established in 1996 optimal use of RETs in livelihood enhancement.
under the Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Further, AEPC’s activities include formulating and
Irrigation (MoEWRI) with the objective of promoting implementing policies which are directed towards
Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) for the socio- coordinating, integrating, promoting and facilitating
economic development of the rural people suffering RE development in Nepal.
from energy scarcity.

The development objective of AEPC is to increase 1.2. POLICIES AND OTHER

access to renewable and clean energy, improve PROGRAMS INCORPORATING
the living standard, increase employment and SOLAR ENERGY
productivity, reduce dependency on traditional TECHNOLOGIES
energy sources, and promote sustainable socio-
economic development of women and men in rural 1.2.1. Rural Energy Policy, 2006
communities.
The Government of Nepal formulated the
The mission of AEPC is to increase access to ‘Rural Energy Policy’ in 2006 which mandated a
renewable energy (RE) and promote it as the sector-wide approach in the delivery of energy
major source of energy to improve people’s living services targeted at rural poverty reduction and
conditions. Over the last two decades, it has environmental conservation by ensuring access to
been actively promoting the use of RETs through clean, reliable and adequate level of energy in the
implementation of a number of programs and rural areas.
projects to meet the rural energy needs.
AEPC provides direct financial and technical This policy incorporated small- and institutional-
assistance through subsidy provision and capacity scale Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) systems and
development support for establishment and emphasized its study and research for cost reduction
management of RE projects (10 kW to 1000 kW) in and efficient use. Specifically, the policy tied-up Solar
the country. It has been implementing programs Energy Technologies (SETs) with irrigation, health,
jointly with the local government while partnering education and drinking water as targeted services.
with the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) such as
Non-Government Organizations (NGOs), Community
Based Organizations (CBOs) and User Groups along
with the private sector and financial institutions.
It also works with research/academic institutions

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 04

 1.2.2. Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy, to the Developers, Investors, Promoter of Solar PV
2022 projects who are in the process of development or
intending to develop and invest in Utility-Scale Solar
The provision of subsidy for small-scale Solar
PV projects in Nepal. This guideline also provides a
Home Systems (SHSs) began with formulation of
basis for consultants to undertake detailed feasibility
the first RE Subsidy Policy in 2006/07. However,
studies including site identification, resource
the Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy, 2016 was
assessment, technical design, financial analysis,
the first instance when a subsidy was allocated for
social and environmental considerations, and power
solar and solar-wind hybrid mini grid projects. It has
evacuation of utility-scale SPV projects.
provisioned for subsidies amounting up to 60% of
total system cost. The recent Subsidy Policy, 2022
1.2.6. The Government’s Other Rural
has provisioned for subsidies amounting up to 90%
Electrification Programs
for the local government owned up to 250kW solar
mini projects and 60% for private, PPP, cooperative The Government of Nepal’s current policy divides
and community based solar mini grid projects upto rural electrification into two sub-sectors, largely
100kW. defined as grid-based (on-grid) and isolated (off-
grid). On-grid rural electrification is administered
1.2.3. Nepal Photovoltaic Quality under MoEWRI through the Department of Electricity
Assurance (NEPQA), 2015 Development (DoED) as the regulator and promoter,
and the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) as the
Nepal Photovoltaic Quality Assurance (NEPQA)
vertically integrated agency responsible for national
is the technical standard for components of a
implementation. Off-grid electrification in rural areas
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System used in Nepal. The
is administered under MoEWRI through promotion
Renewable Energy Test Station (RETS) is responsible
and implementation by AEPC.
for conducting tests based on NEPQA and certifying
the quality of the PV systems and components used In 2003/04, NEA launched Community Rural
in PV applications. The NEPQA is a collaborative Electrification Program (CREP) to provide grid
effort of AEPC, RETS and other SPV stakeholders. access to communities in rural areas who are
Currently, NEPQA 2015.rev1 is in effect and AEPC deprived of national grid electrical services. The
has initiated its revision to accommodate the latest model is set up in such a way that communities
technologies available in the market. can buy power in bulk from NEA and manage/
operate the local distribution system through
1.2.4. Mini Grid Special Programme village organizations called Community Rural
Implementation Modality, 2076 Electrification Entities (CREE). The tariff paid
by CREEs for purchasing bulk power from NEA
Mini Grid Special Programme Implementation
is less than the tariff paid by CREE’s customers.
Modality 2076 has been approved by MoEWRI for
Thus, CREE organisations utilise the profits for the
implementation of solar mini grid projects under
operation and maintenance of the overall enterprise.
Himali Solar Mini Grid Programme and Ujjyalo Nepal
Further, CREEs are required to contribute only 10%
Programme.
(previously 20%) of the project cost for connection
to the grid and the remaining 90% (previously 80%)
1.2.5. Guidelines for Developing Utility-
is provided by the Government through NEA.
Scale Solar PV Project in Nepal
AEPC has prepared Guidelines for Developing
Utility-Scale Solar PV Projects in Nepal in close
coordination and consultation with the Ministry of
Energy Water Resources and Irrigation (MoEWRI),
Department of Electricity Development (DoED)
and Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA). The main
objective of this Guideline is to provide information

05 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

1.3. PAST EXPERIENCES IN SOLAR project in Dhaubadi of Nawalparasi district. Soon,
PV AND WIND AEPC accelerated the deployment of solar mini
grid programmes in Nepal realizing the benefits of
Though Nepal had a few solar PV systems mainly shorter project implementation cycles, availability of
powering telecommunication systems, it was only solar resources, generation of grid-quality electricity
after the establishment of AEPC in 1996 A.D. that for both household and enterprise use, and feasibility
the country witnessed a surge in the application of installation in almost all geographical locations
of SPV systems for electrifying rural households. of Nepal. By mid of 2021, AEPC has promoted 30
By mid of 2021, AEPC has supported more than a off-grid solar and solar-wind hybrid mini grids to
million solar home systems (SHS) from 10 Wp to 100 cumulative capacity of 1,262 kW all across Nepal.
Wp capacities all over the country. Similarly, around These mini grids are providing improved electricity
3,000 Institutional Solar Power Systems (ISPS) in access to rural households at power level of 200W
schools and health posts, around 2,300 PV Pumping per household, as well as powering higher wattage
System (PVPS) for small-scale irrigation and around micro, small & medium enterprises at 1500W per
200 for drinking water supply have been installed connection for fixed durations.
through AEPC. This massive effort resulted not only
in rapid rural electrification but also helped develop
national capacity to deploy SPV systems.

The history of solar mini grid in Nepal started in

1984 with the collaboration of the Government with
the French Government for financing of three SPV
mini grids for electrification of Tatopani, Simikot
and Gamgadi villages. In 2011, with the support
from Asian Development Bank (ADB), AEPC
implemented a 12 kWp Solar-Wind hybrid mini grid

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 06

 CHAPTER 2:
DEMAND ASSESSMENT

2.1. LOAD ASSESSMENT 2.2. POWER AND ENERGY DEMAND

FORECAST
Accurate load assessment is a challenging endeavor
but is one of the most important factors in correct The load demand in general will be guided by two
power and storage sizing and estimation of the main factors namely demand per household and
system’s electricity generation and losses. Load the number of households to be connected to the
profiles must be broken down seasonally (summer, mini grid. The power and energy demand will most
autumn, winter and spring) to properly reflect likely fluctuate over the day; thus, a proper energy
the fluctuations in available energy, temperature, demand forecast has to be carried out for individual
consumer patterns, etc. The “estimated daily load households on the basis of their likely electricity use
curve” should be plotted for a full 24-hour period in pattern. Further, both the power as well as energy
one hourly interval. It is also essential to consider demand of households may vary on a seasonal
the peak load and any important surges during this basis, thus the load curve of the multiple seasons
process. These considerations should be presented may have to be considered. Socio-economic factors
and discussed at length with all stakeholders before like migration, population growth, etc. are other
agreement and approval. important factors to consider. An illustrative demand
assessment of 50 household based communities is
given in the table below.

TABLE 1: SAMPLE DEMAND ANALYSIS TABLE

Watts/ Total Uses Hours Coincidence Watt-hour
SN Electricity Uses Quantity Unit Watts / Day Load Factor /Day
1 Households 50
1.1 Main Room Light per households 3 5 15 5 85% 64
1.2 Other Lights per households 2 3 6 5 85% 26
1.3 Mobile Charging per households 2 3 6 1 100% 6
1.4 Radio per households 1 5 5 2 5% 1
1.5 Cooling Fans per households 2 30 60 8 95% 456
1.6 TV 21” per households 1 40 40 4 40% 64
1.7 Direct to Home (DTH) Receiver 1 40 40 4 40% 64
1.8 Refrigerator 1 90 90 11 5% 50
1.9 Desktop/Laptop Computer 1 120 120 4 2% 10
Per Household Uses 382 739
Total Household Uses 19,100 36,943

07 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

TABLE 1: SAMPLE DEMAND ANALYSIS TABLE
Watts/ Total Uses Hours Coincidence Watt-hour
SN Electricity Uses Quantity Unit Watts / Day Load Factor /Day
2 PEU Demand
2.1 PEU Demand-Poultry Farm 1 250 250 12 1.00 3,000
2.2 PEU Demand-Hotel and Restaurant 1 500 500 5 1.00 2,500
Total PEU Uses 64,000 5,500

3 Other Public Uses

3.1 Temple/Mosque/Church etc. 1 200 200 5 1 1,000
3.2 Health post 1 500 500 5 1 2,500
3.3 Police Office 1 200 200 5 1 1,000
3.4 APF 1 500 500 5 1 2,500
3.5 School 1 1000 1,000 4 1 4,000
3.6 LED Street Lights 20 15 300 8 1 2,400
Total for Other Public Uses 2,700 13,400

4 Control-Power House
4.1 Lights 5 5 25 6 1.00 150
Total for Control-Power House 25 150

Grand Total 85,825 55,993

Coincidence load factor is usability or availability the power, energy and safety requirements of not
of devices. For example, S.N. 1.1 in the table above only the households but also productive energy
has a coincidence load factor of 85% for main uses (PEUs) and community energy uses (CEUs).
room lights, which means only 85% of installed The daily load curves of these three types of energy
main room lights for 50 households shall be used usage shall be graphed and the “Combined Load
on an average on any particular day. Similarly, S.N. Curve” will help accurately determine the peak power
1.4 has a coincidence load factor of 5% for radio, sizing (kWp), storage (kWh) and energy demand and
which means 5% of total households shall be using generation matching (kWh) for a 24-hour cycle.
radio in the community at an instant. Such demand
analysis tools should be used to accurately estimate

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 08

 2.3. PRODUCTIVE END USE 2.5. FEASIBILITY STUDY SURVEY
POSSIBILITIES
Site survey is one of the most important aspects
To ensure financial attractiveness of RE projects for feasibility study as it directly relates to design
for investors, the installed system must maximize quality. Thus, this Guideline has suggested the use of
utilization of renewable resources. Though the the format presented in Appendix 1 while conducting
primary purpose of solar mini grid is to meet the feasibility studies for solar mini grid projects. The
basic household electricity needs, PEUs and CEUs questionnaires are developed for both individual
should be encouraged to ensure sustainable revenue household and focused group discussions. In case of
generation and employment creation. As both individual household demand surveys, the consultant
solar and wind resources are intermittent in their has to take an appropriate sample of atleast 10% of
energy producing capability, diversity in types of the total potential beneficiaries.
end uses can also help balance this intermittency
and optimize the investment cost. The most
common end use possibility may be information
and communication centers, agro-grinding mills,
small-scale furniture/wood workshops, poultry
farms, metal and grill workshops, photo studios,
tailoring businesses, private health clinics, electronic
repair shops, restaurants, bakeries and other small
enterprises which require the use of appliances
like refrigerators, rice cookers, televisions, printers,
photocopiers, etc. The productive energy demands
also known as enterprise loads are generally day
time loads; thus, the SPV or wind power can be
directly supplied to these loads without using up
costly storage resources and thus leading to savings.

2.4. COMMUNITY BENEFIT

ASSESSMENT

It is important to quantify direct and indirect socio-

economic benefits that the new system will usher
into the life of the rural community before any
serious attempt is made to implement the new
initiative. Baseline study should be conducted to
properly understand the current socio-economic
condition of the client community. Specifically,
the prevailing health, education, communication
and entertainment aspects of their life should be
studied in detail to properly quantify the benefits
that will result directly as well as indirectly due to the
installation of the new system.

09 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

CHAPTER 3:
SOLAR RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

3.1. SOLAR RESOURCE Note: To convert MJ/m² to kWh/m² (or PSH), divide
ASSESSMENT the number of MJ/m² by 3.6

Solar Resource Assessment (SRA) refers to the

analysis of a prospective solar energy production 3.3. SOLAR RESOURCE
site with the end goal being an accurate estimate PARAMETERS
of that facility’s Annual Energy Production (AEP).
The main goal of Solar Resource Assessment Site selection and planning of PV power plants
in reference to site-specific measurement is to require reliable solar resource data. The solar
collect “ground truth” meteorological data for the resource of a location is usually defined by the
purpose of lowering the uncertainty of the Annual following parameters and are shown in the Figure
Energy Production. The site-specific Solar Resource below.
Assessment provides an accurate context from
which long-term satellite derived irradiance data can
be corrected. Before assessment of solar resources Reflected Atmospheric
scattering
on the site it is crucial to know the basics of the solar
parameters and different factors affecting the solar
resource assessment.

Absorbed
Direct

3.2. IRRADIATION AND PEAK SUN

HOURS (PSH) Diffuse

Irradiation is the total quantity of radiation solar

energy per unit area received over a given period, e.g. Ground-reflected

daily, monthly or annually. The Systeme International

(SI) unit for energy is called joule (J). Since this unit
is a relatively small quantity, larger quantities of Figure 1: Solar radiation components resulting from
energy, such as solar radiation, are often expressed interactions with the atmosphere (Source: NREL)
in terms of MegaJoule (MJ).

The conversation factor from solar energy (MJ:

megajoules) to irradiation (kWh: kilowatt-hours) is:

1kWh = 3.6MJ or 1MJ = 1/3.6 kWh

Daily irradiance is commonly referred to in daily peak

sun hours (PSH).

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 10

 3.3.1. Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI) 3.4. SOURCES OF SOLAR RESOURCE
DATA
Direct Normal Irradiation is the total energy
received on a unit area of surface that is always There are many sources where these data can be
held perpendicular (or normal) to the rays that extracted. Solar radiation tables are often developed
come in a straight line from the direction of the Sun based on the measurement of direct and diffuse
at its current position in the sky. This represents radiation each hour, recorded as hourly irradiance
the maximum possible beam radiation that is (W/m²), giving the total daily irradiation (kWh/m²
measurable. or MJ/m²). The sum of direct and diffuse irradiation
gives global irradiation, which is then used to
calculate peak sun hours (PSH) as detailed above.
3.3.2. Diffuse Horizontal Irradiation (DHI) The annual irradiation generally increases closer
to the equator. However, note that the irradiation
Diffuse Horizontal Irradiation is the total energy variations do not strictly correlate to latitude, as
received on a unit area of horizontal surface other factors affecting this can be altitude, local
from all directions when radiation is scattered precipitation etc.
off the atmosphere (aerosols, dust, particles) or
surrounding area. Long term annual average values of GHI and DNI can
be obtained for a site by interpolating measurements
3.3.3. Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI) taken from ground-based measurement stations or
by solar models that utilize satellite, atmospheric
GHI is the total solar energy received on a unit area and meteorological data. Ideally, historical values
of horizontal surface. It includes energy from the sun of hourly GHI values are used for PV project
that is received in a direct beam (DNI) and DHI. So, development. At least 10 years of continuous
GHI is measured by the total amount of direct and data are required in order to account for climate
scattered radiation being received on a horizontal variability as the changes in pattern occur from year
surface. to year. However, such extensive historical data is not
available from ground-based measurement stations.
GHI is a reference radiation for the comparison of There are two main sources of Solar Resource Data.
climatic zones and also an essential parameter for
calculation of radiation on a tilted plane. 3.4.1. Satellite Derived Data

For all solar mini grid projects to be implemented Satellite-derived data can offer a wide geographical
through AEPC should have a GHI value more than coverage and can often be obtained retrospectively
4kWh/m² per day. for historical periods in which no ground-based
measurements were taken. This is especially useful
3.3.4. Global Tilted Irradiation (GTI) for assessing long term averages. A combination
of analytical, numerical and empirical methods
GTI is the total energy received on a unit are of can offer 15 minutes data with a nominal spatial
surface with defined tilt and azimuth, fixed or sun- resolution down to 250m, depending on the location
tracking. Unlike the horizontal surface, the tilted and field of view of the satellite.
surface also receives a small amount of ground
reflected radiation. This is the sum of the scattered For locations that have a low density of
radiation, direct and reflected. GTI is derived from meteorological stations and rely on satellite data,
GHI and DNI. on-site resource monitoring may be considered
during the feasibility stage of the project. On-site
solar radiation data collected from solar resource
monitoring stations may be used to calibrate
satellite-derived estimates, thereby reducing

11 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 bias and improving accuracy. The best results are to the Central Receiving Station (CRS) through
obtained by monitoring for a full twelve months or GPRS mode. Advance Measurement Stations (AMS)
longer to capture seasonal variations. can be set up for quantification of attenuation of
solar radiation due to the presence of aerosols in
3.4.2. Ground Based Measurement the atmosphere and for the measurement of the
reflectivity of the earth (Albedo), incoming long wave
Solar radiation resources assessment (SRRA) radiation and atmospheric visibility for research and
stations are set up for long term measurement of developmental activities.
solar data at ground level. A typical SRRA station
consists of two towers of 1.5 m and 6 m tall each Well maintained land-based sensors can measure
for measuring solar and meteorological parameters the solar resource with a relative accuracy of
such as wind velocity, temperature, precipitation, 3-5%. Long term data from such stations may be
and humidity. The 1.5 m tall tower houses a solar used to calibrate satellite – derived data. However,
tracker equipped with Pyranometer, Pyranometer maintenance is very important since soiled or ill-
with shading disc and Pyrheliometer to measure calibrated sensors can easily yield unreliable data.
global, diffuse and direct irradiance respectively. The
6 m tall tower houses instruments for measuring 3.5. ACQUIRING SOLAR RESOURCE
ambient temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric DATA
pressure, wind speed, and direction, rainfall and a
state of-the-art data acquisition system. The solar There are a variety of different solar resource
sensors are traceable to the World Radiometric datasets that are available with varying accuracy,
Reference (WRR) and the meteorological sensors are geographical coverage, time resolution, spatial
traceable to the World Meteorological Organization resolution and historical time period. Table below
(WMO). Each SRRA station is totally powered by summarizes the major available satellite-based
solar PV modules. A trigger switch is also installed at meteorological databases globally and suitable for
each SRRA station to track the cleaning status of the Nepal.
SRRA stations on a daily basis. Data is sampled every
second and averaged over a minute and transmitted

TABLE 2: ACQUIRING SOLAR RESOURCE DATA

Database
(satellite Time Spatial Values
Based) Area Coverage Time Period Resolution Resolution (Time series) Parameters Type Website
SolarGIS Globally Latitude From 1994 15 min 0.25Km x hourly GHI, DNI Commercial https://solargis.com/
60°N and 0.25Km
50°S

Meteonorm Globally 1991-2010/ 1-hourly monthly GHI, DNI Commercial http://www.meteonorm.com/

1996-2015

Solar Energy Europe, 1991-today 1-hourly 2.5Km x hourly GHI, DNI Commercial https://wdc.dlr.de/
Mining Africa, (Europe), 2.5Km data_products/SERVICES/
(SOLEMI) Asia 1999-2006 SOLARENERGY/description.php
(Asia)

3Tier Europe, 48°N and 1999-present 1-hourly 3Km x 3Km hourly GHI, DNI Commercial https://www.3tier.com/
Africa, 60°S
Asia

Surface Globally 1983-2005 3-hourly 100Km x monthly GHI, DNI Free https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/
meteorology 100Km sse/
and Solar
Energy (SSE)-
NASA

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 12

 CHAPTER 4:
SURVEY AND INVESTIGATION

4.1. INTRODUCTION • Feasibility study

• Complete proposal
The design guide is a prescriptive guidance for • Tenders and Contract award negotiations
system designers who will develop solar power • Project integration
based mini grid systems in Nepal whether it be • System integration and Installation
government, non-government, and commercial or • Construction supervision and monitoring
not for profit. • Final test, performance verification and
acceptance
This guidance focuses on the holistic objectives • Operation and maintenance
which are required by the various project
stakeholders throughout the lifecycle of the project, 4.2. SITE SELECTION FOR SOLAR
this typically includes socioeconomic, financial, MINI GRID
environmental and technical aspects. In general,
all solar power systems (from commencement of Site selection is a critical issue due to its direct
the project to completion) proceed through several impact on the technical, economic, environmental
phases, each requiring specific effort. The following and social aspects. While considering the site
are various phases of solar PV system lifecycle: selection, the following major parameters should be
• Site identification considered.
• Site assessment

TABLE 3: SITE SELECTION PARAMETERS

SN Parameters Description
1 Availability of Solar Resource • Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) with more than 4kWh/m² should be considered
to have higher energy yield.
GHI value should be validated from freely available or commercially available
meteorological data sources for different chosen sites.
• Far Shading: shading due to hills or mountains or building on the far horizon should
2 Shading
be avoided
• Near Shading: shading due to nearby trees, building, structures, overhead cabling
should be avoided
Both far shading and near shading should be assessed with the help of sun path
diagram or any other shadow analysis tool.
3 Availability of Land Area • Should have sufficient space to accommodate the required capacity to be
installed.
• Typically require about 7 to 10 m² per kWp for relatively flat land and depends on
two factors:
• 1) Type of solar PV technology chosen (PolyCrystalline or MonoCrystalline or HIT
or Thin Film).
2) Land shape & slope, tilt angle and shading.

13 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 SN Parameters Description
4 Topography and Orientation • Land should have a good southern exposure without significant shading.
Sites that are flat or slope towards the south are ideal.
Accessibility • Shortest possible distance should be chosen from project site to access road and
highway
• Quality of existing roads or new proposed construction roads should be carefully
considered for the transportation of equipment (by vehicle or by porter)
5 Geotechnical The ground should be substantially stable
6 Climatic Characteristics The weather factors that should be considered are:
• Flooding: Flood risk assessment mainly to the powerhouse, erosion of mounting
structure and foundations
• Wind Speed: Sites with high wind speed should be avoided
• Snow:
1) Sites prone to regular covering of snow areas should be avoided
2) For less snow areas, the design of array mounting structures should
consider the extra weight of snow
Proper right of way for transmission and distribution lines should be carefully
7 Right of Way
considered in order to avoid the unnecessary delay in project implementation
schedule, land acquisition and land agreement procedures

8 Permits and Clearances • Local land use zoning regulations

• Possibility to acquire land lease
Construction permit

4.3. PRE-FEASIBILITY PLANNING 4.4. FEASIBILITY PLANNING

Pre-feasibility study is an early stage analysis of a Solar mini grid feasibility study is the most
potential project. The study is conducted by a group fundamental engineering effort required for
of small teams and is designed in order to decide assessing and planning any type of solar mini grid
whether or not the project will be worth proceeding design. Feasibility study is the cornerstone of solar
with or not and commitment of additional financial mini grid design because it provides an in-depth,
resources. The following are fundamental tasks meaningful assessment of the energy potential and
involved in conducting Pre-Feasibility Study. the relationship to consumers and productive end
• Site Assessment use.
• Roof-top and ground mount planning; Solar feasibility study is also of paramount
• Solar Resource Assessment importance in securing investment in solar mini
• Demand Assessment grids, since it provides detailed assessments of
• Cost estimate solar energy production potential as well as sets up
• Estimation of Energy Yield a bankable engineering platform for future project
• Financial and Economic Analysis execution.
• Environmental and Social Safeguards Screening The following are fundamental tasks involved in
• Preliminary Risk assessment conducting Feasibility Study:
• Site assessment
• Roof-top and ground mount planning;
• Solar resource assessment
• Demand assessment and projection
• Shading analysis
• System design
• Design layout

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 14

 Prefeasibility Planning

GESI Analysis
GESI Analysis Tool

Load Demand Productive End Use Community Benefit

Socio-economic survey
Forecast Possibilities Assessment

Risk Assessment

Community & operational

capacity Assessment

Sustainability
Assessment

Pre-feasibility
Survey Tool
Report

Figure 2: Pre-feasibility Process

• BoQ and Cost Estimate long term success and sustainability of a project as
• Estimation of Energy Yield well as securing investment and investor confidence
• Financial and Economic Analysis in the viability of a project. Therefore the design
• Environmental and Social Safeguards guidance focuses primarily on socioeconomic and
• Risk assessment financial assessment in pre-feasibility planning, as
these are the key drivers for the mini grid project.
The engineer or designer will need the following
documentation in order to provide a comprehensive
analysis. Solar system feasibility studies usually
involve several site visits and a close collaborative
effort with the organization or community at that
location.

It is key to understand the linkage between services

delivery via the mini grid and how it will be accepted
by the end-user. This is essential in determining the

15 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

4.5. GENDER EQUALITY AND 4.5.4. Gender Equality
SOCIAL INCLUSION
The absence of discrimination on the basis of gender
Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) in exercising rights, undertaking responsibilities and
established the socially constructed power relations seizing opportunities, in the allocation of resources
between women and men’s roles, responsibilities, or benefits. It is the full and equal exercise by women
opportunities and decision-making authority. The and men of their human rights.
approach has created a space of new realities and
relationships as girls, boys, women and men of Energy is a basic need of human beings. Improved
any age, class, caste, ethnicity, religious identity energy sources improve levels of welfare, increase
or different ability are enabled to live with dignity, standards of living, and provide opportunity for
justice and respect, asserting their rights and income generation. However, differences in energy
responsibilities. access have remained a challenge for a majority
of the population with respect to gender and the
The conceptual framework acknowledged in this socially marginalized groups.
guideline is taken from Gender Equality and Social
Inclusion Mainstream Plan of AEPC, 2013 and GESI The social issues caused by gender inequality and
Policy 2018 of AEPC which are mentioned below as social exclusion can be overcome by innovative GESI
it is: measures. The purpose of the GESI approach is to
address key issues such as access and articulation of
4.5.1. Social inclusion/exclusion women and equal participation of poor and socially
excluded groups in benefit sharing. It plays a vital
Social inclusion is defined as, the premeditated role to narrow down the existing gaps between
and systematic removal of institutional and social women and men belonging to various social groups
barriers, with the enhancement of incentives to (vertically in social hierarchy and horizontally in
increase the access of diverse individuals and groups gender hierarchy). Therefore, the GESI approach
to naturally access opportunities. is an indispensable intervention widely applied for
equal access and control on development inputs for
Social Exclusion is defined as, the practice of the nation and for development projects. The DFS
excluding a group of people and/or individuals from survey team should collect information from the field
social relations and institutions and preventing them visit as mentioned below;
from full participation in the normal, normatively • What is the current access to various energy
prescribed activities of the society in which they live. sources and services (e.g., electricity, kerosene,
diesel, fuel wood) by people (men, women and
4.5.2. Gender socially excluded groups) in the project area?
• Women and children suffering from energy-
“Gender” refers to the socially constructed roles, related environment and health problems, such
behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given as smoke emissions and indoor air pollution?
society appropriates for women and men. “Male” and • How are energy sources for households
“female” are sex categories, while “masculine” and collected? Can the proposed project include a
“feminine” are gender categories. specific intervention to reduce women’s time and
drudgery related to collecting energy sources
4.5.3. Equality (time spent or distance travel to access to
fuelwood, kerosene etc)?
Focuses on ensuring that all members of society • Is the proposed energy services and sources
have equal opportunities, equal satisfaction of affordable, particularly to poor, socially excluded
basic needs, legal equality, socio-cultural equality, groups and households headed by women? What
economic equality and political equality. It is will be the viable options (such as financing
the result/outcome expected from the nation, schemes to upset cost of connection fees or
organization and the development program. adoption of efficient appliances) to improve

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 16

 affordability for the socially excluded, single In Nepal, many of the alternative energy technologies
women, poor and households headed by women? are being implemented under community owned
• What are the possibilities of powering social and community managed modality. Government
services, such as clinics and public lighting to role is mainly limited to policy formulation, subsidy
improve maternal health, and women’s mobility channelizing and providing technical assistance
and safety (e.g., unavailability of streetlights due to the community to be involved from the very
to lack of reliable energy source) to participate in beginning through commissioning till operating of
activities outside the home after dark? the plant. Based on the past experience, it makes
• What are the opportunities of access to sense to follow the same models.
electricity that facilitates provision of drinking
water, agricultural uses and can reduce the time Community participation is widely acknowledged as
spent fetching water? an essential ingredient for ensuring equity and the
• What is the financial status and ability of the sustainability of any decentralized electrification.
female-headed households and single women, Local participation in the form of village community
earthquake hit groups, conflict victims, and organization or cooperatives generally contributes
disaster-prone, socially disadvantaged / to better project management, though to varying
marginalized household’s sources of collateral to degrees. The level of engagement of communities
pay upfront costs to acquire electricity? in the operation and management of projects
• Status of micro and small enterprises in project differ significantly. Very often rural communities
areas and women’s involvement. How does the get involved in the project development from the
proposed project encourage women & men as very inception of the project planning until the
well as excluded groups in establishing micro and commissioning and operation of projects. In some
small enterprises? other cases, participation seems to be less active
• Is there Income Generation opportunities for and limited to the upkeep of the project operation
men/women of all social groups through the and management. Capacity building of community
electrification projects? representatives on various aspects of Mini Grid has
been acknowledged as an important ingredient in the
Proper assessment of socio economic aspects of successful operation of mini grid projects.
any candidate site/locality is a prerequisite for any
new intervention in the area which may disturb Sustainability is the ultimate key for any investment
the way things were being done hitherto. Current to be meaningful. A lot of time, money and sweat
energy use patterns, management of energy needs will be wasted if the installation cannot operate
for different purposes, position of energy in priority sustainably for the desired period of time. There are
ladder, economic condition of the people, willingness various aspects of sustainability including ecological,
to accept newer technology, ability to pay and social, financial and technical and all aspects shall be
willingness to pay etc. are vital information that shall thoroughly analyzed before any conclusion could be
be obtained at the outset. reached for go/no go.

17 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 CHAPTER 5:
SYSTEM DESIGN
5.1. SYSTEM DESIGN • Wind Turbine Configuration;
CONSIDERATIONS • Selection of wind turbine
• Selection of wind controller
When designing solar mini grid systems, the • Turbine and tower dimensioning;
engineer or the designer must consider numerous • Power synchronization (in case of hybrid
parameters which include but are not limited to the technologies)
following: • Wind system control;
• Site assessment considerations; • Powerhouse and Power Plant Fence dimensioning
• site location and land area requirement; • Power transmission and distribution system
• meteorological data; components dimensioning
• electrical system; • Protection System Dimensioning for Generation
• Load profile assessment considerations; and Distribution system
• Seasonal load profile, daily load profile, daily • Cabling schedule;
energy requirement and annual energy • Control and monitoring system;
requirements; Reporting.
• Surge power requirements;
• Peak power requirements;
• PV system configuration; 5.1.1. Peak sunshine hour (PSH)
• Selection of PV module
• Selection of charge controller The term “peak sun hours” refers to solar insolation
• Array layouts with shading analysis; which a particular location would receive if the sun is
• Selection of grid connected inverter shining at its maximum value for a certain number of
• Inverter and/or MPPT Controller hours. It is equivalent to Global Horizontal Irradiance
configuration (GHI) in particular place. If GHI per day is 4kWh/m²
• Energy Matching PV array and charge that means PSH will be 4 hours. AEPC supported
controller mini grid shall have to design for an average of 4hrs
• Matching PV array and grid connected of PHS.
inverter;
• Storage system configuration;
• Selection of battery storage
• Battery configurations
• Battery Selection of battery inverter
• Inverter configurations
• Matching battery storage and battery inverter
• Diesel Generator Configuration (if case of diesel
hybrid);
• DG set dimensioning;
• DG set control;

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 18

 Area Under Curve = Solar Insolation
Equal Area

1kW/m²
Solar Rodiation

Solar Rodiation
Time of Day Time of Day

Night Day Night Peak Sun Hours

Figure 3: Peak Sunshine Hour (Source: PVeducation)

5.2. MINI GRID ARCHITECTURES

Mini grids vary considerably in terms of scale, The designer will have the choice to organize
complexity and loads. They can incorporate solar mini grids into four basic configurations or
many different types and combinations of power architectures: ac coupled, dc coupled and DC and
generation and energy storage technologies, AC Coupled and DC-AC coupled with distributed
including fossil fuel generators, micro-turbines, generation systems. There are pros and cons
photovoltaics, batteries and energy management associated with each design approach.
systems.

Field Components

Distribution Network

Power House Solar PV

Combiner
Array
Box
~ Solar
Dist. Charge
Box = Controller
First Inverter
Pole Battery Bank

Figure 4: General Architecture of Solar Mini Grid

5.2.1. AC Coupled availability, as well as simplified system monitoring

and serviceability. Conversion efficiencies are
In an AC-coupled configuration, there are separate improved because the PV system connects to
PV inverters and battery inverters. These separate standard utility-interactive inverters, which are
inverters connect to one another on the ac side of often 97% or 98% efficient. While power converter
the system, typically through a dedicated subpanel options are more limited than PV inverter options,
containing backup loads. The PV inverter is typically several vendors serving the solar market also
a standard utility-interactive inverter, albeit one offer commercial-scale energy storage converters.
capable of receiving external controls. The storage Further, you can deploy any power converter suitable
inverter controls battery charging and discharging. for dc coupling as a dedicated storage converter in
an AC-coupled mini grid system. Having all of these
An AC-coupled configuration typically offers options to choose from makes it relatively easy for
improved conversion efficiencies and equipment

19 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

the designers to identify a storage converter with the The drawbacks of ac coupling relate to costs, space
desired capacity rating and product features. requirements and system control. Because ac-
coupled systems require two separate inverters,
An additional benefit to using utility-interactive they are typically more expensive than a comparable
PV inverters is that you can use standard Original system deployed using a single multi-interface
Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) or third-party converter. Systems deployed using a dedicated
PV monitoring solutions. While this may sound energy storage converter face difficulties with RETS
trivial, it is an important consideration for some and import procedures. Two inverters also take
applications. For example, off-the-shelf monitoring up more physical space than a single converter.
options are valuable for design flexibly for the Lastly, system control and interoperability may be
many and varied monitoring requirements now more limited or complicated in systems deployed
demanded by project stakeholders. Meanwhile, using two inverters, especially if the inverter
having two separate inverters makes it easier for manufacturers differ. Mismatched inverters may also
technicians to isolate the storage system from the make it more difficult to monitor both the PV and the
PV system for maintenance and troubleshooting. energy storage systems effectively.
It is recommended that both the inverters are
compatible, shall communicate well with each other
and designed by the same manufacturer.

Power House

AC Bus

Grid Tie
PV Array
Inverter

Bidirectional DC Bus
Inverter/Charger Battery
(Battery Inverter)

Energy
Meter

T&D
Network

PEU Load

HH Load

Figure 5: AC Coupled System

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 20

 The AC coupled design topology is flexible in terms 5.2.2. DC coupled
of battery bank size optimization at present as well
as future interconnection to the mains grid system if In a dc-coupled configuration, the PV and energy
required. Some of advantages and disadvantages are storage systems share a common inverter with three
elaborated below; or more interfaces. Two interfaces on the dc side of
the converter are dedicated to the PV and battery
Advantages:
inputs, and a third interface on the ac side of the
• Supply day time load with relative high “PV to
converter provides an input for the utility grid. While
day-load” efficiency (high efficiency conversion
power from the PV array flows in one direction only,
of PV inverters and assuming that load<PV
power flow on both the battery and utility interfaces
production);
is bidirectional.
• “PV to day-load” efficiency = PV inverter
efficiency = 95% DC coupling can reduce material and labor costs
• Flexibility for future system extensions (addition compared to an AC-coupled system since it can rely
of PV Array/PV inverter blocks connected on the on a single power converter. DC-coupled systems
same AC bus, or connection to other AC sources, are generally more compact in terms of physical
such as the future grid); space. Not only do you have to install fewer pieces
• Use of different AC generation sources working in of equipment, but also this approach eliminates
parallel as a hybrid system; redundant subcomponents and controls. Meanwhile,
• PV inverters being massively deployed on the the process of qualifying the energy storage
international market, monitoring solutions components with RETS is simplified when the solar
of PV inverters and PV Array are mature and and storage share the same converter.
commercially available.
In specific scenarios, dc coupling may provide
Disadvantages: unique performance benefits. For example, battery
• Charge battery with low “PV to battery” efficiency charging from the PV array could be more efficient
(due to several consecutive DC-AC conversions): in a dc-coupled system if the loads are outside peak
• “PV to battery” efficiency = PV inverter sun hours.
efficiency (95%) x charger efficiency (90%) =
The potential drawbacks of dc coupling include
86%
limitations related to product availability, weighted
• Supply nighttime load with lower “PV to night-
efficiency, shared converter capacity and energy
load” efficiency;
metering. Relatively few equipment vendors offer
• PV to night-load” efficiency = PV inverter
multi-interface converters for solar mini grids. As
efficiency (95%) x charger efficiency (90%)
compared to a standard utility-interactive inverter,
x battery efficiency (80%) x battery inverter
these specialty converters have a lower rated
mean efficiency (87.5%)= 60%
efficiency, typically in the 92% to 96% range.
• Requires potentially more physical space due to
separate PV inverter and battery inverter, as well
DC coupled systems using traditional inverters are
as control system;
more difficult at scale. For example, stacking charge
• Higher system cost per Wp (specific cost)
controllers with small voltage windows results in a
due to additional components (PV inverter),
lot more devices, cables, connectors and combiner
additional functions required for the battery
panels, it is also not always possible to synchronize
inverter (control system, charger) and additional
all the charge controllers to a single point of control
installation time;
which limits the ability to effectively manage battery
• Required compatibility between PV inverter,
charging and system control. The designer should
control system and battery inverter;
consider whether there is a compromise in system
Configuration typically designed for hybrid systems services and functionality by having two dc sources
using different generation sources leading to a more share converter capacity. Obtaining investor/
complex operation of the system. stakeholder agreement may also present a problem,
since there are losses associated with energy
storage system charge and discharge cycles.

21 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 Power House

AC Bus

DC Bus

Battery

MPPT PV Array

Inverter

Energy
Meter

Distribution
Network

PEU Load

HH Load

Figure 6: DC Coupled

The advantages and disadvantages of a DC coupled day-load” efficiency (assuming that load<PV
system are listed as below. production):
• “PV to day-load” efficiency = MPPT SCC
Advantages: efficiency (95%) x battery inverter mean
• Charge battery with relative high “PV to battery” efficiency (87.5%)= 83%
efficiency: • High system cost for relatively large off-grid
• “PV to battery” efficiency = MPPT SCC systems, as multiple solar charge controllers
efficiency = 95% (and potentially inverters) are required as well as
• Supply nighttime load with relative high “PV to the associated balance of system components
night-load” efficiency: (cable, combiner boxes, etc.).
• “PV to night-load” efficiency = MPPT SCC
efficiency (95%) x battery efficiency (80%) 5.2.3. DC and AC coupled system
x battery inverter mean efficiency (87.5%)=
67%, A hybrid system configuration integrates additional
• More compact in terms of physical space; generator(s) into the dc- or ac-coupled mini grid.
• Low system cost for relatively small off-grid PV This architecture is mainly beneficial where there
systems. are chances of full drainage of battery caused by
faulty low voltage discharge protection of battery
Disadvantages: or improper O&M. This architecture overcomes the
• Supply day time load with relative low “PV to shortcomings of AC coupled systems.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 22

 Power House

AC Bus
DC Bus
Grid Tie
PV Array
Inverter Battery

MPPT PV Array

Bidirectional
Inverter/Charger

Energy
Meter

Distribution
Network

PEU Load

HH Load

Figure 7: DC and AC Hybrid Coupled System

5.2.4. DC-AC coupled with distributed in the T&D line at the far end from the power house.
generation The biggest advantage of this architecture is I2R loss
minimization. Further, the quality and reliability of
This system shall be adopted where there is a long electricity is also enhanced.
transmission line (say >5km) and availability of land
at one place is not possible. In that case, the portion
of PV array and grid tie inverter can be synchronized
Power House

AC Bus
DC Bus
Grid Tie
PV Array
Inverter Battery

MPPT PV Array

Bidirectional
Inverter/Charger

Energy
Meter

Distribution
Network PEU Load

HH Load

Distributed Generation

Grid Tie PV Array

Inverter

Figure 8: DC-AC coupled with distributed generation

23 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

5.3. MODELING AND SIMULATION 5.4. METEOROLOGICAL MODELING
DATA
Accurately predicting PV system performance is one
of the most important tasks in the design of a solar Weather data selection is one of the most
mini grid. Expected performance informs design challenging aspects of the modeling process. In
decisions, serves as the basis of financial models, effect, we are using historical weather data to predict
tariff determination, informs the bill of materials and future performance of the solar mini grid system,
can make or break a potential project. another way of saying this is we are trying to predict
at some level the weather and the future, both of
It is very important to have consistent and which are of course extremely difficult.
reproducible energy performance estimates to
satisfy investors and independent reviews. Even All the designer can do in this case is use the best
a couple percentage difference among predicted weather data possible, evaluating and selecting
energy production results can have a significant weather data based on criteria such as record
impact on project financing and investor confidence. duration, source and quality, representativeness and
Generally speaking there are no rules or standards alignment with other sources is advantageous.
for using performance modeling tools even in the
mature International solar markets. As a result, a) Record duration
performance estimates from different design firms Meteonorm 7.3 allows access to historical time
for the same project can show large discrepancies series of irradiation and temperature data which
and variations. accurately representing the average long-term
climate for a given location requires many years’
The most important factors in PV system worth of weather data, the longer the better, up to
performance prediction are all to do with the 30 years.
meteorological conditions that are used by the
simulation software, the weather dataset determines b) Source and quality
these values and are therefore the most significant Direct measurement data or ground based
factor in the design. Key factors but not limited to: logged data taken from the site is optimal over
• Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) modeled data based on records such as observed
• Plane-of-array Irradiance (POA) cloud coverage and satellite-derived irradiance,
• Incidence Angle (IAM) however direct measurement data will probably
• Soiling not be available and may not be complete. In this
• Temperature case, satellite data would be preferred.
• AC wiring
• Model Mismatch c) Representativeness
• Light-Induced Degradation (LID) You can also evaluate meteorological data based
• Inverter efficiency on how well the location where the station
• Near Shading recorded data represents the project site, you
• DC wiring might be able to find weather data for a site
• Power Tolerance that is in a similar region that has similar site
• Inverter clipping conditions. In this case, site elevation is very
important as elevation has a considerable impact
on PV performance.

d) Alignment with other sources

After locating sources of weather data, you
should compare the annual and monthly values
for GHI, DNI and ambient temperature across
all files. This comparison should expose any
mismatches in the available datasets.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 24

 In summary, typically you can achieve the lowest storage or hybrid simulation. It is a web-based
uncertainty in weather data by cross-checking tool.
multiple sources of data and then using short-
duration ground measurements to improve the Main Features of HelioScope:
quality of a long-term satellite dataset. • Import of irradiation data
• Import of PV modules and inverters data
• Useful 3D application for site plan and array
5.5. SIMULATION SOFTWARE layout design
• Single line diagrams, electrical layout
Many software tools of various scopes are available • Detailed presentation of the simulation results,
either as free of cost tools or commercially licensed including shading report and charts
products. In the context of solar mini grid design
the more appropriate software packages that are c) PVGIS
commonly used in the design of solar mini grid are PVGIS is a data platform hosted by the EU Joint
included here. Research Commission. PVGIS offers data on
solar irradiation for Europe, Africa and Asia.
a) PVSyst Geographic information on monthly or daily
http://www.pvsyst.com/ global irradiation data can be presented on a
Comprehensive vendor neutral PV simulation Google-based map. A quick PV yield estimation
with storage and hybrid simulation. Including can also be calculated, both on- and off-grid.
bill of materials, performance simulation,
financial simulation, cabling dimensioning and d) Homer Pro
diagramming. PV*Syst focuses more on technical http://www.homerenergy.com/HOMER_pro.html
configuration and economic analysis and has Extremely comprehensive vendor neutral PV
been extremely popular in Europe and the USA simulation with storage and hybrid simulation.
for many large solar plants and mini grids in the Including bill of materials, performance
past. PVSyst is a stand-alone tool. simulation, financial simulation, and cable
dimensioning. Homer focuses more on energy
Main Features of the PVSyst: efficiency and economic analysis.
• Complete database of PV modules, grid
connected inverters, meteorological data e) PV*sol
• Useful 3D application to simulate near shadings http://www.valentin-software.com/en/products/
• Import of irradiation data from NASA, photovoltaics
Meteonorm, PVGIS databases Extremely comprehensive vendor neutral PV
• Import of PV modules and inverters data from simulation with storage and hybrid simulation.
PHOTON INTERNATIONAL Database Including bill of materials, performance
• Economic evaluation and payback simulation, financial simulation, cabling
• Able to import Meteo Data from many different dimensioning and diagramming. PV*Sol focuses
sources, as well as personal data more on technical configuration and economic
• Provide results in the form of full report, graphs analysis. PV*sol includes the meteonorm
and tables, as well as data export for use in other database which contains data for Nepal. PV*SOL
software is also a stand-alone tool.

b) Helioscope Main Features of PV*SOL Premium:

https://helioscope.folsomlabs.com/ • Import of irradiation data from Meteonorm
Comprehensive vendor neutral PV simulation database
including bill of materials, performance • Import of PV modules and inverters data
simulation, financial simulation, cable • Import of satellite maps to quickly and easily
dimensioning and diagramming. Does not include create buildings

25 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

• Shading analysis b) Standard Test Conditions (STC)
• Detailed presentation of the simulation results, The standard test condition refers to following
including charts and cash flow table condition
• Solar Irradiance of 1000 W/m²
f) PVWatts • Solar cell surface temperature of 25°C and
http://www.pvwatts.com • Air Mass of 1.5
PVWatts is a free tool developed by the US
government, it includes basic vendor neutral PV STC refers to laboratory conditions. Usually, solar
simulation including performance simulation and modules are rated at STC thus there is always
financial simulation. Does not include storage or a Wp (Watt-peak) unit used for solar modules
hybrid simulation. PVWatts is primarily focused capacity.
on basic energy production and financial analysis.
The Air Mass is the path length which light
g) SketchUp takes through the atmosphere normalized to
http://sketchup.com/en the shortest possible path length (i.e. when the
Sketchup is a 3D modeling tool that is available sun is directly overhead). Air mass quantifies
in a free or commercially licensed version. the reduction in the power of light as it passes
Sketchup has excellent shade and sun path through the atmosphere and is absorbed by air
modelling capabilities by geolocation with google and dust. Air Mass = 1/Cosθ, where θ is angle
maps. It can be used for holistic site layout of PV from the vertical (zenith angle), when the sun is
arrays, cabling planning, shading analysis and directly overhead, the air mass is 1. Air Mass 1.5
provide comprehensive drawings for EPC’s and refers to the 48.2° inclination of the sun from the
stakeholders. vertical.

c) Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)

5.6. GENERATION SYSTEM DESIGN NoCT refers to following condition
Irradiance 800W/m²
5.6.1. Solar PV Module Solar Cell Surface temperature of 45°C
Ambient Temperature of 20°C
While deciding on the PV module, following factors Wind speed of 1m/s,
should be taken into considerations:
NOCT refers to more idealized conditions
as it takes ambient temperature rather cell
a) Sizing PV Array
temperature in the STC condition.
The PV array size has to be chosen based on the
daily energy demand of the community.
EXAMPLE:
Daily Energy Demand
PV Array Size (Watt-Hour) A 327Wp solar panel at STC can deliver maximum
(Watt-peak) = of 243W at NOCT i.e. at NOCT, it delivers 74% of its
Total Loss Factor*Peak Sunshine
Hour (Hour) maximum power at STC

• Daily energy demand shall be obtained from the

demand analysis. d) PV Array Row Spacing
• Total loss factor should be between 0.6 to 0.7 Consideration must be given so that one row
• Peak Sunshine Hour of a particular place will of modules does not cast a shadow on the
be equivalent to Global Horizontal Irradiation of row behind. The PV modules will be on tilted
a particular place. It should be between 4 to 6 frames facing true South to optimize energy
kWhr/m² per day which is equivalent to 4 to 6 production. Calculations need to be done to find
hours of PSH. In an average, PHS of 4 hrs can be the minimum distance between PV array rows to
considered. avoid winter mid-day shading. Basic trigonometry
will provide the calculations needed. Here is
trigonometry calculation;

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 26

 d) PV Array Row Spacing • Temperature considerations
Consideration must be given so that one row
of modules does not cast a shadow on the For a given installation in a hot climate, a thin
row behind. The PV modules will be on tilted film solar module might be selected because its
frames facing true South to optimize energy output losses in high temperatures are less than
production. Calculations need to be done to find for silicon modules.
the minimum distance between PV array rows to
avoid winter mid-day shading. Basic trigonometry Thin film solar technology has a lower operating
will provide the calculations needed. Here is efficiency compared to conventional mono-
trigonometry calculation; crystalline and polycrystalline silicon. This means
that for the same installed capacity, the surface
area required for thin film technology could be up
to twice as much as other silicon technology.
Q

L As an Example, let us consider two systems

h
q a operating with a cell temperature of 75°C.
P R
S

a b Amorphous (thin film) system of 1kWp using

c
Thin Film CIGS modules (power temperature
Figure 9: Row Spacing Calculation
coefficient of 0.31%/°C) has a temperature loss
of 16%. Surface area required for this 1kWp array:
Θ is tilt angle which is equal to latitude of the ~ 9m²
place
α is altitude or elevation angle which can be find Polycrystalline system of 1kWp using Crystalline
from sun-path diagram Solar modules (power temperature coefficient
L is length of module 0.41%/°C) has a temperature loss of 22%.
c is pitch Surface area required for this 1kWp array: ~ 7m²

In triangle PQR, h= L x sinθ and a= L x cosθ Nevertheless, while selecting PV modules

In triangle QRS, b= h/ tanα = L x sinθ /tan α the system designer needs to consider other
pitch = a+b = (L x cosθ) + (L x sin θ /tan α) important factors such as overall module
for perfectly south facing efficiency, space requirement for PV array, power
pitch = a+b = (L x cosθ) + [(L x sin θ /tan α) x degradation, module power warranty, guarantee
cosβ] for azimuth angle of β and expected life etc. The amorphous (Thin Film)
array requires more space to accommodate the
e) Environmental Considerations installation, more framing product and longer
To choose the right PV module for an installation, installation time than polycrystalline solar PV
it is important to consider the following aspects modules.
of the installation site:
• Local temperature range, Minimum and f) Available Land Area Considerations
Maximum temperature In case of limited land area availability and the
• Temperature effect on the power output possibility of shading, high efficiency modules
• Suitability of the roof structure for the proposed with larger capacity shall be considered to
installation accommodate maximum capacity and generate
• If ground-mounted, the suitability of the ground maximum possible output from the limited space.
type for the proposed installation Hence, selection of modules (type, dimensions,
• Exposure to salt spray – this may impact on etc.) also depends on the available land area for
warranty of module installation.
• Snow loading – this may affect the mounting
structure suitability

27 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

g) Maximum System Voltage h) Heavy Snow Considerations
The PV modules should be selected considering For the project sites with high snow areas, the
that the designed system will operate below PV modules should be able to withstand the
the maximum system voltage of the module. increased downwards pressure caused by the
Typically, modules are rated to a maximum potential accumulated snow loads on the surface
system voltage of 600V DC or 1000V DC or of the PV module.
1500VDC.

i) Temperature dependency of Solar Cell

Solar cells are temperature dependent, higher the temperature lower the open circuit voltage and vice
versa. Increase in temperature also increases short circuit current and versa. However the change in
current is negligible compared to changes in voltage. Typical temperature curve is given below;

CS6K-265M/I-V CURVES
Maximum Power Point (MPP)

A
Short Circuit (Isc)
10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2
Open Circuit (Voc)
1 1

0 V 0 V
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

1000 W/m² 5°C

800 W/m² Variable sun Variable sun 25°C
600 W/m² 45°C
400 W/m² 65°C

Figure 10: Temperature dependency of solar cell, Credit Canadian solar

(source: Canadian solar)

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 28

 j) Matching Array and PV Inverter Voltage
While designing a solar PV system, it is very
important to match arrays based on PV inverter
voltage. Mismatch may lead to lowering the energy
yield of a system. For most of the 1500V DC input
inverter, MPPT ranges fall in between 800-1300V.
Minimum number of modules in series is based on

MPPT Range
Voltage

750 850 950 1050 1150 1250 1350

700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

Figure 11: Array and PV Inverter Voltage Matching

the highest temperature of that place and vice-

versa.
An example below showing minimum number of
modules in series
The voltage dependency can be found from formula
listed below.
Annual maximum temperature of project site =55°C
VOC CELL EFF = VOC-STC + [ɣV * (TCELL - TSTC)] Temperature Coef Vmp = −0.4%/°C
Where, Vmp = 40 V
VOC CELL EFF = VOC at effective cell temperature, MPPT mini input voltage= 700V
volts
VOC-STC = VOC at STC, Volts Solution
Temp adjustment factor = -0.4% *(55-25)*40 =
ɣV = Voc temperature coefficient, V/ ˚C -4.08V [formula used is ‘ɣV * (TCELL - TSTC)’ ]
TCELL = minimum expected cell temperature at (Temp coef. is given in percentage thus have to
specified temperature, in °C multiply it by Vmp)
Vmp cell eff = 40+ (-4.08) = 35.92 V
Minimum no. of modules in series = MPPT mini
input voltage/ Vmp cell eff
= 700/35.92 = 19.48
An example below showing maximum number of = 20
modules in series (always round up for minimum no. of modules)

Annual minimum temperature at project site= 5°C

Temperature Coef Voc of module = −0.35%/°C
Voc of module= 44 V
Inverter Max input voltage = 1250V

Solution
Temp adjustment factor = -0.35% *(5-25)*44 =
3.08V [formula used is ‘ɣV * (TCELL - TSTC)’ ]
(Temp coef. is given in percentage thus have to
multiply it by Voc)
Voc cell eff = 44+3.08 = 47.08 V
Maximum no. of modules in series = inverter max
input voltage/ Voc cell eff
= 1250/47.08 = 26.56
= 26
(always round down for maximum no. of modules)

29 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

5.6.2. Mounting System These systems will all have the same area footprint
if worked out with the same tilt angle and shading
Ground Mounted PV systems allow the construction, losses, but the increasing module array height
installation and commissioning to be carried out increases the complexity and installed cost per
at ground level, and therefore to avoid working module (as well as difficult to clean PV modules
heights. Working at ground level without having to during operational phase). Based on the requirement
use ladders and lifts can serve time and expense that a given installed PV capacity fits within a finite
for some installations. Ground mounted systems physical area, if a ride-on lawn mower had to fit
will also involve civil works, trenching and water between the module rows, for the installation to take
management. These additional aspects involving up as little as possible, a double row configuration
location topography (soil composition and run-off might be the most economical option. Whereas if
etc) are not as commonly considered by installers a utility truck is required to drive between rows, a
familiar with rooftop systems and therefore may quadruple row installation may be required.
require advice from a civil and/or structural engineer.
For the above reasons, not many small or medium- If the cheapest single row installation option is
sized grid connected systems use ground mounted chosen, there may only be enough room between
arrays, preferring to install roof mounted arrays. each row for installers to carry modules to their
installation point by hand or on a trolley. This could
Ground mounted systems are usually installed in take longer, and hence cost more, than if wider
rows of PV modules, and so the incident shading rows allowed for a utility truck to hold and transport
caused by one row of modules onto the row behind modules as they are installed.
as the sun moves across the sky must be factored in
when considering the layout. To avoid this as much Depending upon the local codes, a fence may be
as possible, and to work within a defined space, an required to prevent unauthorized people from
installer must choose a distance between rows to accessing the array and its surrounds, which can
keep shading losses to the minimum. also be used for the system’s security. As a ground
mounted array is highly visible; it makes accessibility
The ground mounted system might have to consider to thieves easier than a roof mounted system. Large
any maintenance requirements e.g. if installed on scale systems may include security cameras, motion
a grassed area, that any grass-cutting is shown as sensors and even security patrols, but these security
an ongoing maintenance cost and/or to suggest expenses are unlikely to be justified for small scale
that the modules be installed a certain height off systems.
ground level to allow for vegetation growth between
maintenance. Mounting systems carry general descriptions:

Fixed meaning that the PV array has a fixed

orientation to the sun; or

Example: Tracking meaning that the PV array is installed

so that it moves either on a single or dual axis to
A 10,000 PV module system could comprise of:
100 single rows of 100 modules.
optimize solar access.
50 double rows of 100 modules long by 2 modules • Rack mounts
high. • Pole Mounts
25 quadruple rows of 100 modules long by 4 • Sun-Tracking mounts
modules high.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 30

 a) Small Fixed Modular Systems
Fixed modular mounting systems might be a Where the soil is suitable and wind conditions
pre-engineered array frame designed to suit low enough, earth screws may be suitable
upto a 10kW of PV modules per frame. Larger replacements for a concrete foundation. A front-
installations may use multiples of these frames to end loader with an attachment could be used
mount large arrays, with the steel and aluminum to install a small number of earth screws for a
structure fixed to a concrete foundation. Modules smaller installation, and this could be cheaper
may be clamped or bolted to the frame, and than hiring a pile-driver to sink anchors into the
some frames have a U-channel frame design ground.
which allows the modules to ‘slide in’ and allows
for a faster installation to save on labour costs.

Figure 12: Small fixed modular system with four layers with concrete
foundation (Source: Italy Grid System)

31 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

b) Fixed, Pile-Driven
For large ground mount installation, some secured to this, with modules then clamped
companies have a faster installation method onto the rails in the same way as roof mounted
that uses a pile-driver to hammer a galvanized rail system. The linear installation method, with
steel post, steel pipe, I-bar or concrete pier into aluminum rails that are able to have a degree of
the ground to which, a linear mounting system is curvature in their long spans, enables uneven
attached, saving time and money over preparing ground to be used without expensive leveling
a site with excavations and concrete foundations. using earth moving equipment.
With a pile drive system, a geotechnical engineer
is required to survey the ground and check for With the cost of hiring a pile driver for installation
soil compactness, soil type and rock or rubble and the geotechnical survey required, pile-driven
size. Looser soils will require posts to be driven mounting systems are not likely to be economical
in deeper; for Example, upto 2.5 meter may be for systems smaller than around 100kWp.
required. The site survey will also give engineer
structural information about spacing required If the geotechnical appraisal for a site shows
between posts. that a pile driven system is not suitable or is too
expensive, precast concrete ‘blocks’ or piers can
Pile-driven installations do not need curing time be used as the individual mounting points for
to allow for concrete to set, and hence can save the ground mounted array framing. The logistics
time in colder and wetter areas where concrete of bringing these blocks to site and distributing
would take longer to cure. them would have to be assessed and priced as
part of the installation proposal.
Once the posts are driven into a suitable depth,
a cross member is attached and rails are then

Figure 13: Pile driven pier system (Source: Conergy SAS)

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 32

 c) Tracking Systems e) Dual-Axis Trackers
Where system yields are important or space Dual Axis trackers have two axes of movements,
requirements limit the installation area, trackers aligned with North-South and with East-West,
can offer an increased output with a peak power giving them a wide range of position options. As
lasting for a longer period of time each day. seasons change and the sun’s path goes from low
in the sky in winter to high in sky in summer, dual
Tracking systems usually have a higher axis trackers can optimize the amount of solar
equipment cost and require more maintenance energy captured.
than a fixed system, but these can be offset by a
higher yield in the morning and afternoon than a Selecting a solar tracker depends upon system
traditional fixed system. size, electric rates, land constraints, latitude
and weather. The use of solar trackers increases
There are two main types of trackers; single axis electricity production by around a third, and
trackers and dual axis trackers. A single axis some claim by as much as 40% in some regions,
tracker will move solar modules in one axis to compared with modules at a fixed angle. Utility
follow the sun’s path over the course of dawn scale and large projects usually use horizontal
to dusk (i.e. east to west), where as a dual-axis single-axis solar trackers, while dual axis
tracker will follow the sun’s path dawn to dusk, trackers are mostly used in smaller residential
and the seasonal movement of the sun from applications and locations with high government
summer solstice to winter solstice (i.e. the feed-in-tariffs. Vertical-axis trackers are suitable
modules are at a lower tilt angle in summer, and a for high latitudes because of their fixed angle
higher tilt angle in winter). or adjustable angles. According to research
conducted by Brac University in 2017 following is
d) Single-Axis Trackers the difference in energy yield with respect to fixed
Single axis trackers have only one axis of axis found on dual and single axis trackers.
movement, usually aligned with North and South.
This allows the panels to arc from east to west,
tracking the sun as it rises, travels across the sky, Yearly Total output Energy
and sets. Single axis trackers cost less than dual Difference with respect
to fixed Axis Percentage
axis trackers, and potentially offer more reliability
and a longer life span as they have fewer moving
Dual Axis 27.64%
parts. However, they have lower energy capture
Single Axis 23.28%
efficiency than their dual counterparts.

33 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 Figure 14: Solar tracking system in a field in La Calahorra, Granada,
Spain (Source: Encyclopedia)

5.6.3. Solar Battery Energy Required to Store

Battery Size (Watt-hour)*Days of Autonomy)
(Watt-hour) =
Charge-Discharge Efficiency*Depth of
One of the most significant components of the
Discharge (DoD)*DC system Voltage (Volt)
solar mini grid consists of battery storage systems
that are frequently used to store electric energy Energy required to store can be calculated for the
harvested from solar PV systems for use during the night time uses of appliances as well as backup for
absence of sunlight (such as at night and during day time high priority loads when there may not
cloudy conditions). Because of the significance of be clear sunny days. Productive End Uses load and
storage battery systems, it is important for design public service loads usually run in the day time and
engineers to have a full understanding of the will require minimum battery energy storage for
technology since this system component represents unforeseen non-sunshine hours. Hence, designers
a considerable portion of the overall installation can increase the battery size by 20-25% for day time
cost. More importantly, the designer must be load regulation based on demand assessment. The
mindful of the realities in handling, installation, and typical value of charge-discharge efficiency is 85%.
maintenance.
b) Depth of Discharge (DOD) (%)
a) Determining battery size The percentage of battery capacity that has
The battery size can be determined based on been discharged is expressed as a percentage of
following formula maximum capacity. The depth of discharge for lead
Energy Required to Store acid batteries shouldn’t exceed 80 %, whereas
Battery Size (Watt-hour)*Days of Autonomy)
(Watt-hour) =
lithium ion and flow batteries can go even up to
Charge-Discharge Efficiency*Depth
100%.
of Discharge (DoD)

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 34

 c) Days of Autonomy
The term days of autonomy means the number of
days a battery bank can provide electricity supply
without a recharged by the solar array. This
guideline recommend a maximum of 2 days of
autonomy for determining the battery capacity.

d) Major Battery Types

Solar mini grid backup lead acid batteries are
divided into two categories based on what they
are used for and how they are constructed. The
major applications of batteries used for solar
mini grids are deep-cycle discharge systems. The Figure 16: Lithium Ion Phosphate
Batteries, Credit Iron Edison.
major manufactured processes include flooded
or wet construction, gelled electrolyte, and
absorbed glass mat (AGM) types.

Other battery types are becoming more

mainstream, different types of lithium chemistry
batteries and flow batteries. These types of
batteries come in pre-packages units and careful
consultation needs to be done with the battery
vendor in order to have an effective battery
management system (BMS).

Figure 17: Zinc Bromide Flow Battery,

Credit Redflow

e) Comparison of battery types used in solar

mini grid
Solar Mini Grid commissioned in Nepal has
mainly used Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery
(VRLA) because of several advantages over
other technologies. In the recent past, lithium-
ion batteries are also getting popular due to
the declining cost and ease of transportation
to remote locations. Based on experiences
and market availability, this guideline suggests
the use of lead acid batteries, lithium ferrous
phosphate and vanadium redox batteries. The
Figure 15: Flooded Lead Acid Batteries
(Sacred Sun) comparison of these batteries is presented in
Table 4 below.

35 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

TABLE 4: COMPARISON OF BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES
(SOURCE: ELECTRICITY STORAGE VALUATION FRAMEWORK 2020 AND AEPC ANALYSIS)

Parameters Battery Types

Valve Regulated Lead Lithium Vanadium Redox Battery
Technical Acid Battery (VRLA) Ferrophosphate (LFP) (VRB)
Efficiency
AC-to-AC (%) 81% 86% 72%
C-Rate (min) C/10 C/4 C/8
C-Rate (max) 2C 2C C/4
DOD (%) 80% 90% 100%
Max. Operating Temperature (°C) 0 65 50
Safety High High High
Commercial
Storage CAPEX ($/kWh) 226 466 268
Development & Construction (years) 0.25 0.5 1
Operating Cost ($/kWh) 3 8 11
Energy Density (Wh/L) 75 410 42.5
Power Density (W/L) 355 5050 2
Life (full equivalent cycles) 500 3500 10000
Maturity of Technology Mature Commercialization Early Commercialization

f) Battery charge and discharge rate (C rate) many inverter and battery manufacturers will
A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a recommend no more than a maximum of 3-5
battery is discharged relative to its maximum strings. This guideline recommends a maximum
capacity. In the US battery capacity is typically of 3 strings.
specified as C20 however in Asia the capacity
is given as C10. In Nepal it is typically C10 or It is always optimum to use less physical
C/10 however it could be different depending batteries, the installation site may prohibit the
on where the batteries came from. For a battery use of such large and heavy batteries, and for
with a capacity of 100 Amp-hrs, this equates to a remote sites with difficult or limited access
discharge current of 10 Amps at C10 rate. (helicopter) it might be necessary to use smaller
batteries to ease logistics. For example if the
g) Battery Configuration requirement is 2000AH at 48V, it would be
Batteries, like solar modules, need to be optimal to deploy a single string of twenty four
configured in strings and connected in series 2v 2000AH industrial deep-cycle batteries
and parallel to establish the desired voltage and instead of forty eight 2v 1000AH deep-cycle
AH capacity. As a general rule of thumb, it is industrial batteries configured as 2 strings. If the
optimum to keep the whole battery bank design requirement is for 6000AH at 48v, two strings of
to the minimum number of cells, strings and 3000AH batteries could be used rather than 3
minimum connections. In large battery banks strings of 2000AH or 4 strings of 1500AH.
over 500AH, it is recommended to always use
industrial deep cycle 2v, 4v or 6 volt batteries.

Battery and Inverter manufactures will also have

recommendations and limits which designers
should pay strict attention to. For example,

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 36

 12, 24 & 48 Volt Battery Wiring Diagrams

+ -
+ - + - + -
12V
+ + + - + - + - + - + - + -
6V 6V 2V 2V 2V 2V 2V 2V
+ - - -
12V SERIES
SERIES
2 PARALLEL
+ -
+ -
+ - + +
+ - + - + - + - + - + -
2V 2V 2V 2V 2V 2V
+ - 6V
-
6V
-
12V + - + - + - + - + - + -
+ + 2V 2V 2V 2V 2V 2V
+ - 6V
-
6V
- SERIES / PARALLEL
12V
SERIES/PARALLEL
+ -
12V 12 Volt Battery Wiring
2 PARALLEL

+ -
+ -
+ + + +
+ + 6V 6V 6V 6V
- - - -
12V 12V
SERIES
+ -
+ + + +
+ - 6V 6V 6V 6V
- - - -
+ - + -
+ + + +
12V 12V 6V 6V 6V 6V
- - - -
+ - + -
SERIES / PARALLEL
12V 12V
- +
+ - + -
12V 12V + - + - + - + - + - + -
2V 2V 2V 2V 2V 2V
2V 2V 2V 2V 2V 2V
SERIES/ PARALLEL - + - + - + - + - + - +

24 Volt Battery Wiring SERIES

+ -
- +

+ - + - + - + - +
6V
+
6V
+
6V
+
6V
12V 12V 12V 12V - - - -
- - - -
Series 6V 6V 6V 6V
+ + + +
+ -
SERIES
+ - + - + - + -
12V 12V 12V 12V

+ - + - + - + -
12V 12V 12V 12V

SERIES / PARALLEL 48 VOLT BATTERY WIRING

Figure 18: Battery Series-Parallel (credit Torjan Battery)

37 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

h) Storage Energy Management and Its Effect on the battery energy is being removed and utilized
Battery Life. by the loads efficiently.
Different technology vendors approach the • Battery cycling is kept to minimum which
management of energy flows into and out of the increases the life of the batteries, increasing ROI.
batteries in many different ways, this is changing • Battery charging is more efficient
somewhat as we see newer battery technologies • Overall energy management is smoother
become available which include their own • Maintenance and operations are reduced, less
integrated battery management systems cycling means less charging which uses less
such as lithium or flow batteries. However it is water, less balancing issues, less energy wastage.
necessary for the system designer to understand
the different approaches and select the correct Another key feature of mini grid energy
technology for the Mini grid application, management is the tight integration of automatic
especially when it comes to the traditional use generator set remote control for either peak
of flooded, AGM and GEL batteries. Cycling power demand or battery charging applications.
is the determining factor in battery longevity,
battery discharging and recharging is referred Automatic generator control is essential for
to as a cycle, battery manufacturers including stability of the mini grid, tightly integrated
cycling data with their battery product to allow generator control and energy management is
designers to predict battery life based on how the a key feature of a properly designed mini grid.
mini grid system will cycle the batteries, this is The energy management system must support
actually determined by the mini grid architecture, automatic generator operation for two scenarios:
technology vendor and system energy flows. a. Automatic response to peak power demand,
in this situation inverter must be able to
Traditional approach (DC coupled). In this type fulfil the energy demand from internal surge
of system, all DC energy flows go in and out of capacity and storage for 15-30 minutes, in
the batteries. The AC loads are supplied via the this time the system can automatically bring
battery charger/inverter. In this system topology, online generator support.
the batteries are typically discharged daily and b. If battery SOC is critically low, the energy
recharged daily resulting in a complete cycle storage system can automatically call
every day. Sometimes these systems might cycle for generator support and connect the
a few times a day, which result in more cycles of generator for charging batteries up to a pre-
the battery bank. programmed safety level.

Managed approach (AC coupled). In this type i) Battery Charging

of system, energy flows out of the battery when Battery balancing and charging is of utmost
the AC coupled solar is not producing. When the concern to the system designer, it impacts the
AC coupled solar is online during the day, the financial viability and operational capacity of
system floats the battery bank to maintain the the system and will cause critical system failure
battery SOC, as the solar energy feed declines, if not properly accounted for. It is the single
the batteries begin to discharge again. This most important factor in determining the long
pattern repeats until the batteries are discharged operational life of the battery bank/s.
to a programmed SOC level, once this level is
reached, the system will again begin the recharge Poor charging and management of batteries
of the batteries to full capacity. In this way, because of technology limitations or incorrect
the batteries are discharged to a low level over configuration will quickly ensure destruction
a programmable period and then recharged of expensive batteries. Also poor battery
only when necessary. This approach has many management systems (BMS) will cause massive
advantages: operational overheads due to balancing problems
• Battery capacity in terms of usable energy over between batteries and battery strings. When we
the life of the system is actually higher because consider that large mini grid systems employ

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 38

 thousands of AH in battery storage and multiple this is a normal phenomenon that occurs when
strings, and these key issues become design batteries are cycled overtime. This function
imperatives. must be performed by the BMS function of
the system. Maintenance EQ can also be used
Inverter and charging devices perform battery to mix electrolyte or stir batteries after a cold
charging and management functions differently, period or during battery watering. In this case,
some vendors offer superior technology and it the EQ charging would be initiated by the system
is critical that the system designer choose the operator manually for a short period of time, such
best technology for the application. The system as 1 hour. Therefore the system design should
designer should assess the overall battery reflect the need to have automatic and manual
management approach from the technology EQ control.
vendor carefully. Many of today’s technology
vendors are still using battery management Corrective EQ is employed when maintenance EQ
technology designed and built in the late 80’s has not been performed and the batteries have
and early 1990’s. These technologies despite degraded to a state that causes system instability
being marketed as superior technologies and due to battery failure. Corrective EQ can be used
features of their systems are actually insufficient to recover highly sulfated or stratified batteries
to properly charge and manage a large mini grid before it is too late and they need to be replaced.
system. However this situation should never occur due to
automatic and correct maintenance EQ.
In mini grid applications, the battery charging
and management must be as automatic as A suitable BMS and charging system will allow
possible due to the sheer size and scale of the extensive customization and will include these
battery storage systems. The system must features:
allow the installer to customize the battery 1. Battery inverter or inverter/charging will
charging and battery management setup to have power factor correcting (PFC) chargers.
suit the battery application down to minute Charge controllers will use sophisticated MPPT
detail. Charging routines must be automatic algorithms.
and include scheduled automatic equalization 2. All charging devices will tightly integrate
(EQ) of the battery banks. Battery balancing with a single system manager for central and
and SOC management must be automatic using coordinated charging control, configuration and
sophisticated algorithms based on system energy measurement across the technology platform.
flows, battery charge levels, temperature, and 3. The charging system will have prescribed
battery bus resistance. approaches for integration of 3rd party chargers
in the BMS, examples are DC coupled wind
Battery balancing is a common requirement of turbines.
flooded batteries as well as some particular AGM 4. Programmable values for bulk or boost charging,
and GEL batteries. Balancing is performed by a absorb or normal charging as prescribed by the
controlled overcharging referred to as equalizing battery manufacturer.
(EQ). Equalizing is actually a destructive process 5. Customized values for equalizing charging as
that shortens the battery life. However when used prescribed by the battery manufacturer.
correctly, it can significantly improve battery 6. Automatic SOC calculation based on highly
performance and battery life. Equalization should sophisticated algorithms applied by the charging
be used in two situations, first is maintenance EQ devices or battery inverters.
and second in corrective EQ. 7. Programmable values for battery conductor
length, conductor cross section and battery fuse
Maintenance EQ is the timely use of EQ or aggregator box resistance values.
charging to balance batteries that are starting 8. Detailed prescriptive guidance on how to
to experience slight variations in specific calculate the battery connection resistance and
gravity (SG) of the electrolyte between cells; how to program the system.

39 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

9. Detailed system controller or management Battery manufacturers will typically include pre-
interface that provide clear access to all battery fabricated high quality bus bars or interconnect
behaviors and functions. cables for joining cells together in the battery
10. Programmable and automatic deep discharge bank, it is preferable to always use these over and
response with automatic load shedding in case of above anything else.
critical battery SOC.
11. Programmable and automatic generator set Battery cable should be sized to properly handle
control via remote start and stop, with advanced the expected load, cable ampacity is the ultimate
generator control logic for either battery charging safe current carrying capacity of the wire before
application or peak load demand response. damage occurs to the insulation. Undersized
cables can lead to an unacceptable voltage drop
j) Battery Life Span and/or increased cable temperature. Refer to the
The life span of a battery will vary considerably table in the appendix for the suggested maximum
depending on how it is used, how it is maintained ampacity for copper wire.
and charged, the temperature, and other
factors such as water quality used to refill cells. Many manufacturers highly recommend that
In extreme cases, it can be damaged within connectors not only be mechanically crimped
10 to 12 months of use when overcharged. On but also soldered to the cable’s end. A properly
the other hand, if the battery is maintained crimped and soldered connector will provide
properly, the life span could be extended over a low resistance connection and reduce the
25 years. Another factor that can shorten the amount of heat buildup at the connecting
life expectancy by a significant amount is when junction.
the batteries are stored uncharged in a hot
storage area. True Deep-cycle batteries are Battery manufacture will provide torque values
designed to be discharged down time after time for tightening interconnects to the battery
and are designed with thicker plates. The major terminals to ensure proper connection without
difference between a true deep-cycle battery and risk of over tightening and damaging battery
regular batteries is that the plates in a deep-cycle terminals. Installers should “finger tight” bolts
battery are made from solid lead plates and are and then employ torque wrench with prescribed
not impregnated with lead oxide paste. setting to finish off.

k) Battery Cabling l) Battery Electrolyte

Battery cables provide the vital link between A critical concern in the Nepalese context is the
the battery, load and charging system. preparation of battery electrolyte. Batteries are
Faulty connections can lead to poor system typically shipped dry from factories outside of
performance, affect battery life, damage battery Nepal, the electrolyte is prepared locally and
components and start fires. The majority the batteries are filled, this is commonly known
of issues with battery cabling or battery as “first filling”. Batteries require very exact
connections comes from problems associated electrolyte mixtures and quality ingredients, this
with the cable/connector or the battery terminal. has a direct impact on the performance and life
of the battery.
Battery system interconnects and cabling
selection must consider: The electrolyte for lead-acid accumulators is
• Careful conductor cross-section selection so that diluted sulfuric acid with density values related
voltage drop shouldn’t exceed 1% to type of construction of the accumulator or as
• Minimum number of connections to reduce specified by the battery manufacturer. Diluted
resistance. sulfuric acid is used as filling acid for unfilled dry
• Properly insulated conductors. charged cells or batteries with purified water
• Quality connections, hydraulic crimped lugs with used for the preparation of diluted sulfuric acid
soldering. and for refilling of cells or batteries.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 40

 The purity of refilling water has to meet higher Filling electrolyte. Diluted sulfuric acid used for
requirements than for filling electrolyte, because first filling of accumulators or for replacement
the impurities of the operating electrolyte will be of electrolyte in the case of contamination
increased by regular refilling of water. Electrolyte of the operating electrolyte is called filling
and water, not according to the manufactures electrolyte. Filling electrolyte is best obtained
requirements result in damage to the battery. from the factory with the batteries, if this is not
possible then a suitable local technician should
The electrolyte for lead-acid accumulators is prepare the filling electrolyte adhering strictly
diluted sulfuric acid (H2SO4) with density values to the battery manufacturer’s instruction. Test
as specified by the battery manufacturer. Diluted certifications should be issued demonstrating
sulfuric acid is prepared by mixing concentrated the correct mixture of the electrolyte, only then
sulfuric acid or sulfuric acid with high density should the acid consignment be accepted and
of d > 1.30 kg/l and purified water. Sulfuric acid used to fill the batteries.
in concentrated form is colorless, high etching
liquid with a density d= 1.84 kg/l. Water use for topping up and preparation of
electrolyte. The water should meet the physical

TABLE 5: CORRECTION OF DENSITY FROM MEASURING TEMPERATURE

TO NOMINAL TEMPERATURE

specific gravity (kg/l) correction factor* (kg/l per K)

1.10 0.00050
1.15 0.00060
1.20 0.00070
1.30 0.00050
* The correction factor refers to the temperature range from 0°C to 55°C

When the sulfuric acid is mixed with the water requirements as shown in the table below and
the mixture can be calibrated by measuring the the chemical requirements as given in Table 2,
density, this is known as specific gravity. The in most cases the battery manufacturer would
battery manufacturer will provide the necessary provide this information, this is provided here as
values for first filling, and this should be strictly a reference. Purified water in compliance with the
adhered to and test certifications from calibrated requirements can be prepared from tap water by
equipment should demonstrate this. Specific distillation or by ion exchange.
gravity is relational to the ambient temperature
of the conditions, therefore it is necessary to
TABLE 6: PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS OF
apply a correction factor to the specific gravity
PURIFIED WATER FOR ELECTROLYTE
measurements according to the temperature at
the time of filling. This is given here as reference. Appearance
pH value 5 -7
Water and refilling water. Water (H2O) is an Electric conductivity at 20°c < 10 μS/cm
ingredient of the electrolyte for accumulators.
Purified water is used for the preparation of
electrolyte for accumulators and for refilling
of water loss caused by overcharging and
evaporation in the operating electrolyte.

41 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

5.6.4 Maximum Power Point Tracking 5.6.6. Battery Inverter
(MPPT)
An MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an a) Sizing
electronic DC to DC converter that optimizes energy Battery inverters can be sized based on the peak
output from solar arrays. MPPT keeps tracking load of the system. It can be further optimized by
maximum power point from the STC (Standard Test only assuming peak load to be supplied through
Conditions) rating under almost all situations. MPPT battery energy.
controller is usually used in AC coupled systems.
Battery Inverter Size System Peak Load (Watt)
=
(Volt-Ampere) Battery Inv.Efficiency*Power
MPPT Size(Watt)=Array Size (Watt) Factor

MPPT is mostly inbuilt in the PV inverter. The PV Battery Inverter efficiency ranges between 0.85 to
array side voltage can go upto 250V whereas the 0.95
output side voltage depends upon the DC input
voltage (12V or 24V or 48V) of PV inverter. Power factor can be taken as 0.8 (lag)

5.6.5. Solar Charge Controller b) Battery Inverter Configuration

A solar charge controller is usually used in DC When designing any multi-inverter systems such
coupling systems, also sometimes refered to as as stacked, multi-cluster and multi-phase system,
MPPT charge controller. It also gathers energy from the designer must be careful to understand the
solar arrays, and stores it in batteries. Along with the manufacturer’s requirements for connection of the
MPPT function, all the battery protection systems battery storage
are in-built features of the Solar Charge Controller.
For example, a single inverter system from any
Usually, the voltage at PV array side and Battery manufacturer will have the inverter connected to a
connection side are the same. The Solar Charge type of fuse box which connects to all of the battery
Controller can be rated in Watt or Ampere. strings in the system. A stacked or 3 phase system
will have all the inverters connecting to the fuse box
Solar Charge PV array capacity (Watt-peak)
= and all of the battery strings, the inverters all sharing
Controller (Watt) FSM*FCTD the fuse box and the battery strings.

Where, In a multi-cluster system, each cluster must have its

FSM = Safety margin factor own fuse box and battery string. For example, if you
FCTD = Charge controller temperature derating factor have a 2000AH storage requirement and 2 inverter
clusters, you would have 1000AH connected to one
PV array capacity (Watt-peak) cluster and 1000AH connected to another cluster.
Solar Charge
= The battery strings should be identical in terms of
Controller (Ampere) DC system voltage (volt)
battery type, capacity, and cabling cross section,
In smaller DC coupled systems, solar charge cabling length and connection types and battery
controllers are mostly available without MPPT fuse boxes.
function. This kind of small scale solar charge
controller comes with pulse width modulation
(PWM) for battery protection functions.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 42

 PV

Sunny Boy

PV-Distribution
(not included in delivery)

Sunny Boy circuit breaker

Generator Generator contactor Load shedding contactor

and circuit breaker and circuit breaker

Sunny Island contactor and circuit Multiduster Box

breaker (main AC-distribution)

Sunny Island
5048U

Battery

Figure 19: Battery and Battery Inverter Connection in an AC coupled system (credit SMA)

5.6.7. PV Inverter spends more time at maximum production output

early and later in the day, the net result is a more
a) Sizing predictable overall energy output.

PV Inverter Size Array Capacity (Watt-peak) In the morning and post afternoon, the solar
=
(Watt) PDC to PAC ratio irradiance is relatively lower resulting in lower
power level which. If the DC to AC ratio is higher, the
Pdc to Pac ratio can be taken from 1.2 to 1.4 because inverter can operate in higher loading conditions
theoretical peak power of the modules is often owing to higher efficiency. For lower DC to AC
not achieved in reality. Higher the ratio, better the ratio, the DC power level would be lower resulting
advantage of inverter clipping. in lower efficiency due to lower loading of inverter.
Consequently, there are some losses during the
b) Optimizing Array-to-Inverter Power Ratio afternoon due to higher power generation and
Solar arrays to PV inverters have been designed with insufficiency of inverter size. Therefore, the total gain
much higher dc-to-ac ratios, up to and exceeding in the morning and post afternoon is higher than the
1.4. The energy yield can be optimized with inverter loss in the afternoon. A typical inverter clipping is
clipping. The ratio 1 or less will make inverter size shown in figure below.
higher than the PV Array and inverters are typically
less efficient at low power levels. In cold, sunny
weather, the dc system is capable of generating
more power than both the inverters and the ac
system designed to handle. In this case the inverter
restricts dc power output by simply moving the array
off its maximum power point. Inverter power limiting
results in a clipped, flat-topped power curve rather
than the traditional bell curve, a phenomenon often
referred to as clipping. What results is the inverter

43 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 Solar irradiance Vs Inverter active power
4000
Loss
3500 1000
Inverter active power curve for 1.45 DC/AC ration

3000
Inverter active power curve for 1.2 DC/AC ration 800
2500
Solar Irradiance
2000 600

1500
400

1000
Gain
200
500

0 0
21:36 00:00 02:24 04:48 07:12 09:36 12:00 14:24 16:48 19:12 21:36

Figure 20: PV Inverter clipping effect

c) Types of PV inverter: Distributed Inverters vs. d) 1000V or 1500V DC PV circuits

Centralized Inverters. There are many advantages in using 1000V or 1500
Internationally designers have been opting for DC in higher string voltage designs over 600V DC or
distributed string inverter designs as opposed to smaller DC voltages used in traditional DC coupled
large central inverter designs. Choosing between charge controller applications.
these two solar inverter designs comes down to a • Smaller diameter conductors due to higher
number of factors, but the primary considerations voltage and lower current;
for most developers are total cost and energy • Longer runs with less voltage drop;
production. Centralized designs are most common • Reduced and simpler PV source circuits and DC
for larger commercial and utility-scale projects source circuits;
because of first-cost efficiencies and increasing • Greater predictability with cabling and voltage
requirements for utility interactive controls more drop;
widely available in central inverters. For small • Lower BOS costs;
and medium size commercial projects involving • Higher reliability due to simpler configurations.
carports, rooftops and multiple-angled applications,
distributed architectures are generally preferred due All equipment specified in the PV system design
to the ability of string inverters to optimize energy should be rated for 1000VDC irrespective of the
production in PV systems with variable array design nominal voltage of the PV system.
parameters.
e) Inverter Cooling Concept and Environmental
Distributed designs typically suit solar mini grids Conditions
due to scale and variable array design parameters, Inverters de-rate when the internal temperature rises
however there are many other benefits inherent in above a certain threshold, these thresholds will be
the distributed approach: documented in the equipment datasheet, resulting
• Optimized inverter-to-array ratio; in lower energy output as well as possible increased
• Decreased dc BOS costs; wear on the internal electronic components. It is
• Reduced space and infrastructure requirements; important to understand the cooling concept and
• Maximizing uptime; design application of the inverter for the chosen
• Easy replacement; installation environment.
• Improved redundancy and uptime;
• Design flexibility. For example some distributed string inverters are
designed to be installed on roof top arrays, right

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 44

 next to the modules at no more than 15 degrees. c) PV Array DC Isolator/Disconnect
These inverters have a different internal design • A load break PV array DC isolator (switch) shall
which allows longer service life in the harsher be mounted near the inverter.
outdoor environment, the warranty allows for this • In some countries this isolator is typically a
type of installation so it is a very acceptable design. double pole DC rated circuit breaker.
However it is essential to understand the operating
temperatures of the inverters and the impact it will NOTE: A breaker not rated for the open circuit DC
have on the power output. voltage of the array and the DC short circuit current
of the array shall not be used as the PV Array
Typically it is optimum to locate inverters in a shady Isolator.
position with good airflow but there may be strong • If the double pole DC circuit breaker is polarized
drivers for other options. Designers should consult then the installer shall ensure that it is wired
the inverter documentation to understand the correctly. Failure to wire correctly could lead to a
necessary clearance’s required for good airflow and fire when this isolator is operated in full sun.
to understand the derating factor. • Where an inverter allows more than one input
from the array an isolator shall be installed on
5.6.8. Protection System each input.

Ensure sufficient protection system in accordance d) AC Isolator/Disconnect at Inverter

with the requirements to prevent or limit damage to • Where the inverter is not adjacent to the
its generation and auxiliary equipment. The different electrical panel to which it is connected, an
protection system are described in detail below; isolator shall be provided at the inverter so that
a person operating the switch has a clear view of
a) Sizing the Battery Fuse any person working on the inverter.
Based on largest current that could be drawn:
• If Inverter, obtain inverter manufacturers data e) Maximum series fuse ratings
• Continuous power rating (Watts) • As per solar PV module manufacturer listed on
• 3 to 10 second surge rating (Watts) datasheet and rear of module.
• Average inverter efficiency • Fuses must be fitted in both positive and negative
• For each power rating determine the current string cables for all strings
drawn from the battery bank using I = Inverter • These fuses or DC circuit breakers (non-
Power Rating (W). (Inverter efficiency x nominal polarized) shall have the following current rating:
battery voltage) • 1.25 x Isc of module < Fuse Rating < 2.0 x Isc
• Consult HRC fuse curves of module
• If the array consists of sub-arrays then each
b) Location of Battery Fuses sub array shall be protected by a fuse or circuit
Battery fusing preferably should not be in the same breaker (non-polarized) with the following rating:
enclosure as the battery bank but if they are then • 1.25 x Isc of sub-array < Fuse Rating < 2.0 x
they should be either a minimum of 500mm away Isc of sub-array
from the batteries or 100mm below the top of the
batteries. f) Solar Supply Disconnect in AC Panel
• It is recommended that the interconnection of
Another method to keep the fuse separate from the the grid connected PV system and the building’s
battery bank is to place a vertical partition between electrical system is undertaken at an electrical
the batteries and the fuse, thereby keeping the fuse panel or distribution board.
as close to the batteries as possible but isolated • This connection shall be at an AC solar supply
from any hydrogen build up. isolator located on the electrical panel (or
distribution board) where the solar system is
connected.

45 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

• This will be referred to as the main switch inverter essential that the system designer calculate incident
supply. energy and specify correct HRC for the equipment.
• This isolator shall be lockable.
• A switch or isolator being lockable does not mean i) DC Fuses or DC Circuit Breakers
it needs a padlock or similar attached. It means All fuses that are used as overcurrent devices that
that it is able to have a tag or small plastic locking provide a point of connection between PV arrays,
device inserted to allow a person to work on the collector boxes and batteries must be DC-rated.
system safely. The intention is that the isolator Circuit breakers must have a suitable AIC rating
locking device should include the installation of a for the application, many multi-purpose AC/DC
tag/sign saying “DO NOT SWITCH ON-PERSON MCB’s have an AIC rating that is too low for solar PV
WORKING ON SYSTEM” or similar. systems, it is generally better to use dedicated DC
• The cable between the electrical panel and rating OCPD’s which have higher AIC ratings.
inverter requires protection so it is recommended
that the isolator is a suitably rated circuit breaker. 5.6.9. Earthing and Lightning Protection

g) Ground Fault Earthing is a means of connecting the exposed

Ground fault monitoring and protection can conductive parts or neutral current conducting line
be implemented in a variety of ways either as or any equipment that can develop voltage potential
additional BOS components built into DC combiners in case of fault occurrence or lightning discharge, to
or as automatic functions of the inverters. The the main earthing terminal as a way of discharging
current range of technologies are current sense current to the earth or providing a way back to the
monitors, which measure current flow through the source.
ground bond of dc-grounded systems; isolation
monitors, which measure array resistance to earth In system earthing, the neutral point of the current-
in temporarily or permanently ungrounded PV carrying conductor is connected to the ground
systems; and residual current detectors, which so that any imbalanced current in the neutral is
measure differential current between the positive disposed of to the earth and thus returned to the
and negative conductors. Designers should consult source.
with the inverter manufacturer to facilitate adequate
ground fault monitoring and protection. In equipment earthing, the exposed non-current
conducting parts which can develop potential in
h) Arc Flash presence of current are connected to the earth.
In large mini grid or commercial PV systems, Such earthing is done to prevent shocks when there
hundreds or thousands of PV modules are connected is insulation failure in the equipment and live wire
in series and parallel. The combined dc output power touches to the equipment.
potential at aggregation points, including combiner
boxes, recombiner boxes or inverter-input combiner In the mini grid system or in any electrical system,
compartments is massive. In addition, dc voltages both system earthing and equipment earthing are
may approach 1,000 V and current levels may as important as the system itself. A proper earthing
exceed 1 kA. While a system is energized, failures system protects equipment from fault currents as
or human error during commissioning, testing and well as the person working in the vicinity. In addition
troubleshooting can cause arc-flash events that to the system earthing and equipment earthing,
severely injure or even kill technicians and destroy earthing of a lightning protection should also be
critical equipment. done which is known as Lightning protection system
(LPS). LPS captures nearby, potential lightning
Arc flash events need to be dealt with in terms of strikes and discharges the high current and transient
operational procedures such as appropriate working voltage to the earth.
clearances, safety equipment and clothing for
technicians. However in terms of design inputs it is

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 46

 LPS 1
Field Components
Distribution Network
LPS 2
Power House Solar PV
Combiner Array
Power Conditioning Unit/s
Solar Box
Dist. ~ L
LA LA LA LA LA LA Charge
Box = PCU/s Body Controller
SPDAC1 SPDDC2 Battery Bank
First DB Body
Neutrals
SPDDC3
500 Meter Pole

Equipotential Equipotential
bonding 1 bonding 2

Earthing System 3 Earthing System 2

Earthing System (n) Earthing System 4 (Optional) Earthing System 1

Figure 21: Earthing and Lighting Protection System of Mini Grid Systems

a) Lightning Protection Surge protector, also known as Surge Protection

In geographic locations such as hill areas, where Device (SPD), protects the equipment and circuits
lightning is a common occurrence, the entire mini from transient overvoltage. An SPD is connected
grid system and outdoor-mounted equipment must across the device or equipment to be protected as
be protected with appropriate lightning-arrester close as is practical. It is available for both AC and DC
devices and grounding systems. This will provide systems. There are 3 types of SPDs available (Type I,
a practical mitigation and a measure of protection Type II and Type III) based on the 3 types of current
from equipment damage and burnout. wave. For applications in the mini grid system, it is
highly recommended to use Type I+II SPD.
The LPS will safely divert the lightning discharge
(high voltage and current) to the earth without In the solar mini grid, to protect the AC system,
affecting the critical equipment. An LPS consists of SPDs may be fitted at the main incoming point of AC
a lightning arrester to capture the nearby lightning, a supply (at the consumer’s cut-out) and to protect
down conductor to conduct current to the earth and the DC system, surge suppression devices can be
an earthing system to discharge the current to the fitted at the inverter end of the DC cabling and at
earth. the array side. All DC cables should be installed to
provide as short runs as possible. For cables longer
b) Surge protection measures than 10 meters, additional SPDs are required.
In addition to lightning discharge, the equipment also
needs to be protected from transient overvoltage. c) Equipotential bonding
In order to protect equipment from lightning and Equipotential bonding is a measure applied to parts
transient overvoltage surge protectors and arrestors of the electrical installation to have a same potential
are deployed. under fault conditions. By applying this measure risk
of electric shock is limited as there will be little or no
The main function of a surge arrestor is to provide a difference in voltages (potential difference) between
direct conduction path for lightning charges to divert the parts that may otherwise become live.
them from the exposed equipment chassis to the
ground. A good surge arrestor, also called lightning Designer must have to consider following important
arrestor, must be able to conduct a sufficient point while designing lighting and protection system;
current charge from the stricken location and lower • If cable length between battery and inverter or
the surge voltage to a safe level quickly enough to between any equipment inside the power house
prevent insulation breakdown or damage. is more than 10m, it has to use Surge Protection
Devices (SPD) at both ends of the cable.

47 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

• All the DC and AC SPD should be type 2 (8/20 µs • Weather-monitoring data:
waveform) class - Temperature;
• Lighting arrester should be atleast class 2 (LPS - Wind velocity and direction;
2) protection level and installed at minimum of - Solar irradiance;
10m height to cover maximum area of power - Solar power output (DC voltage and DC
house and its surroundings. If coverage of assets current);
is not sufficient, use another lighting arrestor. • PV Inverter:
• Use additional earthing systems if the earth - Voltage and frequency;
resistance is too high in rock and dry areas. - Power output;
• The separation of the earthing system should be - MPPT status;
atleast 10m. - Device status, temperature, error conditions;
• There should be exothermic bonding between • Battery Inverter:
copper trip (from lighting arrestor to earthing - Device status, temperature, error conditions;
rod) and copper rod of earhing system. - Battery SOC;
• Lighting arrester for the distribution line should - Battery voltage and current;
be of 0.5kV for 400/230V and 9kV for 11kV. - Battery Temperature;
• The separation distance for the lighting arrester • Total system performance and malfunction.
in distribution line should be 500m for 400/230V • DC power production, accumulated daily,
line and 1000m for 11kV lines. monthly, and annually.
• AC power production, accumulated daily,
5.6.10. Monitoring and Control monthly, and annually.
• Alert triggers for remote signaling (display, email,
The traditional power sector has been using SCADA sms).
systems since the late 1980s, long before high-speed - Informational, Warnings and Error filtering;
Internet connectivity became ubiquitous, and they - Device failure or offline;
provide active plant control and endless extensibility - PV yield deviation
at a significant cost. Nowadays, web-based - Battery SOC conditions;
monitoring systems are relatively common from
inverter manufactures and 3rd parties, they generally The addition of a monitoring system inserts another
focus more on data acquisition than on plant control layer of electrical equipment to the design, including
and operation, however various levels of control and power supply circuits, communication circuits,
operation are becoming more widespread. meters and IT equipment that must be located, sized
and considered in advance to be fully incorporated
Monitoring, control and operations are all critical into the PV plan set. The pre design process for
activities in successful and sustainable mini grid determining the monitoring system should be
options. The ability to measure energy productions, considered just as important as sizing the correct
detect faults and control load are necessary factors inverter or choosing a racking system.
in the economic viability of the power system. The
key stakeholders will drive the requirements, but a) Design Considerations of Monitoring System
it is the role of the designer to translate this into The monitoring and control design will be driven by
a technology platform and manage the execution. the size and operational requirements of the project
Gathering this information during the planning and the stakeholders. It is important to understand
stage of the project is crucial as monitoring, control who will manage the system and what level of
and operations are design inputs that have strong data granularity they will require. Utility connected
dependencies to the equipment manufacturers, mini solar and mini grid systems that sell or transfer
grid architecture etc. power to the utility grid will normally have control
requirements mandated by the utility; this could
Essential monitored data from the management mean a SCADA system. For simpler stand-alone
system as a minimum should include: systems, a web-based monitoring platform is good

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 48

 for individual projects of smaller capacity or that do Requirements for Powerhouse Design is outlined
not have strict control mandates, web based is also below:
a strong option for sites with distributed generation • Location of the powerhouse should be safe from
because of the ease and cost of linking sites via flood, minimum voltage drop in the T&D line,
inexpensive Ethernet network or internet. availability of land for solar PV installation and
powerhouse. The preferred location is village
Typically web-based systems are available from center.
the inverter vendor as an integrated component • Powerhouses must also be easily accessible at all
in their overall product offering. These monitoring times to ensure proper operation.
systems will likely meet or exceed typical mini grid • Geological condition of powerhouse site should
management requirements, but may lack control be satisfactory
capabilities. Control capabilities could be added • The wall should be brick or stone masonry with
by integrating a 3rd party product or alternatively load bearing or RCC frame structure and roof
integrating a SCADA system. However SCADA might could be either RCC or CGI sheet depending upon
be cost prohibitive for smaller systems. site condition, availability of local resources like
sand aggregate etc and ease of transportation
5.6.11. Powerhouse material.
• The powerhouse building must follow the
The powerhouse supports and houses the battery, Nepal National Building Code prepared by the
solar charge controller, inverter, control and Department of Urban Development and Building
protection system and their accessories. The Construction (DUDBC), Ministry of Urban
powerhouse design and layout should satisfy Development.
good performance of the equipment, economic • Adequate window and ventilation to exhaust
construction and easy inspection and maintenance. battery fumes
The design and construction of the powerhouse • Properly bonded in the system earthing for
should be made on the basis of data provided by the lightning safety for personal and equipment.
equipment manufacturer. There should be adequate
space to place solar equipment (except solar array Construction of toilets should be decided based
and T&D line accessories). The battery racks should upon community suggestions taken during focused
be constructed and maintained in a level position group discussion while conducting site surveys. A
and secured to the floor (seismic shock proof) and typical layout of powerhouse is shown below;
must have a minimum of 1 meter of walking space
between racks for egress and maintenance. While
dimensioning the power house, a segment for the
operator room has to be considered. The structural
design can be carried after the general layout and
dimensions have been defined.

In solar mini grid projects, single floor type of

powerhouse is recommended due to easiness in
operation and maintenance. Layout of a project
should consist of battery or battery racks, inverter,
control panels, main distribution box, monitoring
system, other safety equipment like fire fighting
extinguishers, and service bay.

49 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 Note:
B1 = Beam of Size 300mm (B) x 355 mm (D)

16.50
16.50
0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.60 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
0.60
3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00

0.30 0.30
0.60
1.47 0.35
1.25 B1 B1 B1 B1
2.95 Toilet 2.95
7.00 B1

1.00 B1 Beam 300mm (B) x

D1
B1 B1 356 mm (D)
0.30 0.30 B1
BATTERY B1 B1
3.05 0.80
BANK
2.11 7.00 6.30
W1 OPERATOR W1 B1 Beam 300mm (B) x B1
ROOM V1
3.15 355 mm (D)
3.15
B1
D0 B1 B1
0.87 B1
V1
0.30 D1 0.30
W1 W1 B1 B1 B1 B1
0.35
3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00
0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
16.50
D1 POWERHOUSE PLAN POWERHOUSE ROOF PLAN
125mm Thick RCC Slab

0.25 0.25
0.60 1.60
125mm Thick M20
(1:1, 5:3) RCC Slab SOAK PIT

0.25
250 mm Brick

3.00 0.25 S | band 3.00

1.50
75mm thick PCC with Filling

R0.60
0.22 0.22
FRONT VIEW 0.51 250 mm thick
1.30 0.25
1.30 Stone Soiling
0.80
SECTION AT WALL SEPTIC TANK PLAN
1.05

125 mm thick M20 6”HDPE PIPE SOAK PIT

(1:1, 5:3) RCC Slab

GRAVEL PACKING
BACK VIEW

1.50

OPENING SCHEDULE
SYMBOL NO. SIZE
Do 1 1.5m x 2.3m
D1 2 1m x 2.3m SEPTIC TANK SECTION

W1 5 1.5m x 1.5m
Note:
V1 3 0.5m x 0.75m All dimensions are in meters.
LEFT SIDE VIEW RIGHT SIDE VIEW

Figure 22: Typical powerhouse plan

5.6.12. Fencing

A fence is required to prevent unauthorized people The set-back (free space between fence and front of
from accessing the array, powerhouse and its PV array) should be provided in the east, south and
surrounds, which can also be used for the system’s west side of the fence to avoid the shading in the
security. As a ground mounted array is highly visible; solar array due to the fencing structure. Usually, the
it makes accessibility to thieves easier. A metallic set-back length is equal to the height of the fence.
entrance door and lock shall be included in the Generally, two types of fencing can be used in solar
fencing premises. mini grid; barbed wire fencing and chain mesh link.

3000 450 3600 450 3000

350 75
250 250 250 250 250 325
1978

650
550
700

P.C.C. in 1:3:6 Brick Work in 1:4 C/M 600 350

50mm. Th. Brick Soling 50mm. Th. Brick Soling
50mm. Th. Sand Filling 50mm. Th. Sand Filling

Figure 23: Fence and entrance gate

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 50

 a) Barbed Fencing 5.7. WIND GENERATOR
Barbed wire fencing is a type of steel fencing wire CONFIGURATION FOR HYBRID
constructed with sharp edges or points arranged
SYSTEM
in intervals along the strands. The fencing should
have a minimum of five rows and two diagonal
5.7.1. Role of Wind Energy
barbed wires. The diagonals of barbed wire shall be
continuous & stretched between adjacent posts from
Wind generator integration with the solar mini grid
the top horizontal row of barbed wire of one post to
depends upon the variability of the wind resource
the bottom horizontal row of the second post. For
and its obvious effect on the power delivery. In a
fixing diagonals of barbed wire, separate nails of
situation where the wind generator/s output can
hook shall be provided in the posts.
carry most of the sites proposed base load, the
solar component of the Mini grid is used to provide
supplementary power in times when the wind energy
falters and the storage component is used to provide
a buffer between wind and solar as well as enabling
several days’ autonomy.

In a situation where the wind resource is not suitable

to carry the base load due to intermittency, the
wind resources will be there as a supplementary
producer, the solar PV must be designed to carry the
loads with the storage performing a similar role as
mentioned previously. Understanding the role of the
wind energy in the overall system design will largely
be driven by the wind resource and estimated energy
Figure 24: Barbed Fencing
output.

5.7.2. Site Identification and Preparation

b) Chain link mesh for Pre-feasibility
A chain-link fence is a type of woven fence usually
made from galvanized steel wire. The wires run Wind energy potential site identification is the ‘first
vertically and are bent into a zig-zag pattern so that step’ while planning for the promotion of wind power
each “zig” hooks with the wire immediately on one projects. Installation of Wind Meteorological Tower
side and each “zag” with the wire immediately on the for the site specific ground based data collection
other. The chain link mesh size must be at least 2” x thereby monitoring of wind data for at least one
2” of 10 guage. Chain link mesh is preferred in solar complete year is the ‘second step’ before putting
mini grid applications. large investment into the wind power project. AEPC
has been continuously putting efforts so far long to
identify sites and erect wind met mast systems for
ground based data logging. The ‘third step’ will be
estimation of daily, monthly and annual energy yield
with the various possible sizes of market available
wind turbines and relate to the financial viability
during its feasibility study phase.

In order to analyze viability of wind or solar/

wind hybrid projects promotion, AEPC has been
supporting the implementation of wind met masts
Figure 25: Chain link mesh fencing of 10 meters, 20 meters and 30 meters high wind

51 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

masts in the past. In addition to AEPC’s continuous measurements from your own equipment to do the
engagement through Nepal Government’s own best design possible. If no data is available, or the
resources, AEPC has been engaged with multilateral quality of the data you have is questionable it is
development partners such as the World Bank and absolutely necessary to acquire your own location
Asian Development Bank in developing Wind Atlas specific data, overall a proper site assessment for
and wind energy feasibility study for the utility scale wind entails four key steps:
wind farm development in Nepal. Through both the • Make an initial site shortlist by identifying areas
external development partners AEPC implemented which are candidates for wind energy potentials.
10 numbers of each 80 meter high met tower • Choose location on the site for a tower, or
systems and 5 numbers of each 40 - 60 meter high multiple towers.
met towers, in various potential sites. • Install anemometer data logger device/s to
measure and capture history of wind patterns in
Ground based wind data collection experience the area.
of AEPC shows that the wind velocity and • Review, correct and make an analysis of the wind
environmental factors are site specific and most of data.
the identified potential sites of Nepal are observed to
be wind speed varying between day-to-night as well Talking to your preferred wind turbine manufacturer
as season-to-season of a year. The high variations is an excellent way of getting a jump on this process.
of wind speed of most of the sites indicate risk of They will have design and simulation tools for
unstable power production through intermittent sizing and understanding how the wind turbine
wind resources, which is unlike the wind energy will potentially perform. It is a good idea to talk
generation in the other coastal countries. Therefore, to these experts about what metrics they need
rather than wind power plants alone, wind turbines and want for their design tools. This will include
along with solar PV or other generation sources things like average wind speeds, site altitude, wind
seems to be viable to some of the wind potential speed probability, wind shear factor, tower height,
sites of Nepal. anemometer height etc. The wind turbine will also
have minimum speeds, sometimes called start-up
5.7.3. Design Considerations for Wind speed as well as maximum speeds. These values
need to be understood so that early analysis of
Wind energy systems are complimentary with solar the anemometer data demonstrates that the site
PV generators when the location has good wind is suitable. It will also help you to select a suitable
energy resources. In this scenario a wind turbine or anemometer for your requirements.
multiple turbines should be considered as another
energy generation source for the mini grid. The overall objective is to collect a full 12 months of
Conducting a site assessment for a wind power accurate site specific data. The data logger should
system is time consuming and requires good be capable of recording metrics from the sensor
planning and capital investment. This is a situation every 1 minute, everyday day for 1 complete year.
where the maximum effort spent in “design time” The data logger should also ship with software for
will pay enormous dividends when the system sorting and analyzing the data. This will illuminate
is producing electricity. It will directly affect the daily, monthly and seasonal variations in wind
reliability, stability and user acceptance of the overall energy and will provide the best possible information
solution to the community. Wind power systems for determining the wind energy potential and
are tricky to get right, poor planning will lead to subsequent electrical energy production of the
an ineffective, costly and underperforming wind proposed system.
generator.
In case AEPC promoted small wind energy or solar/
If quality wind data is available for the site, half wind hybrid systems, the annual averaged wind
of the problem is solved, however it is still highly power density should be more than 35W/m² at
recommended to get exact location specific turbine hub height.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 52

 5.7.4. Information and Resources what speeds in m/s are desirable and based on the
emerging patterns from your data they will provide
The International renewable energy agency (IRENA) guidance and advice. Your objective is to collect
has prepared a comprehensive planning guide 12 months of granular data and eventually provide
for the systematic measurement and collection this to the turbine manufacturer for simulation and
of wind data. This document is an extraordinary design.
resource for wind system designers and details
every aspect of the planning, implementation and The ultimate goal is to realistically understand the
data collection activities. It is highly recommended relationship of seasonal wind energy and how this
that this document be downloaded and used to plan will equate to electrical output from the wind system.
any wind measurement campaign. The guide can be The wind system will be a complementary electrical
downloaded from the IRENA website named WIND generator, therefore proper design of the wind
RESOURCE MEASUREMENT: GUIDELINES FOR system is critical in the overall reliability and stability
ISLANDS (© IRENA 2015). of any wind-solar-hybrid energy system.

5.7.5. Analysis of the wind data 5.7.6. Wind Generator Architectures and
Integration Considerations
In the early days, the anemometer data should be
collected regularly and analyzed to see if the site is Wind generators are available in multiple capacities,
producing worthwhile wind energy within the range configurations and electrical topologies (single
that you need for your wind turbine. At this early phase, 3 phase, AC or DC). Selection of topology
stage you will be looking out for issues such as, will be driven by the role of the wind turbine and the
overall poor wind energy metrics, wind energy out preferred technology vendor.
of range for the wind turbine, or problems with the
anemometer or data logging. AC coupled Wind turbines can be easier to integrate
into the mini grid, supplying direct AC power to
If poor wind energy measurements are being loads, however it is essential that the wind system
recorded it is possible the tower is poorly sighted or be controlled by the mini grid battery inverters, for
the location itself is not suitable. It is often the case example through phase shift power control mode.
that a site that seemingly has good wind energy Wind turbines on the AC bus typically act in the
suffers from turbulent wind which lowers the actual same way as solar PV inverters do, therefore the
usable wind energy. In this case, alternative tower requirements for control and integration are identical
locations should be tried. to that of a PV inverter. Collaboration between the
wind technology vendor and the inverter vendor
Any issues with the anemometers should be rectified should be pursued with diligence to understand how
as soon as possible, smooth consistent data coming the integration will work in reality.
in from the anemometers is the goal and will
provide the best possible information in which to DC coupled wind turbines require some additional
make decisions with. Do not rely on these devices planning, typically DC coupled turbines connect
to operate on their own for months at a time. They directly to the storage via a dedicated battery
may not be recording the data, if you are new to charger. In this case, the wind turbine charges the
the anemometer you are using it is best to become batteries directly whilst the energy management of
familiar with their idiosyncrasies and operational the mini grid is performed by the battery inverters.
behavior. Most inverter manufacturers will require some type
of interface between the wind turbine charger and
Talking to the wind turbine manufacturer as you go the batteries, typically this will be in the form of a
will provide you with some confidence regarding current sensor and shunt combination to provide
what wind metrics are going to work well with their measurements of battery energy flows external to
particular product. They will be able to indicate the inverters BMS. These “external” energy flows

53 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

are calculated with the internal energy flows to The theoretical maximum power of a turbine at a
understand the overall energy mix, and this is how given wind speed is 59% of the available power of
the SOC is calculated. Battery inverters utilize the the wind over the area of the blades. Care should
SOC to make critical decisions such as protection be taken to ensure that the power and voltage input
modes, load shedding and automatic generator limits of the wind turbine inverter are not exceeded,
control, so it is extremely important the SOC is especially under no load conditions. For example
accurately calculated. when the inverter is disconnected from the mini
grid due to a grid failure. Overvoltage input into
5.7.7. Wind Turbine Sizing the inverter can cause damage and may void the
warranty.
The annual wind energy data shall be used for
estimating energy yield (in kilowatt-hours per year) A dump load may be required to dissipate excess
from the selected wind turbines. For the particular energy in the case of disconnection from the grid or
wind turbine, the wind turbine manufacturer may to shed excess power if the batteries are full. Some
also help to estimate the energy production referring wind turbine generators include this functionality
to the wind resource data of the particular site. The in the turbine controller. Generally a tightly
factors used to estimate wind turbine size are: integrated system is the best way to ensure excellent
- Wind Turbine Power Curve performance and longevity of the wind turbine
- Average annual wind speed of the site to related system.
with the energy yield
- Height of the selected tower under plan (also the 5.7.9. Site Shortlisting
manufacturers recommendation)
- Frequency distribution of the wind (an estimate Finding and choosing the right site for a wind energy
of the number of hours that the wind will blow at system is critical. Environmental factors will often
each speed during an average year) point out high wind areas, for example trees that
are bent over and forced to grow a particular way,
5.7.8. Wind generator control or areas of vegetation which are stunted because
considerations of high wind or cold wind. Wind corridors will often
impact vegetation in this way and can be a good
Generally wind turbine generators include integrated indicator of wind energy potential.
control systems. These control systems should
provide a means of preventing overvoltage and over Another approach is to discuss with the human
speed of the wind turbine generator in high wind or inhabitants of the area, they will often understand
no load operation. and be familiar with the weather patterns of that
place and they can provide valuable insight into
Poor quality turbines and turbines with exaggerated locations that could have potential for wind energy.
performance claims are readily available in many A third alternative is to study wind maps of the area if
markets, particularly from Chinese manufacturers. they exist. A wind map will give you wind speeds and
Turbines should be robust and operate to the wind density metrics for a particular region averaged
specified power curve that is well documented down to a general area, but maps generally will not
and tested by multiple sources. For example, the give you location specific data.
midnight solar classic charge controller is pre-
programmed with several power curves of well- A site that is worth investigating has either a
known turbines, these turbine manufacturers have continual blow that varies in intensity daily and
published the power curves and other independent seasonally or it will have a daily recurring blow at
equipment vendors have tested and validated these a particular time, for example every day at around
power curves in their commercial offerings, this gives 12 noon till 8pm evening. The best candidates are
the designer confidence that the power curves and the sites that have a continual blow. The 2nd best
integration of the product is mature and reliable. candidates are the sites that have a reoccurring blow

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 54

 that happen at predictable times. Other types of that means the turbine should be in clear open air
sites will generally be very poor in wind energy and and away from hills, buildings, vegetation etc. which
are not worth investigating. disrupt the linear flow of wind energy and cause
turbulent wind conditions.
The best type of wind energy is continuous linear
wind that is not disturbed by terrain features such As with the wind turbine, the anemometer should
as what is found out at sea. A large moving mass of follow the same design considerations.
energy translates into smooth consistent electrical
output from the wind turbine, better efficiency and a) Anemometer
improved longevity. The anemometer manufacturer will have guidance
for how to install and site the device. However as a
Dynamic wind or turbulent wind such as what is rule of thumb you should locate the anemometer
experienced during a storm or wind that is stirred with the same considerations as explained
up by hills, buildings and vegetation contains less previously.
energy as well as making the wind turbine work
harder. The net result is less power and more wear If possible, it is best to install more than a single
and tear on the turbine. anemometer on the tower at different heights to
capture the different wind measurements at these
5.7.10. Tower sighting and configuration different heights, this will translate into different
energy outputs.
Tower sighting is critical to find, assess and harvest
the maximum energy potential. Mistakes made at Some anemometers have multiple sensors that can
this investigation stage can be rectified and will be be installed at varying heights which communicate
less costly than changing the wind turbine later, back to a central data logger. If this is not possible,
it is highly recommended to do as much planning install a single anemometer/data logger at 10, 20, 30,
and investigation now to identify the best location 40, 50 meters as an example. By doing this you can
possible. compare the energy potential of the different heights
and make a cost benefit assessment of the increased
If you have some idea of the size of the wind turbine tower height vs. additional energy production.
you will use, check with the manufacturer for
recommended minimum and maximum installation
heights, all wind turbines have different rotor
diameters that have min. and max. Heights, you
should be putting the anemometer in this range
or within the min. and max. Height range of all the
turbines you are considering. The tower must be
engineered to support these devices at these heights
and must have a suitable foundation for the specific
environment.

Introductory rule 1, the wind turbine should be a

minimum of 10 meters above the nearest object,
that means if there are trees at 15 meters height,
the turbine should be at 15 meters + 10 meters = 25
meter height, therefore the tower must be able to
secure the wind turbine at this height.

Introductory rule 2, the wind turbine should be a

minimum of 250 meters clear of protruding masses

55 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

5.8. TRANSMISSION AND growth.This is to be noted that there are only few
DISTRIBUTION LINE DESIGN standard sizes of transformers available in the
market and one has to sometime choose next
5.8.1. Design of T&D line Components higher rating just because exact size transformer
is not available. For service connection, following
1. Transmission lines can either be buried or voltage system should be used:
suspended overhead on poles. Overhead lines i) Low Tension supply
are more common as they are less expensive -230 V, single phase for loads upto 30 A
and easier to install. Overhead lines are also -400/230 V, three phase for loads more than
easy to repair and maintain. Neutral lines should 30A
be placed on top of overhead low-tension lines ii) High Tension supply
preferably in lightning prone areas. When the 11 kV and 33 kV three phase systems for load
settlements are densely populated or heavy more than 100 kVA
snowfall is expected during winters, underground
transmission lines may be preferred. 4. ACSR conductors are generally used for overhead
Underground systems require less maintenance, transmission lines.
however the cost of maintenance is much higher
compared to overhead lines. Standard Conductor sizes to be used in 33 kV line
2. The design of transmission and distribution is 100 sq. mm ACSR(DOG)and conductor size to be
lines should be such that voltage drop at any used in 11 kV line is 100 sq mm(DOG) or 50 sq. mm
distribution line end is limited to 10% of nominal ACSR(RABBIT). Aerial bundled cables (ABC) may
value (11 kV or 33 kV line-5%, distribution also be used for overhead lines if poles are expensive.
transformer plus LT line -5%.) ACSR conductors are available in various sizes and
3. The maximum transmission line-to-line voltage designations. Their properties are presented in the
level permitted in an isolated system is 11 kV. Table below.
Distribution Transformers sizes should be
carefully determined (keeping in mind diversity This guideline suggests to use Weasel or higher
factor into account and in a way that under no cross-section area ACSR conductors though there
condition shall the power plant be overloaded). is a permissible voltage drop limit of lower cross-
Oversizing the transformer on the basis of section area conductors.
future load growth in clusters makes sense only
if the plant size is such as to cater future load

TABLE 7: SIZES AND DESIGNATIONS OF ACSR CONDUCTORS

USED IN MINI GRID SCHEMES
Current rating Resistance Inductive reactance at 50 Hz Approximate weight
Name in still air(A) (Ω/km) ad 50 cm spacing (Ω/km) (Kg/km)
Squirrel 76 1.374 0.355 85
Gopher 85 1.098 0.349 106
Weasel 95 0.9116 0.345 128
Rabbit 135 0.5449 0.335 214
Otter 185 0.3434 0.328 339
Dog 205 0.2745 0.315 394

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 56

 5. Armoured cables should be used for underground distribution line, safety is a critical measure
systems. PVC-insulated armoured cables may and aesthetics is essential in tourism. The
also be used but should be limited to short comparison between cable and overhead line is
distribution lines, service lines, overhead given in the table below.
distribution box (DB) connections and around the
powerhouse. The provision of cable in the mini The specifications of armoured and unarmoured
grid scheme is highly discouraged unless there cable are presented in annex E.
is possibility of ice loading in the transmission/

TABLE 8: COMPARISON BETWEEN OVERHEAD

LINE AND CABLE
Property Overhead Line Cable
Ease of installation Simple Difficult
T&D over long distances Good Poor
Use indoors and highly populated areas Difficult Very good
Visual impact High None
Reliability Good Very good
Complexity of repair Good Very good
Cost of material Low Very high
Cost of installation Low Very high

6. The clearances of overhead conductors with ground, trees and other structures should maintained in
accordance with the values presented in tables below

TABLE 9: MINIMUM GROUND CLEARANCES

S.N. Voltage Level Across Road (m) Along Road (m) Other places(m)

1. above 230/400 V and below 11 kV 5.8 5.5 4.6

2. 11 kV to 33 kV 6.1 5.8 5.2

TABLE 10: MINIMUM CLEARANCES BETWEEN

LIVE WIRES AND STRUCTURES OR TREES.
S.N. Voltage Level Minimum Clearance (m)

1. 230/400 to 11 kV 1.25
2. above 11 kV and upto 33 kV 2

Note: Maximum deflection of wire due to wind pressure should be considered while fixing the minimum
clearances.

7. The minimum sag for cables up to 11 kV can be calculated by:

d = (L/172.8)²
where, d= sag in m
L= length of span in m

TABLE 11: SAG FOR SPANS OF OVERHEAD CABLES

Span (m) 20 30 40 50 60 80
Minimum sag ( mm) 13 30 54 84 121 210

The value of sag should be included when determining the ground clearance of a transmission line.

57 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

8. Transmission poles should be made of reinforced concrete, or galvanized steel. All poles carrying 11 kV and
33 kV circuits shall be 11 meters high. Pre-stressed reinforced concrete poles are economical for the plain
terrain. Steel telescopic poles are used at difficult hilly terrain. In the case of wooden poles, only treated
poles should be used. The basic span shall be maintained within the following limits:
33 kV line: 50m to 55 m
11 kV line: 50m to 55 m
Suitable dimensions for the wooden poles which can be used for three-phase transmission are given in
the following table.

TABLE 12: POLE SPECIFICATIONS

IS Designation 410 SP-52 410 SP-43 410 SP-13
Recommended voltage 11kV 400V 230
Overall Length 11m 10m 8m
Planting depth 1.8m 1.6m 1.5m
Section Length, m
Top section (h1) 2.7m 2.4m 1.75m
Middle section (h2) 2.7m 2.4m 1.75m
Bottom section (h3) 5.6m 5.2m 4.50m
Outside Diameter, mm
Outside diameter, Top (h1) 114.3mm 114.3mm 88.9mm
Outside diameter, Middle (h2) 139.7mm 139.7mm 114.3mm
Outside diameter, Bottom (h3) 165.1mm 165.1mm 139.7mm
Thickness, mm
Thickness, Top (h1) 3.65mm 3.65mm 3.25mm
Thickness, Middle (h2) 4.5mm 4.5mm 3.65mm
Thickness, Bottom (h3) 4.5mm 4.5mm 4.5mm
Approximate weight 175Kg 160Kg 101Kg
Base Plate 300mm x 300mm x 6mm 300mm x 300mm x 6mm 300mm x 300mm x 6mm
Cripling load, kgf 307Kg 348Kg 301Kg
Application of load from top of pole, m 0.6 0.6 0.3

9. Shackle insulators of appropriate voltage should be used in overall lines with voltages up to 1000 V.
Stay insulators shall be provided on all stays sets along overhead lines of more than 1000 V. Insulator
dimensions and appropriate conductors are listed in the table below.

TABLE 13: INSULATOR SPECIFICATIONS

S.N. Size Dimensions Weight Corresponding conductor
1 Small 55 mm × 55 mm 200 gm Squirrel, service wire
2 Medium 75 mm × 90 mm 600 gm Gopher, weasel and rabbit
3 Large 100 mm × 110 mm 1300 gm Dog

10. Pin, Disc, Strain are used for high-voltage transmission.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 58

 11. The operating voltage and span determine the minimum spacing of the conductors. Generally conductor
spacing on the poles should be at least 300 mm in case of up to 400 V, 400 mm in case of 1000 V and
600 mm in case of 11 kV lines. For aluminium conductors in horizontal or triangular alignment, spacing is
given by the formula:
Spacing= √(d+(V/150))
where, Spacing is in meters
V= voltage in kV
d = sag in meters
In general, 70% should be added as a safety factor on the value calculated above.

TABLE 14: MINIMUM ELECTRICAL CLEARANCE

BETWEEN CONDUCTORS
Minimum Clearance between
S.N. Voltage Level Phase to Phase (mm)
1 230/400 290
2 11 kV 670

12. A stay set should be provided at the first pole, at all poles set at an angle and at line ends. For safety and
protection from storms, every fifth pole is generally stayed on both sides even if the poles are in a straight
line.
13. Distribution lines and branches with more than 100 households or 10 kW should have a back-up breaker in
a distribution box in order to be able to identify faults.
14. For easy maintenance and fault finding, the distribution system should be divided into different areas
separated by switches and fuses.
15. Drop-out fuses and gang-operated switches of suitable ratings shall be provided at high voltage points.
16. Distribution transformers should be oil-immersed, natural-cooled single and/or three-phase, suitable for
outdoors installation on 11 kV and 33 kV, 50 Hz distribution systems. The design of transformers should
conform to the latest edition of the appropriate IEC specifications and/or other recognised international
standards.

TABLE 15: FEATURES FOR DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

Three-phase, Single-phase,
Type 11/0.4 kV 11/0.23 kV
Rated capacity
Rated system voltage
11 kV 11 kV
- Primary
400/230 V 230 V
- Secondary
Highest system voltage
12 kV 12 kV
- Primary
440 V 250 V
- Secondary
Rated Frequency 50 Hz 50 Hz
Connection
- Primary Delta NA
- Secondary Gnd. Wye
Cooling System ONAN ONAN
Vector group Dyn 11 NA
BIL for windings and bushings for primary side 75 kV 75 kV
Withstand voltage, 50 Hz, 60S
- Primary 28 kV 28 kV
- Secondary 3 kV 3 kV
Maximum allowable noise level at 3 metre hemispherical radius <44 dB <44 dB
Applicable standard IEC IEC

59 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

5.8.2. Service wire Pre-paid meters enable energy to be pre-
purchased as credits with consumers redeeming
Guidelines for service wire are discussed below. these credits for energy, the pre-paid meter is a
1. The service wires should be doubly insulated: gating mechanism, activating and deactivating
they should be PVC cable (concentric or multi- according to the consumers credit validity. Pre-
core) and additional voltage drops should not paid meters have seen widespread adoption,
exceed 2%. Underground service connections however a critical consideration in their use is the
should be either armoured cable or PVC cable in community’s willingness to pay and acceptance
a protective circuit. of “pre-paying”. Pre-paid meters are substantially
2. Service wire should be of the same material more expensive than simple meters, the advantages
as the line conductor (aluminium) to avoid the and disadvantages must be weighed carefully. This
galvanic corrosion. guideline suggest to use accuracy class 1 for the
3. For spans exceeding 20 m, in consideration of meters.
the mechanical strength required, service wire
of minimum 4-6 mm² (depending on the span) Internationally, smart meters have become the
should be used for all lighting loads regardless of cornerstone in the new conception of the electrical
the actual power supply. However, if the distance network or smart grid (SG), providing detailed
(span) between a pole and a house is very short information about users’ energy consumption and
(i. e. less than 20 m), then a twin flat cable of 2.5 allowing the suppliers to remotely collect data for
mm² can also be used. billing. Nevertheless, their features are not only
4. A switch fuse unit (main unit) should be installed useful for the energy suppliers, but they can also
in each house. play a big role in the control of the Mini grid since
5. The fuse of the main switch should be rated to the recorded power and energy profiles can be
protect against exceeding the maximum current integrated in energy management systems (EMS).
ratings of the service connection. In addition, basic power quality (PQ) disturbance
6. To avoid overloading transformers and/ or plants, can be detected and reported by some advanced
a load-limiting device (ECC, MCB or PTC) should metering and control systems. These metering
be installed in each household. systems can often include all functions of simple and
7. Service wires should be clamped to poles to avoid pre-paid meters, obviously at a higher cost.
creating tension in connections.
The cost of the meter is typically billed to the
5.8.3. Metering consumer via a connection fee, the community’s
ability to afford this connection cost is critical in
The metering of energy consumption must be the selection of the metering system. Pre-paid and
included in the mini grid design, however the scope Smart Meters are substantially more expensive, this
or function of the metering solution depends on cost cannot always be passed onto the consumer,
many factors. These factors vary widely but are therefore if the more expensive meter infrastructure
typically linked to the socio-economic status of the is required, the mini grid operation will have to
community and the subsequent PPA or financial subsidize the cost to the consumer.
models implemented at the community level.
5.8.4. Voltage Drop calculation in
As a baseline, each consumer drawing power distribution line/feeder
from the mini grid system should be connected
via a meter that captures the consumer’s energy The increasing use of LEDs, which are replacing
consumption. The meter could be a simple analog or traditional incandescent lamps in rural areas, as also
digital device that counts kWhr and can be read off use of many other electronic gadgets and appliances
by a person, it should be of good quality, calibrated has resulted in loads with lagging power factors. In
and tamper proof. such cases while calculating the voltage drop along
the line, inductive reactance of the line needs to be
considered apart from resistance.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 60

 Figure below shows three load currents having any point of a circuit shall not cause the cable
magnitude I1, I2, I3 and having power factors CosØ1, conductor temperature to exceed the maximum
CosØ2 and CosØ3 tapped of a distributor. L1, L2 and permissible limit.
L3 are the lengths of the three sections and r and x
are the resistance and inductive reactance per unit 5.8.6. Current Rating
length.
Current rating of a cable depends on:
Feeding Point
1. Installation method, e.g., in air or ground,
I1+I2+I3 I2+I3 I3
enclosed or unenclosed, etc.
CosØ1 CosØ2 CosØ3
2. Installation environment, e.g., ambient
I1 I2 I3
temperature, depth of laying, presence of other
L1 L2 L3 cables or circuits nearby, etc.
3. Limiting temperatures of the cables for normal
Figure: Distributor supplying loads at different power use, e.g., PVC and XLPE insulated cables are 75ºC
factors and 90ºC respectively.

Simplified Phase Voltage drop in case of a single

Type of overcurrent protective device used
phase system
appropriates the derating factor:
=2*[I1L1(rCosØ1+xSinØ1) +I2(L1+L2)
- 0.9 for fuses, with l2 = 1.6 x In.
(rCosØ2+xSinØ2)+I3(L1+L2+L3) (rCosØ3+xSinØ3)]
• Where: l2 = conventional overcurrent fusing
Simplified Line to Line Voltage drop in case of a
or tripping current.
balanced three phase system
• In = nominal current of the fuse or circuit
=1.732*[I1L1(rCosØ1+xSinØ1) +I2(L1+L2)
breaker.
(rCosØ2+xSinØ2)+I3(L1+L2+L3) (rCosØ3+xSinØ3)]
• Current in neutral conductor
“4 core” shall mean 3 phase cores plus one neutral
Above formulae may be suitably extended to cover
core. 4 core cables can have the same current rating
the actual number of load tapings.
as 3 core cables only if the neutral core is lightly
loaded, i.e. less than 35% of the rated current of the
This guideline suggest not to exceed more than 10%
phase conductor, and the harmonic content in the
of voltage drop in any section of line.
current is not significant, e.g. less than 15% for 3rd
and 10% for 9th, 12th, etc., higher harmonics.
5.8.5. Cable Sizing and Installation
Considerations
For other situations, de-rating may be required in
order to take the additional heating effect due to the
The following are some of the simplified procedures
neutral current into consideration.
for cable selection. The four main electrical criteria
for cable selection are:
Current ratings in this technical guide are based on
1. Current rating.
International standards with the following typical
2. Voltage drop.
installation conditions. If other installation conditions
3. Short-circuit capacity.
are necessary, refer to derating/rating factors
4. Earth loop impedance
provided by the cable manufacturer for appropriate
derating/rating factors.
Generally speaking, for:
• Not exposed to direct sunlight unless otherwise
• Short route length, current-carrying capacity
specified
requirement will dictate the cable size selection.
• Single circuit
• Long route length, voltage drop or earth loop
• Solar radiation (for cables exposed to sun only) =
impedance requirement will dictate the cable size
1000W/m²
selection.
• Ambient air temperature = 40ºC
• The short-circuit capacity of a cable shall be
• Ambient soil temperature = 25ºC
such that all short-circuit current occurring at
• Depth of laying* = 0.5m

61 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

• Soil thermal resistivity = 1.2°C.m/W following:
• Supply frequency = 50Hz • Upto and including 50 sq. mm. conductors = H2
*Measured to (a) center of cable or trefoil group of grade.
cables or (b) center of enclosure or trefoil group of • All sizes above 50 sq. mm. conductors = H4
enclosures grade.

5.8.7. Short-circuit Capacity The conductor shall be insulated by PVC material.

The PVC insulating shall be black in colour and
During a short-circuit, the conductor temperature to be stabilized against deterioration caused by
will increase due to the heat energy produced. exposure to direct sunlight and ultraviolet radiation
To satisfy this requirement, the short-circuit conforming to requirement specified IEC 60502.
permissible temperature limit of the conductor of
cable must not be exceeded. This may require the The complete cable shall consist of four equal-
time current curves of the short-circuit protective size insulated conductors stranded together, and
device to be checked against the cable damage the direction of lay shall be right-hand. The type
curves. of construction shall cause the tensile load to be
shared equally between four conductors. The core
5.8.8. Aerial Bundled Conductors (ABC) identification and the assembly (laying up) of cores
Cable be as per IEC 60502. Ridges shall be provided over
phase core and neutral core also.
a) General
The cable shall be suitable for use within Nepal:
altitude range 0-4000 meters, typical temperature
range -5 deg. C to 45 deg. C, relative humidity 80-
90%. The conductor shall consist of compact round
stranded aluminum wires. They shall be of H2 or
H4 grade (complying with IEC: 60228) and per the

b) Electrical Properties

TABLE 16: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ABC CABLE

Conductor Conductor Induction Impedance Induction Impedance

Cable Current Short Circuit Resistance Resistance (ac) Reactance (z) @50Hz Supporting Reactance (z) @50Hz
Size Rating* Rating ** @20˚C @ 80˚C @50Hz at 80˚C Core Size @50Hz at 80˚C
mm² (A) (kA) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) mm² (Ω/km) (Ω/km)
25 105 2.3 1.2 1.49 0.096 1.493 54.6 0.101 1.493
35 144 3.2 0.868 1.078 0.096 1.082 54.6 0.097 1.082
50 183 4.6 0.641 0.796 0.09 0.801 54.6 0.089 0.801
70 228 6.4 0.443 0.55 0.089 0.557 54.6 0.086 0.557
95 227 8.5 0.32 0.397 0.086 0.406 54.6 0.081 0.405
120 322 11 0.253 0.314 0.084 0.325 70 0.079 0.324
150 350 13.8 0.206 0.256 0.082 0.269 95 0.079 0.268

*@ambient temp of 35˚C and conductor temp of 80˚C

**for 1 sec duration for final temp of conductor of 130˚C

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 62

 c) Phase Identification The remaining way of clamps shall be suitable for
The identification of the conductors shall be accommodating two numbers of double eye fitting,
provided by means of ribbing on the external surface to be used along with anchor clamps. The width and
of the insulation. The neutral conductor shall thickness of clamp shall be not less than 50 mm. and
preferably be marked with a minimum of 12 for 6 mm. respectively. Nuts and bolts of the clamp shall
25 mm², 16 for 50 mm² and 20 for 95 mm² ribs have a diameter not less than 16 mm.
spaced evenly around the circumference of the core.
g) Insulated Cable End Caps
d) Size and Quantity The insulated cable end caps shall be made of
The sizes of cable shall be: weather and age resistant insulating material and
• 95 mm², 4 Core ABC shall have wet flashover voltage not less than 6 kV.
• 50 mm², 4 Core ABC The cap shall be heat shrinkable type and shall be
• 35 mm², 4 Core ABC coated internally with a suitable sealant. The caps
• 25 mm², 4 Core ABC shall be suitable for following sizes of ABC.

Additional phase conductors for street light may be i. 95 sq. mm., 4-core ABC
required for centralized switching on/off. ii. 50 sq. mm., 4-core ABC
iii. 25 sq. mm., 4-core ABC
e) Anchor Clamps
The anchor clamps shall be bolted type. The wedge h) Insulated Insulation Piercing Connectors
of clamp shall be made of age and weather resistant The insulated insulation piercing connectors shall be
insulating material with high mechanical strength. suitable for using with aluminum ABC and concentric
The tightening straps shall be made of hot dip cables. It shall be made of high quality, weather,
galvanized steel. The clamp shall be loaded with the heat and age resistant insulating material having
spring. The clamp shall have at least two bolts for wet flashover voltage not less than 6 kV. It shall be
tightening. The hooking end of the clamp shall be watertight and suitable for making connections to
provided with a hot dip galvanized nuts and bolts the live lines. The piercing of the main line and the
with a safety lock. tapping shall be done simultaneously. The design
of the connectors shall be such that its removal
• The clamp shall be suitable for following ABC. is possible even after breaking of the shear head.
The connector shall be provided with an end cap
ABC size/type Min. Breaking load (kN) for tapping end. The connector shall be suitable for
95 sq. mm, 4-core ABC 43
50 sq. mm, 4-core ABC 37 following cables.
25 sq.mm, 4-core ABC 37

f) Support Hooks or Suspension Clamp

(Pigtail Type)
The support hooks shall be made of hot dip
galvanized steel of sufficient sizes. The support Type Main Tapping

hook shall be suitable for mounting in steel tubular Type A 25-95 sq. mm, ABC 25-95 sq. mm, ABC
Type B 25-95 sq. mm, ABC 6-25 sq. mm, Concentric Cable
(ST)poles. Support hooks suitable for Steel Tubular
Poles: The support hooks shall be mounted on
circular two-way clamps. The hook (pig tail) shall be
mounted on one of the ways of the clamp. The clamp
shall be suitable for following sizes of poles.
• Type TC6: Two-way clamp suitable for pole
diameter ranging between 190 mm to 230 mm.
• Type TC8: Two-way clamp suitable for pole
diameter ranging between 140 mm to 180 mm.

63 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 CHAPTER 6:
PROJECT COST ESTIMATE
6.1. INTRODUCTION

The costing of the project shall be carried out based costs shall be calculated based on the similar
on the project component quantities and unit rates projects carried out or current ongoing projects
derived from the corresponding district rates for the within AEPC or outside AEPC.
fiscal year. Wherever possible, the current costs of
equipment and material also need to be obtained
from manufacturers. Where these are not available,

TABLE 17: SUMMARY OF PROJECT COST

S. N. Particulars
1 Pre-Operating Expenses
2 Power Generation Components; PV, Battery, Inverter
3 Protection System
4 Monitoring System
5 T&D line
6 Land Lease & Purchase if any
7 Office Equipment
8 Environmental & Social Costs
9 Project Engineering, Management & Supervision
10 Insurance & Miscellaneous

a) Assumptions first estimated on a per unit basis for each of

the components and then amount arrived after
The following criteria and assumptions are the basis
multiplying with number. These shall be added to
of the cost estimate:
obtain the entire project cost. Lump sum costs
shall be allocated for components where a detailed
The cost estimate and financial analysis shall be
breakdown of costs is not available or worthwhile
carried out in Nepalese currency.
using judicious judgement.

The US $ to NRs exchange rate shall be used for

c) Material price and labor cost
cost.
Material costs reflect real costs incurred at other
b) Price level projects of similar size or having similar scope of
works. The prices shall be calculated based on the
The cost estimate shall be made at the price
district rate for the current fiscal year. It shall be
level of the current fiscal year. All costs shall be
stated whether the bulk of the construction material,

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 64

 the steel items for headrace pipe and penstock work 6.2.1. Unit Rates/ Unit Prices
and all of the electromechanical equipment need to
be imported or available in the local market. Unit rates should be derived for the major work
items. Standard norms of practice and desingers’
It shall also be stated whether skilled, semi-skilled in-house experience shall be utilized in derivation of
and unskilled human resources can be obtained the unit rates. Wherever applicable, norms published
locally. by the District Coordination Committee (DCC) of
the district in which the project lies can be used.
d) Indirect cost The prices of material and other equipment can
be obtained from the local market and also from
The unit costs shall include profit, and overhead,
projects under construction. A provision of 15~25%
which the contractor would charge. Along with that,
of the unit cost shall be adopted for overhead
Value Added Tax (VAT) will be applicable to mini grid
and profit. The following four sub-heads shall be
material. The VAT of some solar equipment is waived
estimated and the summation of these will be the
off which can be obtained from AEPC.
rate of an item of work.

6.2.2. Contingencies
6.2. GENERAL METHODOLOGY
The estimated costs should include physical
The project shall be divided into a number of major
contingencies which allow for unforeseen cost
components for the estimating process as follows:
increases that may become necessary as more
• Pre-operating cost
information is obtained and evaluated. In view of
- Institutional set-up
the extent of investigations and study, the following
- Community mobilization
contingencies shall be considered:
• Main Generation System
• Solar equipment 5%
- Solar PV Array
• Civil Works - Surface & Infrastructure & General
- Mounting structure
Items 10%
- Solar Charge Controller/MPPT Controller
- Battery and Battery Management System
6.2.3. Annual operation and Maintenance
- Battery Inverter and PV Inverter
Cost
- Protection System
- Monitoring System
The annual operation and maintenance (O & M)
- Powerhouse
cost of a mini grid project is generally 1.5% to 3% of
• Transmission Line system(including
the total capital cost. It is less for larger plants and
transformers, LT lines, service cable etc)
high for smaller plants. Alternatively this cost can
• Land and support: The cost components include
be calculated with the breakdown of cost items. The
land acquisition and lease, compensation to
cost items are:
Forest Users’ Committee, camp and other
• salary and benefits to the operators/managers
physical facilities, local development, access
• cost of spare parts
roads, if any, and environmental mitigation. This
• regular repair and maintenance cost
cost also shall include the cost of relocation of
• insurance cost (if any)
existing infrastructure facilities that lie in the
• other costs
project construction site.
• Annual operation and maintenance (for financial
analyses)

65 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 CHAPTER 7:
ESTIMATION OF ENERGY YIELD
7.1. ESTIMATION OF ENERGY YIELD 7.2. LOSS CALCULATION
(TYPES OF LOSSES, METHODS
The energy yield prediction is done to calculate the OF LOSS ESTIMATIONS)
estimated energy generation from a PV system and
it provides the basis for calculating project revenue. The factors that directly affect the energy generation
To accurately estimate the energy yield, information are the losses due to temperature, soiling, mismatch,
on solar resource data, temperature of the site are shading, low irradiance, voltage drop, inverter
necessary. This chapter provides the description efficiency, transformer etc. The total efficiency of the
on type of losses, loss estimation, PV system system after considering all the losses is expressed
performance (Specific Yield, CUF). as total de-rating factor or total loss factor. A
summary of typical losses is provided in the following
table.

TABLE 18: TYPE OF LOSSES AND LOSS ESTIMATION:

*Estimated Derating
Loss Type Description Loss (%) Factor

Module This represents the losses due to rise in cell temperature of the module 7% 0.93
Temperature above the standard temperature conditions of 25oC. For every degree rise
in temperature above the standard value, the efficiency can be reduced by
around 0.5%.
Module Soiling This represents the losses due to dust, bird droppings and other foreign 3% 0.97
matter on the surfaces of PV modules that reduces the amount of solar
radiation received. It is usually less than 4% but PV arrays located in arid,
dusty areas with infrequent rain and regular covering of snow areas can
experience soiling losses of 20 percent a year or higher.
Mismatch This represents the losses due to “mismatch” related to the fact that 1% 0.99
modules connected in series do not rigorously present the same I-V
(Current-Voltage) curve characteristics. A de-rating factor of 0.99
represents a loss of 1 percent due to mismatch and is a reasonable
assumption.
Module Module quality losses refers to the deviation between actual module power 0% 0.00
Quality and nominal power specified in the manufacturer specification. In case of
positive tolerance on peak power, module quality loss can be considered
as zero.

Near Shading Near shading losses affect only a part of the PV array. This partial shading 1% 0.99
could be caused by closer row to row alignment, external shading objects
in the surroundings such as trees, buildings, poles, overhead cabling etc.

Light and This represents the losses occurring at module temperature above 50oC 1% 0.99
Temperature under illumination. LeTID may occur regularly during summer and at peak
Induced times in hot climates.
Degradation
(LeTID)

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 66

 *Estimated Derating
Loss Type Description Loss (%) Factor

Low Irradiance This represents the losses due to irradiance level (to consider the lower 2% 0.98
performance behavior of PV modules at low light).
Reflection This represents the losses due to the reflection of the sun rays on the PV 1% 0.99
module surface.

DC Cable This represents the losses between PV modules and inverter input and 3% 0.97
should be less than 3%. It includes voltage drops in wiring, connections,
fuses, switches, or any other components, as applicable. These losses can
be determined in the field by measurements of the current and voltage
drops through the entire DC circuit. Total DC wiring and connection losses
usually will be on the order of 3 percent for most PV systems, resulting in a
derating factor of 0.97.

Inverter This represents the losses due to efficiency of the inverter. Almost all the 5% 0.95
good inverter manufacturers claim the maximum efficiency greater than
95%.
AC Cable This represents the losses from inverter to first pole. It includes voltage 1% 0.99
drops in wiring, fuses, and disconnects and usually is on the order of 1
percent or less for most PV systems, resulting in a derating factor of 0.99.
These losses are smaller than DC cable losses.
Transformer & This represents the losses in terms of iron and resistive/inductive losses. 2% 0.98
Others
Transmission This represents the losses in the transmission and distribution line, mainly 5% 0.95
& Distribution the power loss.
Total De-rating Factor (Multiplying all the De-rating Factors) 0.714

Note: * indicates the actual loss will be as per site conditions.

7.3. PV SYSTEM PERFORMANCE 7.3.2. Specific Yield:

The PV system performance can be determined by Specific Yield refers to how much energy (kWh) is
the following parameters. produced for every kWp over the period of a year.
• Performance Ratio It is measured in kWh/kWp. The produced energy
• Specific Yield in MWh or GWh is simply the specific yield times
• Capacity Utilization Factor (CUF) the installed nominal power of the solar PV system
and accounts for the annual production delivered at
the site. Range from 1,000 kWh/kWp to over 2,000
7.3.1. Performance Ratio (PR) kWh/kWp

Performance Ratio (PR) is the ratio between actual The specific yield of a PV system depends on
energy yield and theoretical yield. The quality of a PV • Amount of solar irradiation falling on the module
power plant is described by its Performance Ratio plane
(PR). The PR, usually expressed as a percentage, can • Total System Losses or Total De-rating Factor
be used to compare PV systems independent of size
and solar resource. 7.3.3. Capacity Utilization Factor (CUF)
AC Yield (kWhr) x 1 (1kW/m²)
(PR) = x 100% The capacity utilization factor, usually expressed as a
DC Installed Capacity (kWp) x Plane of
Array of Irradiance(kWhr/m²) percentage, is defined as the ratio of total AC energy
over a period of a year to the theoretically available
PR is usually between 75% to 85% AC nominal power operated for the entire year.
The CUF is defined as:

67 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 warranties in stepped degradation and linear as
shown in the figure below.
Energy generated (kWh/year)
CF = x 100%
(8760 hours/year) x DC Installed Capacity
(kWp) From the above figure, the power guarantee is
provided as 2 step power warranty, 91.2% rated
Typical values of CUF for a modern PV plant will be in power output till 10 years and 80.7% till 25 years.
the range of 12–25 percent, depending primarily on The power degradation is 2.5% for the first year and
location. 0.7% linearly each year thereafter until that date
which is 25 years, following the warranty start date,
at which time the Actual Power Output shall be not
7.4. DEGRADATION AND LIFE CYCLE less than 80.7% of the Nominal Power Output.
ENERGY YIELD ESTIMATION The estimation of energy yield (generation) is
calculated by using this formula:
The performance of a PV module will decrease over
time. The degradation rate is typically Energy Yield = Array Rated Power x Peak Sun
higher in the first year upon initial exposure to light (PSH) x Total De-rating Factor
and then stabilizes. Factors affecting the degree of
degradation include the quality of materials used in It is measured in kWh or MWh or GWh.
production, a manufacturing process, the quality of
assembly and packaging of the cells into the module, Where,
as well as maintenance levels employed at the site. Array Rated Power: This is the rated nameplate
capacity of the system at STC, derived from total
Generally degradation of a good quality module is rated power of the modules. It is important to note
considered to be about 20% during the that a PV array never works in those standard test
module life of 25 years @ about 0.7% per year. The conditions in the field and therefore array power will
Degradation Rate (DR) is calculated by using this always be less than the rated power at STC.
formula.
DR = [1- (POa/POn)] x 100% Peak Sun: This is the amount of solar irradiation
falling on the modules. Solar energy available in a
Where, given location is expressed as kWh/m²/day. This is
POn = original manufactured nameplate specification commonly referred to as Peak Sun Hours (PSH). For
of the Module, expressed in Watts, excluding any example, if solar irradiation for a particular location
specified positive tolerance is 4.5kWh/m²/day then PSH for that location will be
4.5 hours.
POa = power output of the Module, expressed in
Watts, that a Module generates at a given point in Total De-rating Factor: The total efficiency of the
time in a year after the Warranty Start Date in its system after considering all the losses is expressed
‘Maximum Power Point’ under STC as total de-rating factor, which is explained in Loss
Estimation above.
Module manufacturers may provide degradation

97.5%
Guaranteed Performance

91.2%

80.7%

0%
0 5 10 15 20 25
Years
Figure 26: Example of PV Module Degradation

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 68

 CHAPTER 8:
FINANCIAL ANALYSES

8.1. GENERAL 8.1.1. Subsidy

The solar mini grid project must be technically The amount of applicable subsidies for implementing
feasible as well as financially viable. Apart from new solar mini grid projects are as per Renewable
the technical, environmental and socio-economic Energy Subsidy Policy, 2078.
aspects of the project, the financial analysis provides
the most important indicators for the acceptability of
the project for investment. The financial evaluation 8.2. GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS
is aimed at giving potential investors an overview
of the risks and benefits associated with financing Analysis Period:
the project. The analysis is based on the use of The analysis period starts with cash flow investment
real time monetary values of the cost and benefit for project construction works which is distributed
and makes use of market prices and, therefore, for each year of construction period generally 6
includes any taxes which will be levied on the month to 1 year. Then the cost and revenue are
factors of production and any subsidies, capital or spread over the economic life of the plant from the
operating costs, which may be received as part of the date of commercial generation. Generally, 15 years
development. All costs are charged and all revenues can be adopted as the economic life of a solar mini
credited to the analysis in the actual amounts grid. One time of battery replacement has to be
expended or received at the time of expenditure. considered in the cash flow.
For this analysis the financial rate of return and
cash flow is assessed from the perspective of a mini Reference Date:
grid owner/operator. Financial analysis should be A reference date for costs, exchange rate and
carried out in such a way to develop a mini grid into a discounting is established on the date of project
business model. evaluation.

The financial analysis is carried out by the usual Investment Cost:

discounted cash flow technique. The financial The financial cost of project investment is made
indicators are: the Internal Rate of Returns on Total up of total project cost with contingencies, price
Investment and Equity Investment, Net Present Value escalation, taxes, duties, value added tax.
and Benefit Cost Ratio. The analysis is carried out in
Nepalese Rupees (NPR) as the price for the energy Operation & Maintenance (O&M) Costs:
that will be sold from this project will be in NPR. The Annual operation and maintenance cost of the plant
relevant specific parameters applied for the financial is made up of salary of staff, repair & maintenance
analysis in this study are the following: cost, taxes and duties, overhead of the company.
The annual increment of O&M should atleast 1%.

69 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

Financing Mix: The mini grid tariff rate should be fixed by the
The project is assumed to be developed with long community for lighting and end use purposes.
term loan and equity investment of the Developer However financial parameters should be met.
with financing mix of loan and equity as appropriate. Community mobilizer can facilitate community for
After deducting subsidies and incentives, the determining tariff.
remaining amount has to be divided into a loan
equity ratio of 70:30.
8.3. FINANCIAL ANALYSIS AND
Discount Rate: PLANNING
A discount rate has to be chosen and used to
calculate the Net Present Value and the Benefit An analysis is required to determine the financial
Cost Ratio of the project as well as to compare with feasibility of any project. The financial analysis
the calculated IRR on Equity Investment. Financial includes the revenue from the collection of the
Discount Rate can be assumed to be 10%. This can electricity charges to the system users, the analysis
be calculated by averaging the Weighted Average of the Life Cycle Cost of the entire system, Net
Lending Rate (Commercial Banks) over a period of 4 Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR),
years (16 data points) as published by Nepal Rastriya Payback Period (PB) and Levelized Cost of Electricity
Bank. (LCOE). The NPV, IRR, PB and the LCOE are
evaluated for 15 years as this is the assumed lifetime
Energy Benefits: of the PV system including replacement costs of
Energy benefits of a project are based on the energy inverter or battery equipment according to their
consumption in the supply area multiplied by the operational life.
electricity tariff. The price of energy is generally
based on prevailing tariff in similar projects or the
electricity tariff of NEA.

Financial Assessment

Life Cycle Cost Net Present Levelized Cost of

Revenue Analysis Analysis Value Analysis Electricity Analysis

Financial Financial
Assessment Assessment Tool
Report

Figure 27: Financial Assessment Process

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 70

 8.3.1. Revenue Analysis 8.3.4. Net Present Value

Applicable tariff (for connected load and for energy) The NPV is one of the most comprehensive
for different categories of consumers forms the approaches for the financial evaluation of a
basis for revenue analysis. Factors like time value of project. The NPV method evaluates the future cash
money, inflation etc. shall be considered to define a flows of the system in a real value basis. This is
mechanism for tariff adjustment/escalation. done by discounting the cash flows at a specific
interest rate. In addition, the recurrent costs of the
8.3.2. Life Cycle Cost Analysis project can be assumed to inflate or deflate at a
fixed inflation rate.
The LCC considers the investment cost, O&M and
the replacement costs. The investment cost of this 8.3.5. Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
project comprises the costs of the PV array, the
battery bank, inverter/battery charges, and wiring/ The internal rate of return is a discount rate that
BOS components. The costs of the wiring/BOS makes the net present value (NPV) of all cash
components may be assumed to be 10% of the flows equal to zero in a discounted cash flow
cost of other components (PV array, battery bank, analysis. IRR calculations rely on the same formula
inverter/battery charger). The investment cost as NPV does. The formula and calculation used to
generally includes the cost of the equipment plus the determine this figure is as follows.
installation cost and any modification required in the

S
T
equipment. The cost of the system installation and Ct
0 = NPV = - C0
other modifications required may also be assumed (1 + IRR)t
to be 10% of the sum of the main components. The t=1
annual cost of an energy system includes operational Where:
costs (including salary and benefits of the staff), Ct = Net Cash Inflow during the period t
mortgage payments, and maintenance and parasitic C0 = Total initial investment costs
energy costs etc. IRR = the internal rate of return
t = the number of time periods
8.3.3. Sensitivity analysis
To calculate IRR using the formula, one would
Sensitivity Analysis is the process of recalculating set NPV equal to zero and solve for the discount
outcomes under alternative assumptions to rate, which is the IRR. However, because of
determine the impact of variable parameters. the nature of the formula, IRR cannot be easily
Sensitivity analysis is one such method that is calculated analytically and therefore must instead
implemented to analyze the various risks to the be calculated either through trial-and-error or
project on uncertain conditions. Sensitivity analysis by using software programmed to calculate IRR.
involves changing the inputs in the financial model to This can be done in Excel easily with inbuilt IRR
analyze how the cash flow of the project is impacted. function.
Sensitivity analysis gives lenders and investors a
greater understanding of the effects of changes in 8.3.6. Payback Period.
inputs on the project’s profitability and bankability.
It helps lenders and investors understand the key The payback period refers to the amount of time
risks associated with the project. Consultant has it takes to recover the cost of an investment or
to provide outcome of below mentioned financial how long it takes for a developer to reach break-
parameter for following scenarios; even. The desirability of an investment is directly
a) Without any financial incentive i.e. no subsidy related to its payback period. Shorter paybacks
b) Subsidy with 60% of total project cost, 20% loan mean more attractive projects. This is a non –
and 20% equity discounted cash flow method of capital budgeting
c) Subsidy with 90% of total project cost, 10% which is its limitation.
equity

71 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

8.3.7. Levelized Cost of Electricity Sum of all costs over lifetime i.e.
NPV value of all costs
(LCOE) LCOE =
Sum of electricity consumed over lifetime
i.e. NPV value of consumed electricity
The LCOE is an abstract from reality and issued
as a benchmark or ranking tool to assess the The
LCOE is an abstract from reality and issued as
a benchmark or ranking tool to assess the cost-
effectiveness of different generation technologies.
The method considers the lifetime generated
Where
electricity cost to estimate a price per unit of
It = investment expenditure
electricity generated. The method does not usually
Mt = O&M expenditure
include risk and different actual financing methods
Et = Energy Consumed
available for the different technologies.
r = discount rate
n = expected life time of mini grid (can be
For the purpose of this guideline, the electricity
assumed 15 years)
consumed is used in the LCOE assessment instead
of the electricity generated. Since this is a stand-
alone system, part of the energy produced that is
not stored in the battery bank or supplied to the
load is dumped.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 72

 CHAPTER 9:
ENVIRONMENTAL AND
SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS

9.1. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL Solar mini grid systems are mainly for community
ASSESSMENT electrification powering lighting in the households,
school, hospital, office building etc. The adverse
Environmental and Social Safeguard requirements environmental impacts of these systems is generally
of the projects shall be governed by the Environment not very significant. Mini grid systems could be
Protection Act (EPA) 2076 and Environment located in a remote rural community, a group of
Protection Rule (EPR) 2077 of the Government of villages or districts interconnected by transmission
Nepal and Environmental and Social Safeguard lines. The aggregate effects of several such projects
(ESS) Policy 2018 of AEPC. According to the EPA could be of magnitude to cause adverse impact
2076, an environmental study report shall be to the environment. Therefore, environmental
prepared for any proposal as prescribed in the EPR and social impact due to implementation of such
2077. A brief environmental study shall be carried projects shall be considered in the detailed feasibility
out for solar and wind projects which will use up study. Environmental and Social Study for a mini
to 1 hectare forest land (Schedule-1, Ka.6). Initial grid project should identify key impact, predict
Environmental Examination (IEE) shall be carried magnitude, extent and duration of impact as well as
out for solar and wind projects with generation suggest strategies for minimization/mitigation of
capacity of 1 to 10 MW (Schedule-2, Cha.7) and impacts.
projects which will use 1 to 5 hectares of forest land
(Schedule -2, Ka.12). However, Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) shall be carried out for solar and
wind projects with generation capacity more than
10 MW (Schedule-3, Cha.6), projects which will use
more than 5 hectares forest land (Shedule-3, Ka.9)
and projects in national parks, hunting reserve and
wildlife reserve (Schedule -3, Ka.10). In terms of
projects supported by Development Agencies such
as the World Bank and Asian Development Bank,
Environmental and Social Safeguard requirements
as per the safeguard policy of respective agencies
shall be fulfilled.

73 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 Environment
Impact Study

Physical Biological
Socio-Economic
Environment Environment
Study
Study Study

Environment Impact
Assessment Tool

Environment Impact
Assessment Report

Figure 28: Environment Impact Assessment Process

9.2. PROCESS FOR 9.2.2. Baseline Data Collection of

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL Existing Environmental and Social
ASSESSMENT Conditions

9.2.1. Environmental and Social Baseline data collection is a record of the situation
Screening and Categorization and status of the project site before project
implementation. It is a description of existing
Screening will determine whether the projects are conditions against which subsequent change can be
likely to have potential adverse environmental and examined, predicted and confirmed.
social impacts, establish the level of environmental/
social assessment required, help proponents Baseline study refers to the collection of existing
to understand environmental and social issues physical, biological, socio-economic and cultural
related to the projects before they are considered information of the proposed project area including
for implementation, and assist in the decision- changes that are expected in future.
making process. Screening will be conducted based
on criteria mentioned in Schedule 1, 2 and 3 of For environmental assessment of the proposed
Environment Protection Rules 2077 (EPR, 2077) and project, the baseline conditions for the physical,
Environmental and Social Safeguard (ESS) Policy of biological, socio-economic, and cultural environment
AEPC 2018. of the project area should be found out and
documented for future records. The major categories
Based on the environmental and social screening, of the environment likely to be included in the
projects will be categorized as High, Medium Low environmental report of Large Scale Solar PV and
risk. AEPC will be responsible for the categorization Wind are detailed below.
decision of the project.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 74

 d) Physical Environment by community;
h. Economic characteristic: income, expenditure,
Topography: general gradient and slope of the skill level, occupation, employment, market;
project location, general terrain condition of the i. Health and sanitation: health facility, institution,
project area, availability of land area, surrounding common diseases, sanitation condition;
shadow objects, nearby settlements, j. Water use right: existing and proposed
consumptive and non-consumptive uses of river
Geology: geological setting, status of geological water;
stability or instability, characteristics of surface k. Land Ownership and availability
deposit, landslide and soil erosion, soil type l. Land use: existing land use pattern (farmland,
barren land, settlement, forest);
Seismicity m. Historical and Cultural heritage sites

Meteorology: 9.2.4. Methodology of Data Collection

• different climatic regimes, irradiance,
temperature, rainfall, snowfall, annual Sun shine Baseline information can be collected through
days, average daily sun-hours, wind speed maps and reports study, field visit and by detailed
Climate change and natural disasters site survey such as household questionnaire form,
• Explain in detail about how the project will be focus group discussion (FGD) checklist, inventory
affected by the climate change impact and sampling depending upon the nature of the
• Explain how the project is vulnerable to various project. Primary data/information related to
natural calamities including flood, earthquake, the environmental attributes like air, noise level,
drought, cyclone and so on water quality, irradiance, and wind speed and
geomorphology data directly collected from field
Project location from flood level studies. In the field study, a structural as well as semi
structured questionnaire, focus group discussion
Air quality, water sources and its quality, noise level and key informant interview tools are used to collect
and drainage pattern primary socio-economic information. Ecological
information is collected from both primary data
e) Biological environment sources as well as from the secondary data sources.
The following methodology can be adopted for the
Forest management practice, flora, fauna data collection:
(mammalian and avian), vegetation and forest type
and composition. f) Desk Study
Collect information and data from municipality/ rural
9.2.3. Socio-economic and cultural municipality/ward profile, published and unpublished
environment literatures related to project, report of similar project
elsewhere, related papers, internet etc.
b. Demography: estimated population, population
characteristic; g) Field Work
c. Social setting: Social structure of community The Study Team should visit the project area to
(cast, ethnicity, religion), social practice, observe, collect and analyze data/information for
housing pattern, settlement pattern in core and studying Physical, Biological, Social, Economic and
immediate area; Cultural Environment of the project area. The works
d. Gender issue: role of women in society, their should be carried out using the following methods:
responsibility; • Walkover survey/Direct Observation
e. Infrastructure: access road, track, bridge, water • Sampling
supply system etc.; • Interviews/group discussion
f. Education: literacy rate, education facility; • Stakeholder Consultation
g. Community resource: resource commonly used • Checklist/questionnaire

75 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

h) Public Consultation 9.2.5. Data Analysis
Public consultation refers to the process by which
project directly affected persons and those who The information and data collection from the
have plausible stake in the environmental and social fieldwork should be compiled in excel sheet
impacts due to project activities are ascertained with and analyzed to establish the relation between
a view to take into account all the material concerns the environmental and social impacts due to
or activity design as appropriate. construction and operation of the proposed project
and list their likely mitigation measures. Based on
A stakeholder is any individual, group, agency or the data analysis, conclusions shall be drawn on
organization affected by a project and/or concerned environmental and social issues, resolutions and
or like-minded institutions in project outcomes, or practical action to protect the environment of the
in common resources impacted by a development project area.
project. A stakeholder should be treated as a
“partner in development” and not as an opponent of
the project. 9.3. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL
IMPACTS
The list of prospective stakeholders includes some or
all of the following. In every category, gender issues Magnitude of environmental impacts of solar
must be given proper consideration; both women mini grid project implementation depends
and men should be represented in activities. upon the selected site configuration and the
• Affected local individuals, communities or scale of the project. A mini grid project covers
households; a relatively small area and has a low impact on
• Elected officials of concerned municipality/rural the existing environment (beneficial or favorable
municipality; and adverse or unfavorable) than bigger scale
• Concerned business people and entrepreneurs; projects. The environmental and social impact
• Local NGOs, CBOs, Women Groups, Youth due to implementation of solar mini grid project
Groups, Clubs; construction activities are summarized below(Table
• Local influential individuals from affected area, 19).
such as informal or traditional community heads,
school teachers, healers, social and religious The environmental and social implications may
leaders and other notable men and women; be beneficial or adverse, but the main objective of
• Health workers; impact identification is to specify the issues that
• Social workers; are likely to be affected by the implementation
• Project developer/proponent themselves. of the project. Environmental work related to the
large scale solar PV and Wind project starts from
Those stakeholders who are directly affected the identification of the project. Synonymously the
by the project activities are identified as the key same time potential environmental impact should
stakeholder. They will be at the greatest risk and also be analyzed and predicted from analysis of the
feel the impacts most intensely, so they are the field situation as well as from secondary data of
prime stakeholder for the benefit and opportunities existing environment against proposed development
from the project. Therefore, their involvement and activities. Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
participation in the project activites is crucial from should be developed showing environmental issues,
the beginning for the success of projects. Hence, impact, impact prediction, mitigation measures and
at least one public consultation meeting should mitigation cost.
be conducted throughout the project cycle in the
project area.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 76

 TABLE 19: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF LARGE SCALE
SOLAR PV AND WIND PROJECT

Activities Impact
Construction Phase Physical environment
• Soil erosion and chances of landslide due to removal of tree, shadow obstacles
Solar PV mounting concrete and cutting existing slope and filling of loose excavated materials
pillars, wind turbine support • Surface erosion from excavated material filling site
foundation structure, • Change in land use pattern
Armor cable ground layout, • Deterioration of surface water due to surface runoff from excavated site
powerhouse, earthing or • Air pollution
grounding, project accessories, • Noise level
access road • Water quality
• Solid waste and muck disposal
• Stockpiling of construction materials
• Visual impact

Biological Environment
• Loss of forest and vegetation
• Exploitation of none timber forest product
• Hunting and Poaching
• Stress on natural resources

Socioeconomic Environment
• Land Acquisition: Acquisition of private as well as governmental land
• Visual intrusion caused by construction activities
• Production of sound and noise due to wind turbine rotation
• Shadow and shadow motion due to wind turbine rotation
• Local birds strike on the wind turbine
• Destruction and destroyed recreational spot and activities
• Labor influx and management: Raised social issues from the migrated work force
• Change in demographic profile
• Impact on livelihood of Project Affectd Peoples (PAPs)
• Occupational health and safety
• Community health and safety
• Health, hygiene and sanitation
• Gender and vulnerable group
• Employment opportunity
• Impact on sites of cultural importance
• Stress on infrastructure

Operation Phase Physical Environment

• Soil erosion and landslide triggering from instability site
• Air quality
• Noise level
• Water quality
• Visual impact
• Flicker effect

Biological Environment
• Barrier on wildlife movement
• Birds and bats mortality
• Forest and vegetation
•
Socio-economic and cultural environment
• Issue on electrical and electronic waste
• Battery Management: Issue on lead acid disposal and battery recycling
• Issue on mercury due to florescent bulb disposal
• Issue on public health
• Impact on livelihood of Project Affectd Peoples (PAPs)
• Occupational health and safety
• Community health and safety: Issue on public health
• Stress on infrastructure
• Employment opportunity

77 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

9.4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC BASELINE (FGD) in the respective load center. This should be
SURVEY taken as the baseline information for comparison in
subsequent periodic FGDs.
9.4.1. Introduction
l) Economic Activities (Livelihood)
The socio-economic data required for a mini grid Activities related to agriculture, livestock, cottage
development includes the collection of village profile industry, remittance, agriculture production, industry
data, identification of potential beneficiaries, load and craft, business entities and more should be
centres, economic and financial conditions of the recorded.
beneficiaries and other relevant data.
m) Infrastructure
9.4.2. Data/Information Requirement The public infrastructure including school, health
post, road streets, services of information &
For initiation of a mini grid power project data/ communication (phone, internet, TV and postal),
information specific to the project site needs to irrigations system, sources of drinking water, clubs,
be collected. The required data/information shall temples, gumbas, madrasa, church etc. available at
be acquired through collection of information the time of the FGD should be recorded under the
from the potential beneficiaries. In order to collect Public Services heading.
municipality/rural munilcipality level or ward
level (if available) data secondary source shall be n) Local Level Capacity
used. Whereas 10% of the total household from Local level capacity implies the available trained
beneficiaries’ communities shall be taken as sample workforce within the beneficiary communities.
for primary socio-economic data collection.
o) Education
9.4.3. General socio-economic Access to education and the annual dropout of
information students should be filled in.
General socio-economic information shall be
collected for preparing baseline information of the p) Sources of Electricity and Consumption of
project so that the indicators can be compared Energy
before and after the installation of the mini grid Current use of elctricity sources such as solar home
project. Following information shall be included in systems, Kerosene, diesel etc shall be recorded.
the baseline surveying: Current use of electrical appliances/equipment as
well as potential consumption of electricity after
i) Identification implementation of the project shall be filled in.
Identification of the location of the project and
the beneficiary areas – specifically the load center Consumption of different kinds of energy should be
(Focus Group Discussion FGD will be conducted in filled in.
location of project).
q) Development activities
j) Site Information The development activities expected in the
Information regarding the distance from the nearest immediate future.
road head and an airport to the project site and load
centres. r) Willingness to Pay
The willingness to pay for electricity use as reported
k) Income and Expenditure Pattern by the potential beneficiary during the FGD.
The income and expenditure habitude of the
households of the load centers has been categorized
into High, Medium and Low levels as perceived by
the participants of the focused group discussion

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 78

 CHAPTER 10:
RISK ASSESSMENT

There could be various types of risk profiles 10.1. UNCERTAINTY IN METEO DATA
associated with any new project and in general
such risk profiles vary from project to project. The solar irradiance could have yearly variability.
Risk profiles that need careful scrutiny in case of The climate evolution made solar irradiance more
solar mini grid projects. The foremost risk may be unpredictable. However, the uncertainty can be
associated with proper resource assessment as minimized by quality of the data recording, care of
incorrect assessment will lead to premature failure of the operators, positioning, calibration and drift of the
the project. Some of the risks may have tremendous sensors, perturbations like shadings, dirt or snow
negative effects whereas some others may be on the sensors, etc. The quality of data depends
alleviated with proper back up planning. Similarly upon the location difference (distance of measuring
the risk of error in existing demand assessment and station) for terrestrial measurements.
future demand projection needs to be minimized.
Other risks may include geological risk, seismic risk, The quality of the models used for interpreting the
risk of large migration, technological risk, risk of satellite data, which is in continuous improvement
alternative options (e.g. of grid electricity). since 20 years. Usually the probability index p(xx)
represents yield levels, for which the probability that
Some of the risks are site specific and they should the production of a particular year is over this value
be assessed during the field investigation and design is xx%. The energy yield are derived at p(90), p(70)
period. The feasibility study shall collect and analyze and p(50) data whenever possible/ required. For the
adequate data/information associated with the bankable project P(70) is required.
risks as stated above. This will prevent harming
the project implementation as well as operation.
Appropriate measures should be suggested
in descriptive form by the consultant on risk
management.

Probability Density Curve of KWh/m²

P (50)

P (70)

P (90) P (10)

0.02 1.02 2.02 3.02 4.02 5.02 6.02 7.02 8.02

Figure 29: Uncertainty in Meteo Data

79 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

10.2. FINANCIAL RISK 10.3.3. Social risk

The financial risks include change in interest, Social risks are associated with acquisition of land
change in item rates, change in project cost, change for the project and the implementation of the
in legislation, change in exchange rate, change project without proper consultation and consent
in construction period, etc. These risks shall be of the people residing in the project areas. Timely
analyzed during negotiations with lenders and stakeholders engagement is recommended for
community. minimizing such a risk. Social risk may arise
due to excessive use of local resources (water,
land, forest, construction materials, etc.) by
10.3. OTHER RISKS the developer, intervention in the living style or
tradition of the locals, etc. These risks shall be
Other risks in mini grid development can be: identified and adequate mitigation measures shall
be recommended during the socio- economic and
environmental studies of a solar mini grid project.
10.3.1. Environmental risk

Environmental risks are related to water rights,

relocation of existing structures (road, bridge,
canal etc.), use of forest area etc. Information
shall be collected by interacting with community
people/relevant stakeholders of the project area
and available secondary information. These data
shall be analyzed and suitable mitigation measures
shall be recommended in the detailed feasibility
study. Timely negotiation and receiving permissions
shall be made to avoid delay and interruption in
construction and operation phase.

10.3.2. Political risk

Disturbances due to political instability lead

uncertainty in a project implementation may result
in delays and cost overrun. Assessment of such risk
shall be carried out by qualitative methods.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 80

 CHAPTER 11:
FEASIBILITY STUDY REPORT
FORMAT

Contents
List of Acronyms
List of Drawings
List of Figures
List of Tables
Executive Summary (Summary of the Detailed
Feasibility Study Report)
Salient Features

THE FORMAT OF THE SALIENT FEATURES SHALL BE AS FOLLOWS.

S.N. Heading Particulars Description
1 User Community Name of the User Community
2 Category Sub project Category
3 Subproject Name of the Subproject
Capacity ………kWp
4 Power House Location GPS Coordinates Latitude
Longitude
Altitude ………m
Province & District
Municipality/Rural Municipality
Village
Approximate Distance from Nearest ………Km
Highway to Subproject Site
Approximate Distance from Nearest Road ………Km
Head to Subproject Site
5 Households Total Number of Households ………Nos.
Total Number of Households/Businesses ………Nos.
Total Number of Businesses ………Nos.
Total Number of Anchors ………Nos.
6 Land Profile Type of Land
Ownership of Land
Current Land Use Pattern
Topography and Orientation
7 Land Acquisition Willing Buyer/Willing Sale
Leased Land
Voluntary
8 Solar Resource Potential, Solar Insolation …….kWh/m²/day
Technology and Type of PV Module
Subproject Capacity Capacity of Each Module ………Wp
Module Efficiency ………%
Total No. of Modules ………Nos.

81 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

S.N. Heading Particulars Description
Total PV Array Capacity ………kWp
Type of Inverter1
Capacity of Each Inverter ………kW
Inverter Peak Efficiency ………%
No. of Inverters ………Nos.
Total Inverter Capacity ………kW
Type of Inverter2
Capacity of Each Inverter ………kW
Inverter Peak Efficiency ………%
No. of Inverters ………Nos.
Total Inverter Capacity ………kW
Type of Charge Controller
Capacity of Each Controller ………kW
Charge Controller Peak Efficiency ………%
No. of Charge Controllers ………Nos.
Total Charge Controller Capacity ………kW
Type of Battery
Capacity of Each Battery Set ………Ah
No. of Battery Set ………Nos.
Total Battery Capacity ………kWh
Type of Wind Turbine
Capacity of Each Turbine ………kW
No. of Wind Turbines ………Nos.
Total Wind Turbine Capacity ………kW
Type of Wind Controller
Capacity of Each Controller ………kW
No. of Wind Controllers ………Nos.
Total Wind Controller Capacity ………kW
9 Transmission and Transformer Power Rating ………kVA
Distribution Transformer Voltage
Primary ………kV
Secondary ………kV
Type of Transformer
Length of T&D Line
11kV Three Phase ………Km
400V Three Phase ………Km
230V Single Phase ………Km
ABC Twisted Cables
4 Core 150mm² for 3-Phase ………Km
4 Core 95mm² for 3-Phase ………Km
4 Core 70mm² for 3-Phase ………Km
4 Core 50mm² for 3-Phase ………Km
4 Core 35mm² for 3-Phase ………Km
2 Core 95mm² for 1-Phase ………Km
2 Core 50mm² for 1-Phase ………Km
2 Core 35mm² for 1-Phase ………Km
2 Core 25mm² for 1-Phase ………Km
ACSR Conductor
………Km
Rabbit (50mm²)
………Km
Weasel (30mm²)
………Km
Squirrel (20mm²)
Pole Type & Number
410 SP-67 to 410 SP-72 (13 meter) ………Nos.
410 SP-52 (11 meter) ………Nos.
410 SP-29 (9 meter) ………Nos.
410 SP-13 (8 meter) ………Nos.
10 Electricity Generation Estimated Annual Energy Generation ………kWh/year
11 Cost Estimate Estimated Subproject Cost NRs.
12 Financial Overview Project IRR ………%
Payback Period
Break Even Point (BEP)
B/C Ratio
Levelized Cost of Energy

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 82

 1. Project Overview 7.9. Transmission and Distribution System
1.1. Background of the Project 7.9.1. Voltage Drop Calculations with
1.2. Objective of the Study Conductor Details for 11kV or/and
1.3. Scope of Work 0.4kV
1.4. Methodology of the Study
1.5. Study Team 8. Design Layout
8.1. Array Layout
2. Analysis and Projection of Energy Demand in the 8.2. Positioning of Powerhouse and Placement of
Village Inverter
2.1. Energy Demand Assessment 8.3. Electrical Layouts
2.2. Energy Demand Projection 8.3.1. General Layout of Solar Wind Mini Grid
System
3. Subproject Site and Site Assessment 8.3.2. Single Line Diagram of PV Wind
3.1. Subproject Location Generating System (Module to Inverter
3.2. Description of Subproject Site to Wind Turbine to Battery)
3.3. Available Land and Area 8.3.3. Single Line Diagram of T&D System
3.4. Topography and Orientation (Power House to Loads)
3.5. Current Land Use 8.3.4. Single Line Diagram of Support
3.6. Local Regulations/Land Use Policy Structure
8.3.5. Single Line Diagram of Support
4. Features of Solar Wind Mini Grid System Structure’s Foundation
4.1. PV Module 8.3.6. Single Line Diagram of Powerhouse
4.2. Charge Controller and Control Room
4.3. Grid Connected Inverter 8.3.7. Single Line Diagram of Steel Tubular
4.4. Battery Inverter Poles
4.5. Battery 9. Bill of Quantities and Cost Estimate
4.6. Wind Turbine and Wind Controller 9.1. Detailed Bill of Quantities
4.7. Safety and System Protection 9.2. Detailed Cost Estimate of Subproject
4.8. Cables (DC and AC)
4.9. Array Support Structure 10. Estimation of Energy Yield
4.10.Transmission and Distribution System 10.1. Calculation for Energy Yield Estimation
4.11. Control and Monitoring System
4.12. Safety System 11. Financial Analysis & Economic Analysis
11.1. Financial Analysis Overview
5. Solar Resource Assessment 11.2. Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)
5.1. Solar Resource Overview 11.2.1. Subproject Cost Breakdown
5.2. Solar Resource at Subproject Site 11.2.2. Applicable Taxes
11.3. Operational Expenditure (OPEX)
6. Shadow Analysis 11.3.1. O&M Cost
11.3.2. Insurance Cost
7. System Design 11.3.3. Depreciations
7.1. Array Configurations 11.3.4. Other Cost
7.2. Battery 11.4. Revenue
7.3. Charge Controller 11.4.1. Energy Rate
7.4. Grid Connected Inverter 11.4.2. Tariff Escalation
7.5. Battery Inverter 11.4.3. LCOE
7.6. Wind Turbine and Wind Controller 11.5. Financial Output
7.7. Safety and System Protection 11.5.1. Project Internal Rate of Return
7.8. Cable (DC and AC) 11.5.2. Net Present Value

83 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 11.5.3. Break Even Point 14. GESI Aspects
11.5.4. Payback Period
11.5.5. B/C Ratio 15. Risk Assessment
11.6. Other Banking Ratios 15.1. Risk Matrix with Mitigation Options
11.7. Conclusion Conclusions and Recommendations
15.2. Conclusions
12. Work Schedule 15.3. Recommendations
12.1. Detailed Work Schedule of Subproject
Annexes
13. Environmental and Social Baseline
13.1. Physical Environment
13.2. Biological Environment
13.3. Socio-Economic Environment

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 84

 REFERENCES
Renewable Energy for Rural Livelihood (RERL) Fatehi, Junaid, and Kenneth J. Sauer, “Modeling
Publications the Incidence Angle Dependence of Photovoltaic
Modules in PVsyst,” PVSC, 2014 40th IEEE, June 2014
Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy, Alternative Energy
Promotion Centre, 2022 National Electric Code, article 690

Renewable Energy Subsidy Delivery Mechanism, SMA, Technical and Product Documentation, 2020
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre, 2022
Tracking SDG 7: The Energy Progress Report,
Electricity Storage Valuation Framework, International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA),
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2020.
2020.
Quality Assurance Framework for Mini Grids,
Policies and regulations for renewable energy mini National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) of
grids, International Renewable Energy Agency the U.S. Department of Energy, 2016
(IRENA), 2018.
Key Steps in Mini Grid Technical Design, USAID, 2020
Guidelines for Detailed Feasibility Studies of Mini
Karnamadakala Rahul Sharma, Approach for
Hydropower Projects, Alternative Energy Promotion
Designing Solar Photovoltaic-Based Mini Grid
Center (AEPC), 2014
Projects: A Case Study from India, 2014
Guidelines for Developing Utility-Scale Solar PV
Project in Nepal, Alternative Energy Promotion
Center (AEPC), 2019

Andrews, Rob, and Joshua M. Pearce, “Prediction

of Energy Effects on Photovoltaic Systems Due to
Snowfall Events,” PVSC, 2012 38th IEEE, June 2012

85 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

ANNEXES

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 86

 ANNEX 1- DEMAND ASSESSMENT SURVEY FORM

TABLE 20: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR DEMAND SURVEY IN

INDIVIDUAL HOUSEHOLD

Questionnaire
Individual

District
Rural/Municipality
Ward no/Tole
Respondent Name
Age
Social NOTE
Family Size
Income Source
Service Please Tick
Agriculture Please Tick
Business (mention type)
Monthly Income Total Income in Cash in NPR
Education
Highest Education Level Separate with comma for different classes. Eg: Input as
Number Classes Enrolled 1,2&3 for 3 Male Students in class 1, 2 & 3
Male Students
Female Students
Name of Nearest School
Proximity to Nearest School meters
Present Source of Lighting and monthly associated Cost
Candle Yes/No & NPR
Kerosene Yes/No & NPR
Dry Cell Yes/No & NPR
Solar Home System Yes/No & NPR
Diesel Generator Yes/No & NPR
Others Please mention
Present Method of Cooking and monthly associate cost
Fuelwood Yes/No, kG/Lit & NPR
Biogas Yes/No, kG/Lit & NPR
Others Yes/No, kG/Lit & NPR
Average Monthly spending for Energy application in NPR
Solar Home System (if any)
Size of Solar Home System in Wp
Year of Installation
Financial Support Self / AEPC / Other Donors
Cost of installed Solar Home System
Drinking Water

87 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 Questionnaire
Water supply connection Yes/No
Proximity to nearest water source meters
Type of water Source Tick whichever is applicable
River
Spring
Tap
Reservoir
Pond
Health
Name of the nearest Health Post
Proximity to nearest Health Post meters
Average Monthly spending on health related activates
Record on existing health condition, if any
Sanitation
Availability of Toilet Mention Yes/No
Awareness of sanitation High/Medium/Low or No
Use of soap Mention Yes/No
Solar Light
Awareness of Solar lighting system High/Medium/Low or No
Awareness of Solar Water Heating System High/Medium/Low or No
Awareness of Solar Space Heating System High/Medium/Low or No
Awareness of Solar Dryer High/Medium/Low or No
Land
Land Availability for Solar Panel, Battery and other Mention in sqm or No for unavailability
accessories
Available land for Mention in sqm or No for unavailability
Agriculture
Livestock
Other Activities
Interest in permitting land for Solar Mini Grid System Mention Yes/No
Owner of the land/relationship to the owner
Land Location GPS coordinates
Technical
Approximate distance for distribution network meters
Proximity to nearest NEA GRID meters
Demand of number of lights Mention numbers and take reference of 4 watts for
each room
Sun Period
Sun Rise Mention time in xx:xx am
Sun Set Mention time in xx:xx pm
Load Calculation
Proposed Load Type Load in Operating
Quantity Watts Hours
Light Ref: 3W LED
Radio

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 88

 Questionnaire
TV Ref: LCD/LED TV
Mobile Charger Default 5 Watts
Other 1
Other 2
Other 3
Other 4
Other 5
Financial
Type of Work
Government Job
Agriculture
Business
Others
Number of employed members
Average Monthly HH Cash income NPR
Average Monthly HH Cash expense NPR
Average Monthly HH Case spend on
Kerosene NPR
Dry Cell NPR
Firewood NPR
Others NPR
Business Type (If applicable)
Shop Please also specify the distance of these location to
Hotel their HH & Grid, if any
Cottage Industry
Others
Potential Tariff structure & Tariff Rate
Meter Reading
Flat Base System Yes/No & NPR
Others Yes/No & NPR

89 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

TABLE 21: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FOCUSED GROUP
DISCUSSION

Questionnaire 2
Focus Group Discussion
Need Assessment Note
Level of electricity need for the community High/Medium/Low or No
Existing number of Solar Home System (SHS) users
Current issue with existing SHS Please specify issue
Current demand for additional electricity High/Medium/Low or No
Community contribution
Likelihood for community contribution High/Medium/Low or No
Cash Please specify the average expected cash contribution
KIND Please specify the average expected kind contribution
such as transportation from nearest road head to
project site, unskilled labor and fencing.
Unskilled Human Resource High/Medium/Low or No
Local Resource Availability High/Medium/Low or No
Sand
Water
Stone
Wood
Aggregates
Others
Proposed site for Solar Mini Grid System or accessories Please take photo and coordinate for GPS
Name of Location Pros Cons
Location 1
Location 2
Location 3
Location 4

Existing source of electricity (except NEA Grid) Mention Yes/No and Approximate Number of Installed
Capacity & Units
Micro Hydro
Institutional Solar
Solar Home System
Bio Mass
Biogas
Wind
Expected time of use of electricity Mention total hours
Day
Night
Expected demand of electricity for Mention expected demand in kW & units demanded
Industrial application
Agricultural application
Service/Commercial

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 90

 Questionnaire 2
Telecommunication
Additional Demand of electricity Mention expected number of units
Street Lighting
Toilet Lighting
Others Mention type
Details on School Ownership
Public
Private
Type of School
Pre primary
Primary
Lower Secondary
Secondary
SLC
Higher Secondary
Higher Education
Demand of Electricity for School end uses
Computers Mention expected number
Space heating Mention expected size to cover space heating
Access to Internet Mention potential users

Demand on evening study Mention Yes/No

Income Generating Activity

Type of IGA
IGA 1 Potential
Number of
individual
IGA 2
IGA 3
IGA 4
IGA 5
IGA 6
Existing Market Condition
Size of market High/Medium/Low or No
Level of Business Skill High/Medium/Low or No
Use of Technology & Business Application High/Medium/Low or No
Estimated business transaction monthly Reference from Local Cooperative
Employment
Number of Youths
Age Group Male Female

13-19
20-24
Education Level
Skill Level
Employment Status

91 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

 Questionnaire 2
% Indigenous (mention type)
Development Organization
Existing Finance Institution
Past Activities by Finance Institution
Existing Donor
Past Activities by Donor
Existing AEPC Activities
Transportation
Access to Road Mention Yes/No
Type of Road Access Black Topped/ Graveled/ Earthen/ Pedestrian
Number of Villages connected
Availability of local transport vehicle Mention Yes/No
Note Issues related to existing transport system/facility
Focal Person
Name
Address
Contact No.
Email Id (if any)

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 92

 ANNEX 2- BILL OF QUANTITY- SAMPLE
PRICE SCHEDULE FOR GOODS TO BE OFFERED

Item Unit of Unit Price Total Price

No Item Description Measurement Quantity (NPR) (NPR)
A- Power Generation Components:
1 Solar Photovoltaic Array kWp
2 Three Phase Grid Tie PV Inverter with MPPT controller having kW
in-built AC and DC surge protector
3 Off-grid Battery Inverter having feature of stackable as Master kW
and Slave for 3-Phase Supply
4 MPPT Solar Charge Controller kW
5 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePo4) with BMS, enclosure kWhr
cabinet, cables and accessories
6 Solar PV Module support structure, hot dipped galvanized LS
metal frame complete set
7 PV String Combiner Boxes with DC Fuses, DC MCBs, DC SPDs Set
and Accessories
8 DC Combiner Boxes with DC Fuses, DC MCBs, DC SPDs and Set
Accessories
9 DC and AC Copper Cables and Accessories Set
10 Grid Connected AC Combiner Box with AC MCB, AC MCCB, Set
AC SPD & Accessories
11 Off-grid AC Combiner Box with AC MCB, AC MCCB, AC SPD & Set
Accessories
12 DC Panel Board with DC Fuses and Accessories (Between Set
battery bank and battery inverter)
13 AC Distribution Center with AC MCCB, ELCB, AC SPD & Set
Accessories
14 Earthing System (Copper rod earth electrode of 2 meter Set
length, 25mm diameter, backfill chemical compound of 25Kg
and 16mm² earth cable)
15 Lightning Protection System (Air terminal, down conductor Set
of minimum 25x3mm copper strip of 20m length, metal
galvanized iron pole of 8 m, 4 inch diameter and 3 mm
thickness)
16 Equipotential Bonding BusBar (Copper Earth Bus Bar with 10 Set
connection point)
17 Control & Monitoring System with Accessories including Set
communication router
18 Fire Extinguisher Set
19 Wall Fans for Powerhouse Set
20 Exhaust Fans for Powerhouse Set
21 PVC Water Tank 500Liter for Powerhouse Use Set
22 Office Equipments (Table, Chair, Shelf, Laptop, Printer) Set
B- Power Transmission & Distribution Components
1 PVC Insulated Copper Armoured AC Cable, 3.5 Core 120mm² Meter
(Power House to Transformer)
2 Earthing System Complete Set for 11kV Line Set
3 Earthing System Complete Set for 400V and 230V Line Set
4 4-Pole MS Pole Tubular 16 meter 410SP-80 full galvanized for Nos
11kV Line across the river
5 Power Transmission 3-phase, MS Pole Tubular 11 meter Nos
410SP-52 full galvanized

93 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

Item Unit of Unit Price Total Price
No Item Description Measurement Quantity (NPR) (NPR)

6 Power Distribution 3-Phase, MS Pole Tubular 9 meter 410SP- Nos

29 full galvanized
7 ACSR Conductor, Weasel for 11KV Line Km
8 Disc Insulators Nos
9 Pin Insulators Nos
10 Aluminum Conductor Insulated ABC Twisted Cable 4 core Km
95mm² for 3-Phase
11 Aluminum Conductor Insulated ABC Twisted Cable 4 core Km
50mm² for 3-Phase
12 Aluminum Conductor Insulated ABC Twisted Cable 2 core Km
35mm² for 1-Phase
13 Support Hooks (Pig Tail with Hexagonal Clamp of ABC, Pole Set
Clamp) all complete
14 Anchor Clamp for ABC Cable Set
15 Piercing Connector for interconnection of service wire and Nos
Insulated ABC cable
16 Cable Connector for dead end and clamp for ABC cable Set
17 Service wire, concentric 6mm² Km
18 150kVA Transformer and all complete set Set
19 Lightning Arrestor, 9kV, 10kA Set
20 Lightning Arrestor, 0.5kV, 1.5kA Nos
21 Stay Set with accessories for 16 meter Pole Set
22 Stay Set with accessories for 11 meter Pole - hot dipped Set
galvanized (stay plate of area 600mm*600mm and thickness
6mm, thimble, stay wire stranded, turnbuckle and stay rod of
dia 19mm, length1.8m etc all complete)
23 Stay Set with accessories for 9 meter Pole - hot dipped Set
galvanized (stay plate of area 300mm*300mm and thickness
6mm, thimble, stay wire stranded, turnbuckle and stay rod of
dia 16mm, length1.8m etc all complete). Galvanized stay wire
should be stranded by 7 wires of sizes 8 SWG
24 Tool Box (Insulating Gloves, Crimping Tool, 3-phase Digital Set
Clamp meter etc.)
25 Aluminum Foldable Pole Ladder of Extended Length Minimum No
9 meter
26 Pre-paid Smart Energy Meter 5-32 Amp, 230VAC 50Hz, Class 1 Nos
27 Pre-paid Smart Energy Meter 25Amp, 400VAC 50Hz, Class 1 Nos
28 MCB 5-16Amp DP 230VAC for Households Nos
29 MCB Holders Boxes for Households Nos
30 MCB 32Amp DP 230VAC for Households/Businesses Nos
31 MCB 16Amp DP 230VAC for Households/Businesses Nos
32 MCB Holders Boxes for Households/Businesses Nos
33 MCB 16Amp DP 230VAC with pole mounted distribution box Nos
of IP65
34 MCB 16Amp DP 230VAC with pole mounted distribution box Nos
of IP65
35 MCB 32Amp DP 230VAC for School with pole mounted Nos
distribution box of IP65
36 MCCB 63Amp TPN for 400VAC Loads with pole mounted Nos
distribution box of IP65
37 LED Lamp 7 Watt 230VAC Nos
38 LED Lamp 5 Watt 230VAC Nos
39 LED Street Light 230VAC 20Watt with photo sensors and Nos
mounting arms
Sub-total of Goods (NPR)

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 94

 PRICE SCHEDULE FOR SERVICES TO BE OFFERED

Item Unit of Unit Price Total Price

No Item Description Measurement Quantity (NPR) (NPR)
1 Erection and Installation of 16 meter Poles with Concreting Set
Works all complete
2 Erection and Installation of 11 meter Poles with Concreting Set
Works all complete
3 Erection and Installation of 9 meter Poles with Concreting Set
Works all complete
4 Transformer Erection, Installation Cabling and Charging all Set
complete
5 Conductor stringing with LA fitting (11 KV Three Phase) and Km
line charging
6 Conductor stringing with LA fitting (Three Phase) Km
7 Conductor stringing with LA fitting (Single Phase) Km
8 Earthing set installation all complete Set
9 Stay set installation all complete Set
10 Civil works for 110kWp solar PV array foundations including LS
material and workmanship
11 Fence for PV array & Powerhouse (Chain Link Mesh Size Meter
of 2”*2” with Iron Angle Post of 50mm*50mm*5mm size
at interval of 2m c/c of height 1.5m from ground level with
concrete base of 0.2m*0.2m cover & 0.5m depth)
12 Installation, Commissioning and Testing of 110kWp Solar Mini LS
Grid Subproject
13 Construction of Powerhouse with Truss Roof Cover as per the m²
technical specifications (Size: 16 m * 3 m * 3 m internal height)
14 Construction of Toilet as per the technical specification with LS
inner dimensions (1.5m length * 1.5m width * 2m internal
height)
15 Transportation of all goods from Supplier’s warehouse to LS
subproject site
16 Insurance LS
17 Site Development LS
18 Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) LS
Sub-total of Services (NPR)

Summary of the Schedules, Goods and Services (Including Applicable TAX):

Schedule Total Price

No. Title in (NPR)
A Price Schedule for the Solar Mini Grid System Goods to be offered -
B Price Schedule for the Solar Mini Grid System Services to be offered -
C Total (A+B) -
D Value Added Tax in applicable items (VAT) 13% -
E Grand Total in NRs (C+D) -

95 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

ANNEX 3 - GLOSSARY
Absorption coefficient:
The fraction of incident solar irradiance that is absorbed by a photovoltaic cell. This in turn contributes significantly to the
cell temperature under operational conditions. Light with a shorter wavelength (and more energy) has a large absorption
coefficient and light with a longer wavelength (and less energy) has a low absorption coefficient.
Absorption depth:
The distance into a material at which light drops to ~36.79% (or more precisely, 1/e) of its original intensity. It is the inverse of
the absorption coefficient. Light with a shorter wavelength (and more energy) has a shorter absorption depth and light with a
longer wavelength (and less energy) has a longer absorption coefficient.
Actual battery capacity:
Depending on how a battery’s control electronics are programmed, the actual battery capacity varies from nominal capacity.
Absorbed Glass Mat:
A newer type of battery construction that uses saturated absorbent glass mats rather than gelled or liquid electrolyte.
Somewhat more expensive than flooded (liquid), but offers very good reliability.
Air mass (AM):
The length which light travels through the atmosphere to reach a solar cell divided by the shortest possible length for light to
travel (i.e. when the sun is directly overhead). It can be expressed as 1 divided by the cosine of the zenith angle.
Alternating current:
An electric current that reverses its direction periodically, typically at 50 or 60 hertz. In electric applications it usually has a
sinusoidal waveform.
Amorphous silicon (a-Si):
The non-crystalline allotrope of silicon. It is deposited as a thin film to produce a-Si solar cells.
Amortization period:
The period of time it takes for a solar installation to pay back its initial cost. Subsequent to this period, the installation generates
profit.
Ampere (A):
The SI (International System of Units) base unit of electric current. A current of one ampere is equivalent to one coulomb of
electric charge going past a given point per second.
Ampere hour (Ah):
A unit of electric charge equal to 3,600 coulombs.
Angle of incidence:
The angle between the sun’s rays and a line perpendicular to a given solar module’s surface. Thus, a module that faces directly
toward the sun has an angle of incidence of 0° and is capturing the most possible energy.
Array:
A group of multiple photovoltaic modules, usually connected to the same inverter.
Autonomous system:
A stand-alone PV system that has no back-up generating source. May or may not include storage batteries. Most battery
systems are designed for a certain minimum “days of autonomy” - which means that the batteries can supply sufficient power
with no sunlight to charge the batteries. This varies from 3-5 days in the Sunbelt, to 5 to 10 days elsewhere.
Azimuth:
The angle between the point on the horizon directly beneath the sun and true south.
Balance of System (BOS):
Typically this means all of the additional interconnection hardware and equipment in a solar PV system that is not considered
the primary components. Primary components are solar modules, framing, inverters, and batteries. BOS is typically cables
and interconnection boxes, conduits/raceways etc.
Base load:
The electricity generation resources on a given grid that operate continuously without downtime. Base load power plants only
stop for maintenance or unexpected outages. Also see peak load.
Baseline performance value:
Initial values of Isc, Voc, Pmp, Imp measured by the accredited laboratory and corrected to Standard Test Conditions, used to
validate the manufacturer’s performance measurements provided with the qualification modules per IEEE 1262.
Battery capacity:
The amount of electric charge a battery is able to deliver at its rated voltage.
Battery management system (BMS):
Manages and optimizes the way a battery is used in a PV system. A BMS may also attempt to extend the life of the battery by
preventing unfavorable operating conditions such as deep discharge and overcharge.
Bi-directional inverter:
An inverter that functions in both directions. Thus, it can draw AC power from the grid and feed it as DC power into the battery,
on top of its regular function of converting DC power from the PV modules or battery into AC power.

Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects 96

 Blocking diode:
A diode wired in series with PV modules and a battery. It allows energy to pass from the modules into the battery, but prevents
energy from the battery flowing back out into the modules.
Busbars:
Strips of conductive metal that run along PV cells to carry electric charge.
Bypass diode:
A diode that allows current to pass around one or more shaded cells if they are receiving less sunlight than other cells, thus
preventing hot spots from occurring.
Cathodic protection:
A method of preventing oxidation (rusting) of exposed metal structures, such as bridges and pipelines, by imposing between
the structure and the ground a small electrical voltage that opposes the flow of electrons and that is greater than the voltage
present during oxidation.
C-rate:
A measure of how quickly a battery, with regards to its capacity, is discharged. A C-rate of C10 means the battery discharges
completely within ten hours. The energy available to be drawn is also dependent on the C-rate.
Cell:
A photoelectric cell which generates an electric current when exposed to light, usually from the sun. Cells are connected and
packaged into a solar photovoltaic module.
Cell efficiency:
The percentage of incident energy in the form of sunlight reaching a solar cell that is converted into electrical output.
Charge controller:
limits the rate at which electric current is fed to or drawn from a battery or storage system, in order to prevent overcharging
and overvoltage, which may damage a battery or reduce its lifespan.
Degradation:
The process of a solar module losing efficiency as it is exposed to the elements over time. Common contributors to
degradation include reduced adherence of contacts or corrosion due to water vapor; metal migration through the p-n junction;
and deterioration of the anti-reflection coating.
Deep discharge:
Discharging a battery to 20-percent or less of its full charge.
Depth of discharge (DOD):
The battery capacity that has been discharged, expressed as a percentage of maximum capacity. A discharge to at least 80%
is termed as a deep discharge.
Diffuse radiation:
solar radiation (i.e. sunlight) that has been scattered by particles in the Earth’s atmosphere. On overcast days with significant
cloud cover, direct sunlight is reduced meaning that most visible light is diffuse radiation. Some solar modules perform better
than others in diffuse light conditions. Also see direct radiation and reflected radiation.
Diode:
A semiconductor device with two terminals, which allows current to flow in one direction only. The anode is the electrode
through which current flows into the diode, and the cathode is the electrode through which current flows out of the diode. Note
that electron flow is, by convention, opposite to the electric current, so electrons flow from the anode toward the cathode.
Direct current (DC):
An electric current flowing in one direction only.
Direct radiation:
solar radiation (i.e. sunlight) that hits the earth without being scattered by clouds or particles in the Earth’s atmosphere. Also
see diffuse radiation.
Distributed systems:
Systems that are installed at or near the location where the electricity is used, as opposed to central systems that supply
electricity to grids. A residential photovoltaic system is a distributed system.
Dual-axis tracking:
Tracking that tilts on both the up-down axis and left-right axis. Also see tracking.
Economic payback:
The time taken for a solar photovoltaic system to have paid off all its system costs with the income it has generated.
Subsequent to the economic payback period, the system is then generating profits for its owner.
Efficiency of a battery:
Typically this is a value expressed as a percentage which illustrates the losses in discharging and recharging a battery or
battery bank, as a battery ages the efficiency will decrease, this is demonstrated through more power being lost during
discharge, and more power being used during recharge. When batteries are new the efficiency will be higher, when batteries
are old the efficiency will be lower, at a certain point, the battery efficiency is so poor that it is better to replace the batteries.

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Electrolyte:
A chemical compound that ionizes when dissolved or molten to produce an electrically conductive liquid or gel.
Energy payback:
The time it will take for a solar photovoltaic system to generate an equal amount of energy to that which was used in its
construction and mounting. Subsequent to the energy payback period, the system is generating excess electricity for its
owner.
Equalization:
An overcharge performed on a flooded lead acid battery that is fully charged, in order to remove sulfate crystal build-up on the
plates and reverse various other negative chemical effects. Various manufacturers recommend equalization anywhere from
monthly to yearly.
Export tariff:
An added payment for electricity that is exported to the grid, rather than consumed on-site.
Feed-in tariff (FIT):
An economic policy designed to promote active investment in renewable energy technologies. Typically a FIT comprises long-
term contracts that guarantee a certain price for energy from renewable sources. Often they are different depending on the
type of renewable energy technology utilized.
Flat-plate PV:
Refers to a PV array or module that consists of no concentrating elements. Flat-plate arrays and modules use direct and
diffuse sunlight, but if the array is fixed in position, some portion of the direct sunlight is lost because of oblique sun-angles in
relation to the array.
Float:
Charging energy into a battery at the same rate as its self-discharge rate, hence keeping it in a fully charged state. Also called
float charge or trickle charge.
Fuel cell:
A device that converts the energy of a fuel directly to electricity and heat, without combustion. Because there is no
combustion, fuel cells give off few emissions; because there are no moving parts, fuel cells are quiet.
Generation capacity:
The maximum rated output of all the inverters in a power plant. Also see nameplate capacity.
Gel-type battery:
Lead-acid battery in which the electrolyte is composed of a silica gel matrix.
Gigawatt (GW):
A unit that is equal to one billion watts. See watt.
Gigawatt hour (GWh):
A unit that is equal to one billion watt hours. See watt hour.
Gigawatt peak (GWp):
A unit that is equal to one billion watts peak. See watt peak.
Grid:
An interconnected electricity network for delivering electricity to consumers.
Grid-connected adj.:
Used to describe a photovoltaic system that is connected to the grid, as opposed to an off-grid system.
Grid-tied adj.:
See grid-connected.
Ground loop:
An undesirable feedback condition caused by two or more circuits sharing a common electrical line, usually a grounded
conductor.
Hybrid system:
A system that combines more than one type of energy generation (e.g. solar and wind).
Inverter:
An electrical power converter that takes direct current (DC) as an input and outputs alternating current (AC).
Insolation:
The amount of solar radiation falling upon a given area, usually measured in watt hours per square meter (Wh/m²).
Irradiance:
The power of electromagnetic radiation per unit area falling on a given surface, usually measured in watts per square meter
(W/m²).
Irradiation:
See insolation.
I-V curve:
A graphical presentation of the current versus the voltage from a photovoltaic device as the load is increased from the
short circuit (no load) condition to the open circuit (maximum voltage) condition. The shape of the curve characterized cell
performance.

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 I-V data:
The relationship between current and voltage of a photovoltaic device in the power-producing quadrant, as a set of ordered
pairs of current and voltage readings in a table, or as a curve plotted in a coordinate system.
Junction box:
A PV generator junction box is an enclosure on the module where PV strings are electrically connected and where protection
devices can be located, if necessary.
Junction diode:
A semiconductor device with a junction and a built-in potential that passes current better in one direction than the other. All
solar cells are junction diodes.
Kilowatt (kW):
A unit that is equal to one thousand watts. See watt.
Kilowatt hour (kWh):
A unit that is equal to one billion watt hours. See watt hour.
Kilowatt peak (kWp):
A unit that is equal to one billion watts peak. See watt peak.
Large-scale adj.:
Used to describe a solar photovoltaic installation above a specified capacity, which varies depending on the market but
typically in tens or hundreds of kilowatts.
Levelized cost of energy (LCOE):
The price at which electricity generated from a given source must be sold in order for the project to break even over its lifetime.
This factors in all the costs over a project’s lifetime and makes it possible to compare the cost of different energy generation
technologies.
Light-induced defects:
Defects, such as dangling bonds, induced in an amorphous silicon semiconductor upon initial exposure to light.
Load simulation:
A process carried out by a computer program that models a PV system and a building’s energy requirements, so as to
optimize the size of the system.
Low-light conditions:
Conditions in which there is little solar radiation. These conditions are also simulated in photovoltaic module testing
procedures.
Maximum continuous discharge current:
The maximum current at which a battery can be discharged continuously. This is usually defined by the manufacturer to
prevent excessive discharge rates that can damage the battery or reduce its capacity.
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT):
The process of optimizing the power output of a solar photovoltaic system to work most effectively with a storage system or
grid, via the use of a DC to DC converter.
Maximum power point tracking charge controller:
A high frequency DC to DC converter that optimizes the current and voltage output of a photovoltaic system to maximize the
current, and thus power, fed into the battery. Also see maximum power point tracking.
Megawatt: A unit that is equal to one million watts. See watt.
Megawatt hour (MWh):
A unit that is equal to one million watt hours. See watt hour.
Megawatt peak (MWp):
A unit that is equal to one billion watts peak. See watt peak.
Module:
A packaged, interconnected assembly of solar cells.
Module efficiency:
The efficiency at which a module converts incident sunlight into electric energy. For example, if 100 watts of sunlight hits a
module’s surface and it outputs 20.1 watts of electric energy, then it has a module efficiency of 20.1%. Note that a module’s
efficiency is always slightly lower than the efficiency of each of the cells that make it up, mainly due to the unused spaces
between cells.
Mono-like adj.:
describes a type of crystalline silicon ingot used to manufacture solar cells, which is largely monocrystalline, although with
some polycrystalline regions. The technology was first developed by BP in 2006 and produces cells with higher efficiencies
than polycrystalline silicon at lower costs than monocrystalline silicon.
Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si):
Silicon in a crystalline lattice that is completely unbroken and continuous to its edges.
Monolithic:
Fabricated as a single structure.

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Monosilicon:
See monocrystalline silicon.
Mounting system:
The components that fasten solar modules in place, whether it be on a roof, carport, facade or the ground. This includes
mounting racks, cross beams, fasteners, clamps and any other components which function solely to mount solar photovoltaic
modules.
Multicrystalline silicon:
See polycrystalline silicon.
n-type cell:
A solar cell made from the rarer n-type silicon instead of the more dominant p-type silicon. Both types of cell are derived from
a silicon feedstock, although during crystallization phosphorus is used as a dopant to produce n-type silicon crystals, whereas
boron is usually used to produce p-type silicon crystals. The advantages of n-type cells are that they do not suffer from light-
induced degradation (LID) and they are less sensitive to impurities present in the silicon feedstock.
Nameplate capacity:
The total rated power output of all photovoltaic panels in a power plant. This is the theoretical maximum output of the panels in
a power plant, but in practice this is rarely, if ever, reached. Also see generation capacity.
Net metering:
A government policy in various electricity markets that allows generation of renewable energy to feed electricity into the grid
at a set price. Most net metering policies reimburse the generator with either the retail rate, a fraction of the retail rate, or
compensation at avoided cost.
NOCT:
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature. The solar cell temperature at a reference environment is defined as 800 W/m²
irradiance, 20°C ambient air temperature, and 1 m/s wind speed with the cell or module in an electrically open circuit state.
Nominal battery capacity: Amount of electrical charge that can be stored without taking into account that it should not be
discharged to 100%.
Nominal voltage:
The reference voltage of a battery.
Off-grid adj.:
Used to describe a renewable electricity generating system which is not connected to the electricity grid.
On-grid adj.:
Used to describe a renewable electricity generating system which is connected to the electricity grid and can feed electricity
into the grid.
One-axis tracking:
See single-axis tracking.
Open circuit voltage (VOC):
The difference in electrical potential between the two terminals of a battery or solar cell when it is not connected to an external
load. In the case of a solar cell, it is the maximum voltage available, which occurs at zero current.
p-type cell:
A solar cell made from the more dominant p-type silicon instead of the rarer n-type silicon. Both types of cell are derived from a
silicon feedstock, although during crystallization boron is usually used to produce p-type silicon crystals, whereas phosphorus
is used as a dopant to produce n-type silicon crystals. The advantages of p-type cells are that they are less sensitive to cosmic
rays, which meant they were much better suited toward space applications such as satellites. Thus, p-type solar cells have
become the dominant technology in the market. Also see n-type cell.
Panel:
See module.
Panel efficiency:
See module efficiency.
Parallel connection:
A way of joining two or more electricity-producing devices (i.e., PV cells or modules) by connecting positive leads together and
negative leads together; such a configuration increases the current.
Payback time:
This term is used in the context of solar photovoltaics to refer to either the time taken for the energy payback or the time taken
for the economic payback of a given solar system. See energy payback and economic payback.
Peak load:
The electricity generation resources on a given grid that operate intermittently. These include resources such as wind and
solar energy that are unpredictable, and peaking power plants that are only run at times of high demand, such as during
summer afternoons when the use of air conditioning increases.
Peak saving:
The process of shifting electricity consumption from periods of peak demand, when the electricity prices are also at their peak,
to off-peak periods in order to consume the same amount of electricity for a lower cost. This can be achieved by scheduling
certain energy-intensive devices, such as dishwashers, washing machines or dryers, to run in off-peak periods.

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 Phase shifting transformer:
A device that controls the power flow through various lines in an electrical grid in order to prevent overload. It does this by
inserting a voltage with a selected phase angle into the power system, which can redirect power to more desirable pathways
that are less at risk of overload.
Photovoltaic (PV):
Pertaining to the direct conversion of light into electricity.
Photovoltaic (PV) array:
An interconnected system of PV modules that function as a single electricity-producing unit. The modules are assembled as a
discrete structure, with common support or mounting. In smaller systems, an array can consist of a single module.
Photovoltaic (PV) cell:
The smallest semiconductor element within a PV module to perform the immediate conversion of light into electrical energy
(dc voltage and current).
Photovoltaic (PV) conversion efficiency:
The ratio of the electric power produced by a photovoltaic device to the power of the sunlight incident on the device.
Photovoltaic (PV) efficiency:
The ratio of electric power produced by a cell at any instant to the power of the sunlight striking the cell. This is typically about
9% to 14% for commercially available cells.
Photovoltaic (PV) generator:
The total of all PV strings of a PV power supply system, which are electrically interconnected.
Photovoltaic (PV) module:
The smallest environmentally protected, essentially planar assembly of solar cells and ancillary parts, such as
interconnections, terminals, [and protective devices such as diodes] intended to generate DC power under concentrated
sunlight. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer (superstrate) or the back layer
(substrate).
Photovoltaic (PV) panel:
Often used interchangeably with PV module (especially in one-module systems), but more accurately used to refer to a
physically connected collection of modules (i.e., a laminate string of modules used to achieve a required voltage and current).
Photovoltaic (PV) peak watt:
Maximum “rated” output of a cell, module, or system. Typical rating conditions are 0.645 watts per square inch (1000 watts
per square meter) of sunlight, 68 degrees F (20 degrees C) ambient air temperature and 6.2 x 10-3 mi/s (1 m/s) wind speed.
Photovoltaic (PV) system:
A complete set of components for converting sunlight into electricity by the photovoltaic process, including the array and
balance of system components.
Photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) system:
A photovoltaic system that, in addition to converting sunlight into electricity, collects the residual heat energy and delivers both
heat and electricity in usable form. Also called a total energy system.
Polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si):
A material made up of small silicon crystals. Unlike monocrystalline silicon, it is not continuous and unbroken.
Polysilicon n. See polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si).
Power conversion system (PCS):
A system used to convert electric energy from one form to another, either by converting from direct current to alternating
current, altering the voltage or frequency, or incorporating a number of these processes. Examples of power conversion
systems include DC to DC converters, inverters and voltage stabilizers.
Power management system (PMS):
A management platform that governs energy distribution in a photovoltaic system, which may also include energy storage and
can be on or off-grid. A power management system controls when energy is sent to or drawn from the battery, how energy is
harvested from the photovoltaic system, and when energy is sent to or drawn from the grid.
Power-to-weight ratio:
See specific power.
Power factor:
The ratio of the average power and the apparent volt-amperes. Affected by the inductance and capacitance of the load. A pure
resistance, such as an electric heater would have a power factor of 1.00.
Pulse-width-modulated (PWM):
A function of many of the newer charge controllers and battery chargers which instead of applying a steady DC voltage to the
battery, sends out short pulses. The width of the pulses varies with the battery state of charge.
PV:
Abbreviation for photovoltaic(s).
Pyranometer:
An instrument used to measure hemispherical solar radiation on a given plane.

101 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

Pyrheliometer:
An instrument used to measure solar direct normal irradiance (DNI) on a given plane.
Qualification test (PV):
A procedure applied to a selected set of PV modules involving the application of defined electrical, mechanical, or thermal
stress in a prescribed manner and amount. Test results are subject to a list of defined requirements.
Reactive power:
The power in an alternating current electric network that is temporarily stored in inductors and capacitors and returned back
to the network, also known as volt-ampere reactive (VAR) power. Reactive power strongly influences voltage levels across the
entire electric network.
Resistance (Ω):
The opposition of a material, usually a conductor, to the flow of electric current. Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).
Resistive voltage drop:
The voltage developed across a cell by the current flow through the resistance of the cell.
Reflected radiation:
Solar radiation that has reflected off non-atmospheric things, such as trees, terrain, buildings or the ground. Also see direct
radiation and diffuse radiation.
Self-discharge:
The rate at which a battery, without a load, will lose its charge. This can vary considerably depending on the type of battery and
age. It can be as low as 3% a month for a new AGM battery, and as high as 10% a week for an older Lead-Antimony (industrial)
battery.
Series connection:
A way of joining photovoltaic cells or batteries by connecting positive leads to negative leads; such a configuration increases
the voltage.
Series resistance:
Parasitic resistance to current flow in a cell due to mechanisms such as resistance from the bulk of the semiconductor
material, metallic contacts, and interconnections.
Shelf life of batteries:
The length of time, under specified conditions, that a battery can be stored so that it keeps its guaranteed capacity.
Shading:
The shadows that fall upon a given solar photovoltaic system from surrounding objects such as trees or buildings.
Shadowing:
See shading.
Short-circuit current (Isc).
The current flows freely from a photovoltaic cell through an external circuit that has no load or resistance; the maximum
current possible.
Solar energy:
Energy from the sun. The heat that builds up in your car when it is parked in the sun is an example of solar energy.
Solar noon:
That moment of the day that divides the daylight hours for that day exactly in half. To determine solar noon, calculate the
length of the day from the time of sunset and sunrise and divide by two. Solar noon may be quite a bit different from ‘clock’
noon.
Solar spectrum:
The total distribution of electromagnetic radiation emanating from the sun.
Single-axis tracking:
Tracking on one axis to tilt a solar array toward the sun, so as to maximize solar irradiation and hence energy output. Single-
axis trackers can be oriented on a horizontal, vertical or tilted axis, depending on the application.
Stand-alone (PV system):
An autonomous or hybrid photovoltaic system not connected to a grid. May or may not have storage, but most stand-alone
systems require batteries or some other form of storage.
Stand-off mounting:
Technique for mounting a PV array on a sloped roof, which involves mounting the modules a short distance above the pitched
roof and tilting them to the optimum angle.
Standard Test Conditions (STC):
An industry standard for measuring the DC power output of solar modules. The module is placed in a flash tester with a
temperature of 25°C, an air mass of 1.5 and the equivalent of 1,000 W/m² of sunlight intensity.
State of charge (SOC):
The present battery capacity expressed as a percentage of the maximum capacity.
Stand-alone system:
An off-grid system, usually in an area which is not serviced by any electrical grid. See off-grid.

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 String:
A group of solar modules connected in series in order to obtain a higher voltage. A number of strings are then connected in
parallel in order to generate a greater current.
Sulfation:
The reaction of lead and lead dioxide with sulfuric acid in a lead-acid battery, producing lead sulfate, which reduces the
battery’s capacity and performance. Sulfation is most common in batteries left discharged for long periods and can be
mitigated by recharging a battery as soon as possible after a discharge cycle.
Temperature coefficient:
The rate of change of a solar module’s power output as a function of its operating temperature. As a module’s temperature
rises, its efficiency diminishes due to the drop in open circuit voltage. This effect is more pronounced in silicon-based solar
cells than thin film-based solar cells.
Temperature cycling:
See thermal cycling.
Thermal cycling:
A testing process which involves subjecting a solar photovoltaic module to rotating hot and cold cycles in order to test its
durability under normal climatic conditions. The current International standard test (IEC 61215) defines five major visual
defects that may arise as a result of thermal cycling: broken, cracked or torn external surfaces; bent or misaligned external
surfaces; a crack in a cell that could remove more than 10% of that cell’s area from the electrical circuit of the module; bubbles
or delamination between the electrical circuit and the module edge; and loss of mechanical integrity.
Tracker:
A device that tilts a solar array over the course of the day, so as to orient it toward the sun and maximize energy yield. Also see
single-axis tracking and dual-axis tracking.
Transformer substation:
A large transformer for either stepping up or stepping down the voltage in an electric grid.
Tracking array:
See tracker.
Thin film:
A thin layer of photovoltaic material (for example, amorphous silicon or cadmium telluride) that is then deposited onto a
substrate or wafer. In terms of market share, thin film solar cells are the main competitors to the much more dominant
crystalline silicon solar cells.
Tilt:
The degree of the angle by which a module is tilted relative to a horizontal plane parallel to the earth’s surface. In general, PV
arrays should be tilted toward the average elevation of the sun for a given latitude. Fixed arrays are non-adjustable and must be
installed at the optimum position for year-round production, whereas adjustable mounting systems allow system operators to
adjust the tilt for various seasons as the sun’s angle changes.
Two-axis tracking:
See dual-axis tracking.
Utility-interactive inverter:
An inverter that can function only when tied to the utility grid, and uses the prevailing line-voltage frequency on the utility line as
a control parameter to ensure that the PV system’s output is fully synchronized with the utility power.
Utility-scale:
See large-scale.
Voltage drop:
The loss of electrical potential (i.e. voltage) that occurs across the conductive elements of an electrical system, resulting in loss
of electrical energy. Voltage drop can also cause inverters to function less effectively or stop functioning altogether.
Watt (W):
A derived unit in the International System of Units (SI) for measuring power. One watt is the rate at which work is done when
one ampere (A) of current flows through an electric potential difference of one volt (V). Also see gigawatt, megawatt, and
kilowatt.
Watt hour (Wh):
A unit of energy that is equal to one watt of power expended for one hour of time. Also see gigawatt hour, megawatt hour, and
kilowatt hour.
Watt peak (Wp):
A measure of the maximum power output of a photovoltaic device or system under standard test conditions (STC). In practice,
these nameplate capacities are rarely reached due to less than ideal conditions, module degradation, imperfect alignment of
the module in tilt or azimuth, and a less than ideal temperature. Also see nameplate capacity.
Zenith angle:
The angle between the center of the sun and a line that is perpendicular to a horizontal plane at the earth’s surface. Thus, if the
zenith angle is 0° then the sun is directly overhead and if it is 90° then the sun will be on the horizon and soon after sunrise or
soon before sunset.

103 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects

ANNEX 4 - WIND GLOSSARY
Airfoil:
The cross section profile of the leeward side of a wind generator blade, designed to provide low drag and good lift. Also found
on an airplane wing.
Anemometer:
An instrument used to measure the velocity, or speed, of the wind.
Angle of attack. The angle of relative air flow to a wind turbine’s blade.
Armature:
The moving part of an alternator, generator or motor. In many alternator designs, it carries the magnets and is attached to the
blades and hub. Also called a Rotor.
Availability factor:
The percentage of time that a wind turbine is able to operate and is not out of commission due to maintenance or repairs.
Average capacity (also known as capacity factor): A measure of a wind turbine’s productivity, calculated by the amount of
power that a wind turbine produces over a set time period, divided by the amount of power that would have been produced if
the turbine had operated at full capacity during that same time interval.
Average wind speed (velocity):
The mean wind speed over a specified period of time.
Balancing:
Adjusting wind turbine blades’ weight and weight distribution through two axes so that all blades are the same. Unbalanced
blades create damaging vibration.
Blades:
The flat panels on a wind turbine that are connected to a center shaft that converts the push of the wind into a circular motion
in a wind turbine.
Braking system:
A device to slow a wind turbine’s shaft speed down to safe levels (electrically or mechanically).
Capacity factor:
See average capacity.
Chord:
The width of a wind turbine blade at a given location along the length.
Commercial scale wind:
Wind energy projects greater than 100 kilowatts in which the electricity is sold rather than used on-site. This category includes
large arrays of 100 or more turbines owned by large corporations and a single locally-owned wind turbine greater than 100
kilowatts in size.
Cut-in speed:
The wind speed at which the turbine blades begin to rotate and produce electricity, typically around 10 miles per hour.
cut-out speed:
The wind speed, usually around 55 to 65 miles per hour, at which some wind turbines automatically stop the blades from
turning and rotate out of the wind to avoid damage to the turbine.
Distributed generation:
A small-scale power generation technology that provides electric power at a site closer to customers than central power plant
generation. The term is commonly used to indicate non-utility sources of electricity, including facilities for self-generation.
Downwind turbine:
Refers to a horizontal-axis wind turbine in which the hub and blades point away from the wind direction; the opposite of an
upwind turbine.
Furling:
The act of a wind generator yawing out of the wind, either horizontally or vertically, to protect itself from high wind speeds.
Grid-connected system:
A residential electrical system, such as solar panels or wind turbines, which is connected to the electric utility system. The
utility system serves as a backup source of electricity if the residential system is not producing power.
Guy anchor:
A concrete or metal base that secures wind tower guy wires to the earth.
Guy wire:
A strong metal cable or wire that attaches some towers (typically those of small residential wind turbines) to the ground.
Horizontal axis wind turbine:
A wind turbine design in which the shaft (axis of rotation) is parallel to the ground and the blades are perpendicular to the
ground.
Hub:
The central part of the wind turbine, which supports the turbine blades on the outside and connects to the low-speed rotor
shaft inside the nacelle.
Hub height:
Measuring from the ground, the tower height of the hub, or central part of a horizontal-axis wind turbine.
Hybrid system:
The combination of multiple energy-producing technologies such as photovoltaic solar electric systems combined with small
wind turbine systems.
Installed capacity:
The total capacity of electrical generation devices in a system.

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 Met tower:
A tower with a group of instruments (including anemometers and wind vanes) attached that collectively measure various
meteorological parameters such as wind speed, wind direction, and temperature at various heights above the ground. The
term met is short for meteorological.
Nacelle:
The structure at the top of the wind turbine tower just behind (or, in some cases, in front of) the wind turbine blades. It houses
the key components of the wind turbine, including the rotor shaft, gearbox and generator.
Peak wind speed:
The maximum instantaneous wind speed (or velocity) that occurs within a specific time period.
Power curve:
A graphic displaying the instantaneous power output of a specific turbine design at various wind speeds; used with wind
resource data to determine the potential for electricity generation at a project site.
Rated wind speed:
The wind speed at which a wind turbine reaches its nameplate-rated level of power production. For most small wind turbines,
this is around 30 to 35 miles per hour.
Rotor:
The visible spinning parts of a wind turbine, including the turbine blades and the hub.
Start-up speed:
The wind speed at which a wind turbine rotor starts to rotate. The turbine does not necessarily produce any power until the
wind reaches cut-in speed.
Thrust bearing:
A bearing that is designed to handle axial forces along the centerline of the shaft; in a wind generator, the axial force is the force
of the wind pushing back against the blades.
Tower:
The base structure that supports and elevates a wind turbine rotor and nacelle.
Turbine:
A device for converting the flow of a fluid (air, steam, water or hot gases) into mechanical motion that can be utilized to
produce electricity.
Twist:
In a wind generator blade, the difference in pitch between the blade root and the blade tip. Generally, the twist allows more
pitch at the blade root for easier startup and less pitch at the tip for better high-speed performance.
Utility-scale wind:
Wind energy projects greater than 100 kilowatts in capacity in which the electricity is sold rather than used on-site. This
category includes large arrays of turbines owned by corporations and a single locally-owned wind turbine greater than 100
kilowatts in size.
Vane:
A large, flat piece of material used to align a wind turbine rotor correctly into the wind. Usually mounted vertically on the tail
boom. Sometimes called a tail.
Variable pitch turbine:
A type of wind turbine rotor where the attack angle of the blades can be adjusted either automatically or manually.
Vertical axis wind turbine:
A wind generator design in which the rotating shaft (axis of rotation) is perpendicular to the ground and the cups or blades
rotate parallel to the ground.
Wind monitoring system:
An instrument or group of instruments (including anemometers and wind vanes) that collectively measure various
meteorological parameters, such as wind speed, wind direction and temperature at various heights above the ground.
Wind power class:
A system designed to rate the quality of the wind resource in an area, based on the average annual wind speed. The scale
ranges from 1 to 7 with 1 being the poorest wind energy resources and 7 representing exceptional wind energy resources.
Wind resource:
The wind energy available for use based on historical wind data, topographic features and other parameters.
Wind resource assessment: The process of characterizing the wind resource and its energy potential for a site of geographical
area. Wind resource maps for the U.S. are available here.
Wind rose:
A circular plot used to portray certain characteristics about wind speed and direction observed at a monitoring location.
Wind shear:
A term and calculation used to describe how wind speed increases with height above the surface of the earth. The degree of
wind shear is a factor of the complexity of the terrain as well as the actual heights measured. Wind shear increases as friction
between the wind and the ground becomes greater. Wind shear is not a measure of the wind speed at a site.
Wind speed:
The rate at which air particles move through the atmosphere, commonly measured with an anemometer.
Wind vane:
A device used to measure wind direction.
Windmill:
A device that uses wind power to mill grain into flour. Informally used as a synonym for wind generator or wind turbine, and to
describe machines that pump water with wind power.
Yaw:
The rotation of a horizontal-axis wind turbine about its tower or vertical axis

105 Guidelines for Feasibility Study of Solar Mini Grid Projects