Lecture 01

Introduction To Civil Engineering

1
 Course Name:
Elements of Civil Engineering
Course Code:
CIV101
Course Structure:
L-T-P = 3-0-0
 Syllabus
Unit I
Introduction to Civil Engineering: Definition, Scope and
Branches of Civil Engineering,
Geotechnical Engineering: Soil, Origin of soil, Phase
diagram, Foundations; Shallow and deep foundations.
Structural Engineering: Type of structures, Component of
Structures (Beam, Column, Slab, Wall, Footing, and
Flooring), Bridges: Type of Bridges, Different Components
of Bridges (Abutment, Pier, Base Slab, Girders and
Bearings).
 Syllabus (cont.)
Unit II
Hydraulics, Water resources, Irrigation Engineering:
Sources of water, Precipitation, Type of irrigation
method. Dams: Different types of Dams based on
Material, Structural behavior and functionality with
simple sketches.
Environmental Engineering: Types of pollution, Water
treatment Objective, Drinking water Standards,
Introduction to waste water treatment.
 Syllabus (cont.)
Unit III
Surveying: Objectives, classification of surveying, Equipment
used in surveying, Advanced surveying- Remote sensing, GPS
and GIS.
Transportation Engineering: Modes of transportation,
Classification of roads, types of pavements, basics of railways,
Airport Terminology, Port terminology.
Construction Technology: Introduction, Resources- Machines,
Materials, Manpower, Time, Contract, Role of construction
manager
Architecture and Town planning: Objectives of architecture,
Components of town planning.
 Syllabus (cont.)
Unit IV
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics: Basic idealizations - Particle,
Continuum and Rigid body; velocity, acceleration, Newton's laws. Force and its
characteristics, Classification of force systems, Principle of physical
independence, principle of superposition, principle of transmissibility of forces,
Assumptions in Engineering mechanics.
Concurrent Force Systems: Resolution of forces, Principle of resolution,
Composition of forces, Resultant, Parallelogram Law of forces, Triangle law,
Polygon law, Composition of coplanar -concurrent force system, Numerical
problems.
Non-Concurrent Force Systems: Moment of a force, Couple, Moment of a
couple, Characteristics of couple, Equivalent force - Couple system, Varignon's
principle of moments; Composition of coplanar - non-concurrent force system,
Numerical problems.
 Syllabus (cont.)
Unit V
Equilibrium of Concurrent Force Systems: Equilibrium
of forces - Definition of Equilibrant; Conditions of static
equilibrium for different force systems, Lami's theorem;
Numerical problems.
Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Force Systems:
Support Reaction in beams, Types of Loads and Supports,
statically determinate beams, Numerical problems.
 Syllabus (cont.)
Unit VI
Building Materials: Basic materials used for construction, Stone as
building material; Requirement of good building stones,
Deterioration and Preservation of stone work. Bricks; Constituents
of good brick earth, Classification, Requirement of good bricks,
Infrastructure and sustainable development: Types of
infrastructure, Role of Civil Engineer in the Infrastructural
Development, Effect of the infrastructural facilities on socio-
economic development of a country, Sustainability in infrastructure,
Recycling of materials, Green buildings.
 Engineering
• Ingenious means ‘Clever person’ in Latin
• Engineer cleverly uses the available natural resources
for the benefit of mankind
• Provides comfort to mankind and makes life
comfortable.
• Application of scientific and mathematical knowledge
and rational thinking to improve living standards
 Definition and Scope of Civil Engineering
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that
deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the
physical and naturally built environment, including works like
roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings.
• It is the oldest and first basic branch of engineering.
• It has direct relation to the fulfillment of human needs,
whereas the other engineering branches are complementary
to the function of civil engineering.
• Civil engineering uses the principles and information
provided by other branches of engineering while erecting
civil engineering structures.
 Branches of Civil Engineering
Hydraulics,
Architecture &
Water Resource &
Town Planning
Irrigation Engineering

Building Remote Sensing & GIS

Materials

Construction Structural
Civil Engineering
Technology Engineering

Environmental
Surveying
Engineering

Geotechnical Transportation
Engineering Engineering
 Lecture 02

Geotechnical Engineering

1
 Geotechnical Engineering
SOIL
• The word 'soil' has different meanings for different professions.
• To the agriculturist, soil is the top thin layer of earth within which
organic forces are predominant and which is responsible for the support
of plant life.
• To the geologist, soil is the material in the top thin zone within which
roots occur.
• From the point of view of an engineer, soil includes all earth materials,
organic and inorganic, occurring in the zone overlying the rock crust.
• Soil is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains, with or without
organic constituents, that can be separated by gentle mechanical means
such as agitation in water.
• The behavior of a structure depends upon the properties of the soil
materials on which the structure rests.
 Origin of Soils

• Soils are formed by the process of weathering of the parent

rock. The weathering of the rocks might be by mechanical
disintegration, and/or chemical decomposition.
• The process of weathering of the rock decreases the
cohesive forces binding the mineral grains and leads to the
disintegration of bigger masses to smaller and smaller
particles.
• The properties of the soil materials depend upon the
properties of the rocks from which they are derived.
• Rock is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains
connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces.
Mechanical Weathering
• Mechanical weathering of rocks to smaller particles is due to the
action of such agents as the expansive forces of freezing water in
fissures, due to sudden changes of temperature or due to the abrasion
of rock by moving water or glaciers.
• Temperature changes of sufficient amplitude and frequency bring
about changes in the volume of the rocks in the superficial layers of
the earth's crust in terms of expansion and contraction.
• Such a volume change sets up tensile and shear stresses in the rock
ultimately leading to the fracture of even large rocks.
• This type of rock weathering takes place in a very significant manner
in arid climates where free, extreme atmospheric radiation brings
about considerable variation in temperature at sunrise and sunset.
• Erosion by wind and rain is a very important factor and a continuing
event.
• Cracking forces by growing plants and roots in voids and crevasses of
rock can force fragments apart.
Chemical Weathering
• Chemical weathering (decomposition) can
transform hard rock minerals into soft, easily
erodible matter.
• The principal types of decomposition are
hydration, oxidation, carbonation, desilication and
leaching.
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide which are always
present in the air readily combine with the elements
of rock in the presence of water.
h
 PHASE DIAGRAM OF SOIL

• A three phase diagram is an artifice used for easy under standing and
convenience.
• A soil mass consists of solid particles, water and air. The three
constituents are blended together to form a complex material
• However, for convenience, all the solid particles are segregated and
placed in the lower layer of the three-phase diagram
• Likewise, water and air particles are placed separately; as shown in
three-phase diagram.
• It may be noted that the three constituents practically cannot be
segregated.
PHASE DIAGRAM OF SOIL
 Three Phase Diagram of Soil

V= TOTAL VOLUME OF SOIL

Va = Volume of Air
Vw = Volume of Water
Vs = Volume of Solids
Vv = Volume of Voids

W = TOTAL WEIGHT OF SOIL

Wa = Weight of Air
Ww = Weight of Water
Ws = Weight of Solids

V = Va + Vw + Vs W = Wa + Ww + Ws
PARTIALLY SATURATED SOIL V = Vv + Vs Wa = 0
Vv = Vw + Va W = Ww + Ws
 Two Phase diagram of soil

DRY SOIL FULLY SATURATED SOIL

All the voids are filled with air All the voids are filled with water
 Lecture 03

Geotechnical Engineering

1
Objectives of Foundation
• To distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
• To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads
building will not move.
• To prevent the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
• To give level surface for the construction of super structure.
Factors affecting Foundation
• Soil types and ground water table conditions.
• Structural requirements.
• Construction requirements.
• Site condition and environmental factor.
• Economy.
Types of Foundations
1. Shallow Foundations
2. Deep Foundations
 Shallow foundations
• A shallow foundation is one whose depth is generally less than the width of the
footing and less than 3m.
• Shallow foundations are located just below the lowest part of the wall or a
column which they support.
• They are used when the surface soils are strong enough to support the load
imposed upon it.
• Footing is a structural member, which is the bottom most part of a foundation
made of brick work, masonry or concrete.
• Footings are used to transmit the load of the wall or column such that the load is
distributed over a large area.
The footings are of the following types
1. Strip Footing / Strip Foundation
2. Spread or Isolated Footing / Spread Foundation
3. Combined Footing / Combined Foundation
4. Mat or Raft Foundations
 1. Strip Footing
1. A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall.
2. A strip footing is also provided for a row of columns which are so closely
spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other.
3. In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to
provide a number of spread footings in one line.
4. A strip footing is also known as continuous footing.
 2. Spread or Isolated Footing
1.A spread (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual
column.
2.A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform
thickness.
3.Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.
 3. Combined Footing
1.A combined footing supports two columns.
2.It is used when the two columns are so close to each other that their individual
footings would overlap.
3.A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one
column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely
within the property line.
4.By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed.
5.A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
 4. Mat or Raft Foundations
1. A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and
walls under the entire structure or a large part of the structure.
2. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns
and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each
other.
3. Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-
homogeneous soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual
columns.
 Deep foundations
• When the soil at or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a
structure, deep foundations are required to transfer the loads to deeper strata.
• Deep foundations are, therefore, used when surface soil is unsuitable for
shallow foundation and a firm stratum is so deep that it cannot be reached
economically by shallow foundations.
• The mechanism of transfer of the load to the soil is essentially the same in all
types of deep foundations.
• A deep foundation is generally much more expensive than a shallow foundation.
• It should be adopted only when a shallow foundation is not feasible.
The deep foundations are of the following types
1. Pile Foundation
2. Pier Foundation
3. Caisson’s Foundation
 1. Pile Foundation
1. A pile is a slender column made of wood, concrete or steel.
2. A pile is either driven into the soil or formed in situ by excavating a hole and
then filling it with concrete.
3. A group of piles are driven to the required depth and are capped with R.C.C.
Slab, over which super structure is built.
4. The pile transfer the load to soil by friction or by direct bearing; in the direct
bearing case, piles being taken up to hard strata.
5. This type of foundations is used when top soil is not capable of taking the load
of the structure even at 3–4 m depth.
 2. Pier Foundation
1. A pier is a vertical columns of relatively larger cross-section than piles. A cast
in-situ pile greater than 0.6 m diameter is generally termed as a pier.
2. For walls carrying heavy loads, piers are dug at regular intervals and filled
with plain concrete.
3. These piers are taken up to good bearing strata. Then the piers are connected
by concrete or masonry arch.
4. Over these arches regular masonry is built. Figure shows a typical pier
foundation with arches.
 3. Caisson Foundation
1. A caisson is a hollow prismatic watertight box or chamber, which is built
above the ground level and then sunk to the required depth as a single unit.
2. It is a watertight chamber used for laying foundations under water, as in rivers,
lakes, harbors, etc.
3. The caisson subsequently becomes an integral part of the foundation.
 Lecture 04

Structural Engineering

1
• Structure is the assemblage of two or more basic elements such as beam, slab,
column, truss, frame, shells etc.
• Deals with the requirements considering design for limit states of collapse and
serviceability.

• Involves determination of support reactions, member forces and moments,

deflection and deformations.

• Deals with planning of positions/layout of different elements and design

(determination of size, shape and material) of component such that safety and
serviceability requirements are not sacrificed, yet economy is considered.

• Repair, rehabilitation and maintenance is part of structural engineering.

• Dams, Bridges, Stadiums, Auditoriums, Multi-storeyed buildings are analyzed

& designed

2
 Type of Structures
1. Load Bearing Structures
2. Framed Structures
4
 Differences
FRAMED STRUCTURES LOAD BEARING STRUTURES
Load transfer path is from slab/floor to Load transfer path is from slab/ floor to
beam, beam to column and column to wall, wall to footing.
footing.
Multi storey buildings can be Limited storey buildings can only be
constructed. constructed.
Framed structure is more resistant to Load bearing structure is less resistant to
Earthquake. Earthquake.
Carpet area available is more. Carpet area available is less.
Mostly used a form of construction. Rarely used a form of construction now a
days.
Excavation for this type of construction Excavation for this type of construction
is less. is more.
It is less labour intensive. It is more labour intensive.
The speed of construction is more. The speed of construction is less.
It is less material intensive. It is more material intensive.
Cost of repair of the framed structure is Cost of repair of load bearing structure is
more. less. 5
 Differences
FRAMED STRUCTURES LOAD BEARING STRUCTURES
Life is reduced if not done with proper Life is not affected with the technique of
technique. work.
Only skilled worker are needed for its Skilled as well as non-skilled worker
construction. can construct.
The thickness of wall can be maintained The thickness of wall cannot be
uniform throughout. maintained uniform throughout.
It is flexible in design as you can shift It is not flexible in design as you can’t
the location of walls. remove/shift walls.
Room dimension can be changed. Room dimensions cannot be changed as
walls have to be above walls.

Cantilever elements can be easily The inclusion of Cantilever element is a

included in the system. difficult task.
The thickness of wall remains same The thickness of wall increases with
with an increase in height. increase in height.
No Limitation of the span. Limitation of the span.
In framed structure, large span areas In load bearing structure, large span
possible. areas not possible. 6
 Differences
FRAMED STRUCTRES LOAD BEARING STRUCTURES
There is not much increase in cost with Foundation cost of Load Bearing is more
an increase in depth of foundation. than Framed Structure if the depth of
foundation increases beyond 1.5m.
No limitation for wall/room. Limitation of wall over wall/ room over
room.
Construction of framed structure is Construction of load bearing structure is
simple. cumbersome.
The frame can be RCC, Steel, Wood Load Bearing walls can be of Brick,
frame etc. Stone, concrete block etc.
Large openings in walls are possible. Limitations for openings in walls.
In framed structural system external & In load bearing structural system external
internal walls serve only the purpose of & internal walls serve as a structural
enclosures for the creation of rooms and element as well as the purpose of the
protection from the weather. enclosure for protection from weather i.e.
rain, sound, heat, fire etc.

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 Components of Structure
➢➢Beam
Beam
➢ Column
➢➢Slab
Column
➢ Footing
➢➢Walls
Slab
➢ Footing
➢ Walls

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 Beam
• A beam is a horizontal member that can be comprised of a number
of materials (including steel, wood aluminium) to withstand loads
by flexure.
• Beams can also be referred to members, elements, rafters, shafts or
purlins.
• Beams can come in a wide range of shapes that have different
applications and strength purposes.
• Some common shapes are I beams, T-beams, channel sections,
rectangular, hollow rectangular and pipes.
• In analysis and design, they are often picked up from manufacturer
libraries and databases so that the industry is modelling all structures
based on the similar shapes and dimensions.

9
Column
• Columns are vertical elements that carry only axial force
usually compression – or both axial force and bending.
• The design of a column must check the axial capacity of the
element, and the buckling capacity.
• The buckling capacity is the capacity of the element to
withstand the propensity to buckle.
• Its capacity depends upon its geometry, material, and the
effective length of the column, which depends upon the
restraint conditions at the top and bottom of the column.

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Slab
• Slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces, usually horizontal,
in building floors, roofs, bridges, and other types of structures.

• The slab may be supported by walls, by reinforced concrete

beams usually cast monolithically with the slab, by structural
steel beams, by columns, or by the ground.

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Footing
• Footings are structural elements that transmit column or wall loads
to the underlying soil below the structure.
• Footings are designed (a) to transmit the loads to the soil without
exceeding its safe bearing capacity; (b) to prevent excessive
settlement of the structure to a tolerable limit; (c) to minimize
differential settlement and (d) to prevent sliding and overturning.
• The settlement depends upon the intensity of the load, type of soil,
and foundation level.
• Where possibility of differential settlement occurs, the different
footings should be designed in such away to settle independently
of each other.

12
 Walls
• Walls are used to divide or enclose and in building
construction, to form the periphery of a room or a
building.
• In traditional masonry construction, walls supported the
weight of floors and roofs.
• Modern steel and reinforced concrete frames, as well as
heavy timber and other skeletal structures, require
exterior walls for shelter.

13
 Lecture 05

Structural Engineering

1
 Bridges
A bridge is a structure that is used to get from one side of an
obstacle (such as a river, lake, or road) to the other side.
Importance of Bridges:
• Connects difficult terrains
• Easy trade and transportation of goods
• Reduces travelling time
• Military use
• Political and economic importance
• Less emission due to displacement

2
Components of Bridge

3
 Pier/Abutment
• Pier is a part of the substructure which supports the
superstructure at the end of the span and which transfers loads
on the superstructure to the foundations.
• Depending up on aesthetics, site, space and economic
constraints various shapes of piers are adopted to suit to the
requirement.
• Mostly Reinforced Concrete or prestressed concrete are
adopted for the construction of piers.
• Piers are compression members. Depending on the loading and
bearing articulations, piers may be subjected to bending as
well.

4
 Bearing

• Bearings transfers loads from the girders to the pier

caps.

• Bearing is a component which supports part of the

bridge and which transmits forces from one part to
another part of the structure while permitting
angular and/or linear movement between parts.

5
Girders and Deck slab
• Girder is the part of superstructure which is under
bending along the span.
• It is the load bearing member which supports the
deck.
• Span is the distance between points of support (i.e.
piers, abutment).
• Deck is bridge floor directly carrying traffic loads.
• Deck transfers loads to the Girders depending on
the decking material.

6
Types of Bridges

• Cable stayed bridge

• Suspension bridge
• Cantilever bridge
• Truss bridge
• Arch bridge

7
 Cable stayed bridge
• Cable stayed bridges are usually constructed over gorges in hilly
countries where the water flow in the stream below is very fast.
• Cable stayed bridges are constructed with boulders where piers
cannot be easily constructed.
• These bridges have a span of 150 meters and are usually meant for
pedestrian traffic.
• The deck is supported by long cables carried over tall towers
provided at their ends.

8
Cable stayed bridge

9
Suspension bridge
• Suspension bridges are long-span bridges involving creative
works and great skill on the part of the bridge engineer.
• For the stability of such long-span bridges of 600 m and above,
considerations has to be given for the following parameters.
(a) the control of aerodynamic movement,
(b) the local angle changes in the deck and
(c) vertical oscillations caused by serve winds

10
Suspension bridge

11
 Cantilever bridge
• It is so called as in a single span there are cantilever arms from
each pier to the ends where the freely supported suspended span
rests.
• Cantilever bridges, due to their heavier weights and labor involved
in construction compared to the cable stayed bridges for the same
spans, are no longer popular.

12
Cantilever bridge

13
Truss bridge

• For rail-road or long railway bridges of spans 100 to 200

meters, truss bridges are found suitable and expedient due to
relative lightness of its component parts.
• There are various types of truss bridges like the Warren truss
bridge, Pratt truss and N-truss.

14
Truss bridge

15
Arch bridge
• In case of arch bridges the abutments must be strong enough to carry the
thrust exerted by the ribs.
• In such cases heavy expensive abutments will be required, unless there is
a gorge with rocky banks which might be strong enough to bear the load
exerted by the ribs; and it is in such situations where arch bridges are
most recommended.
• Arch bridges may be made of masonry or steel. For long spans, steel arch
bridges are generally used.

16
Arch bridge

17
 Lecture 06

Hydraulics, Water resources, Irrigation

Engineering

1
• Hydraulics deals with mechanics of water (fluid) flow.
• Water resource engineering deals with identification & utilization
of available water resources minimizing the loss.
• This also deals with ground water utilization, ground water
recharge and rain water harvesting.
• Irrigation engineering deals with water management for agriculture
purpose.

2
Sources of water

3
4
 Precipitation and Its type
Precipitation denotes all form of water that reaches the earth surface from the
atmosphere.
Types-
➢ Rainfall
➢ Snow
➢ Drizzle
➢ Glaze
➢ Sleet
➢ Hail

Note: In India, rainfall data is collected everyday at 8:30 am and if the rainfall on a
particular day is more than 2.5 mm then that day is called as rainy day.

5
• Rainfall- This is the most dominant form of precipitation in India and it denotes the
water droplets with size ranging from 0.5-6mm. On the basis of intensity rainfall is
classified as: Intensity (mm/hr) Type
0-2.5 Light
2.5-7.5 Medium
>7.5 Heavy

• Snow- It denotes ice crystal having a density of 0.1 gm/cc.

• Drizzle- These are fine droplets of water whose size is less than 0.5 mm and
intensity is less than 1 mm/hr.

• Glaze- When droplets of water comes in contact with cold ground surface(approx.
at 0oC) then the droplet of water is converted into ice which is called as glaze.

• Sleet- These are frozen droplets of transparent nature.

• Hail- These are lumps of ice whose size is more than 8mm.

6
 Irrigation and its advantages
Irrigation is the science of artificial application of water to the agricultural
field in accordance with crop requirements throughout the period of growth
for full maturity of crop.
Advantages:
• Increase in food production.
• Insuring optimum growth or maximum yield.
• Mixed cropping.
• Generation of hydropower.
• Improving domestic water supply.
Disadvantages:
• Over irrigation may cause water logging which can reduce crop yield.
• Irrigation may lead to creation of climatic condition which favourable for
public health diseases.

7
 Irrigation Methods

Perennial
Flow
Surface Flood
Lift
Irrigation
Natural
Subsurface
Artificial

8
Surface Irrigation- In this method of irrigation the water directly wet the soil surface
that is directly applied for the surface of agricultural field. It can be classified as:
• Flow Irrigation: When the water is available at higher elevation and it is supplied to
lower elevation by simple action of gravity then it is called as flow irrigation.
• Lift Irrigation: If the water is lifted up by some mechanical or manual mean from
ground water and then it is applied on the surface of agricultural field then it is called as
lift irrigation.
Subsurface Irrigation- In this method, water is directly applied into the root zone of a
given crop in agricultural fields so the runoff losses will be very less. That’s why this method
is more efficient compare to surface irrigation. It can be classified as:
• Natural Subsurface: Leakage water from channel etc. goes underground and during
passage through the subsoil, it may irrigate crops on lower elevation. When underground
irrigation is achieved by this simple natural process then its called as natural process.
• Artificial process: When a system of perforated pipes or drains is artificial laid below the
surface so as to supply water directly into the root zone. Then it is called as artificial
subsurface irrigation.

9
 Lecture 07

Hydraulics, Water resources, Irrigation

Engineering

1
 Dam and its purposes
➢ A dam is a physical obstruction constructed across a river to store the water in
reservoir and divert it for multipurpose from its upstream side.
➢ The pool of water form on the upstream side of the dam, is called as the
reservoir of the dam.
Purposes for Construction of Dams

2
Structure of Dam

3
• Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side
• Toe: contact on the downstream side
• Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest
• Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking
operations.
• Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting water before the
construction of dam. This helps in keeping the river bed dry.
• Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of
the reservoir to downstream side
• Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to
clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir side.
Classification of Dams
1. Based on Material 3. Based On Functionality
1A. Earthen Dam 3A. Storage Dam
3B. Diversion Dam
1B. Masonry Dam
3C. Detention Dam
1C. Steel Dam
1D. Concrete Dam
2. Based on Structural behavior
2A. Gravity Dam
2B. Buttress Dam
2C. Arch dam
2D. Embankment Dam

5
1A. Earthen Dam

6
1B. Masonry Dam

7
1C. Steel Dam

8
1D. Concrete Dam

9
2A. Gravity Dam

• These dams are heavy and

Reservoir massive wall-like structures
Force of concrete in which the
whole weight acts vertically
downwards.
• As the entire load is
transmitted on the small area
of foundation, such dams are
constructed where rocks are
competent and stable.
2B. Buttress Dam

• Buttress Dam – Is a
gravity dam reinforced by
structural supports
• Buttress - a support that
transmits a force from a
roof or wall to another
supporting structure
• This type of structure can
be considered even if the
foundation rocks are little
weaker
2C. Arch Dam
• These type of dams are concrete
or masonry dams which are
curved or convex upstream in
plan
• This shape helps to transmit the
major part of the water load to
the abutments
• Arch dams are built across
narrow, deep river gorges, but
now in recent years they have
been considered even for little
wider valleys.
2D. Embankment Dam
• They are trapezoidal in shape.
• Earth dams are constructed where
the foundation or the underlying
material or rocks are weak to
support the masonry dam or where
the suitable competent rocks are at
greater depth.
• Earthen dams are relatively smaller
in height and broad at the base.
• They are mainly built with clay,
sand and gravel, hence they are also
known as Earth fill dam or Rock fill
dam.
3A. Storage Dam:
A storage dam is constructed to store water on its upstream side during the period
of excess supply and use it during the period of scarcity.

3B. Diversion Dam:

A diversion dam raises the water level slightly in the river, and thus water is
diverted into a canal system. A diversion dam is always smaller in height and no
reservoir is formed on its upstream to store water.

3C. Detention Dam:

A detention dam is constructed to store water during floods, in order to be able to
release water gradually at a safe rate when the flood recedes. By the provision of a
detention dam, damages downstream due to flood are reduced.

14
 Lecture 08

Environmental Engineering

1
Environment is the available nature around us. It includes the life
support system such as water, air and land/Soil.
Environmental engineering deals with the technology to save
nature from human and natural abuse and pollution.
The study involves balanced compromise between environment
and safety.
It deals with,
• Technique of water collection, purification and supply
• Waste water collection, treatment and disposal
• Control of all types of pollution

2
Water treatment Objectives
1. Removal of floating suspended matter.
2. Improvement in the aesthetic quality of water by removing
unpleasant taste and odour.
3. Removal of settleable suspended matter and non-settleable
colloidal impurities.
4. Removal of dissolved mineral matter, colour and bacteria.
5. Softening of water for use in domestic washing laundries and
boilers.
6. Making the water non-corrosive, suitable for industrial
processing, and recreational uses.

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Water Quality Parameters
Can be divided into three types
1. Physical Parameters
2. Chemical Parameters
3. Biological Parameters

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Physical Parameters
a. Suspended solids
b. Turbidity
c. Odour and taste
d. Colour
e. Temperature

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Suspended solids
• Suspended solid in water may come from inorganic
particles like silt, clay etc , organic particles like fibre,
algae and may be induced by immiscible liquids like oil
and grease etc.
• Suspended solids if organic in nature then may results in
growth of disease causing microorganism.
• Suspended solids leads to incrustation of pipes then it
reduce the discharge carrying capacity.
• Acceptable limit- 500mg/l
• Cause for rejection limit- 2000mg/l

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Turbidity
• It is a extent to which light is either scattered or
absorbed due to the presence of suspended solid
in water.
• Impact of turbidity same as suspended solids.
• It is measured by Turbidity rod, Nephelometer.
• Acceptable limit- 1 NTU (Nephelo Turbidity Unit)
• Cause for rejection- 10 NTU

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Odour and taste
• Taste and odour in water may come from
inorganic mineral source like Na, Ca, Mg etc or
due to the presence of organic matter or may be
induced by the presence of dissolved gases like
CO2 , H2S etc.
• It is measured by osmoscope.
• Acceptable limit- 1 TON (Threshold odour
number)
• Cause for rejection- 3 TON

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Colour
• Presence of colour causing compound like Fe, Mn
in water increases the demand of chlorine and
reduce its effectiveness as disinfectant.
• Colour water can not be used for washing and
dying purpose.
• It is measured by Tintometer.
• Acceptable limit- 5 TCU ( True colour unit)
• Cause for rejection- 25 TCU

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Temperature
• Temperature in water affects the chemical and
biological reaction.
• An average increase of 10oC in the temperature
of water almost double the biological activity.
• Temperature of water should be in the range of
10-20oC in supplies.

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Chemical water parameter
• Total Dissolved solids
• Alkalinity
• pH
• Hardness
• Nitrogen content
• Chloride content
• Fluoride content
• Different gases
• Metals

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Total Dissolved solids
• It is the amount of solids that are present in
dissolved state in water..
• It can not be removed by conventional treatment.
• It can only removed by different method like
reverse osmosis, electrodialysis.
• It causes stiffness in joints, kidney stones etc.
• Acceptable limit- 500 mg/l
• Cause for rejection- 2000 mg/l

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Alkalinity
• Concentration of all the ions present in water which are capable of
neutralizing the acid and hydronium ion is referred as alkalinity. I
• It may also be defined as ability of water to neutralise the acid.
• Major constituents responsible for alkalinity are carbonates and
bicarbonates.
• Alkalinity in water in high concentration imparts bitter taste in
water.
• It is also responsible for incrustation in pipes.
• Acceptable limit- 200mg/l,
• Cause for rejection- 600mg/l

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pH
• It is the scale in the range of 0-14 which is used
to indicate the acidity and basicity of water
sample.
• It is measured by pH meter that is also referred
as potentiometer.
• Acceptable limit- 7-8.5
• Cause for rejection- < 6.5 and > 9.2

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 Hardness
• It is defined as concentration of the ion which destroy the surfactant property
of the soap or it may also be defined as concentration of multivalent cation
present in the water.
• Major constituent are Ca+2, Mg.+2
• Hardness of the water is referred as carbonate hardness and non-carbonate
hardness.
• Hardness due to carbonates and bicarbonates of multivalent cation is
referred as carbonate hardness. ( Temporary hardness that can remove by
simple boiling.)
• Hardness due to chloride, sulphate and nitrate of multivalent cation is
referred as non- carbonate hardness. ( Permanent hardness that can be
removed by softening)
• Acceptable limit- 200mg/l, Cause for rejection- 600mg/l

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Nitrogen content
• Presence of nitrogen indicates its pollution due to organic matter.
• Nitrogen in water may be found in the form of free ammonia, Organic
ammonia, Nitrite, Nitrate.
• Free ammonia indicate the recent pollution of water due to organic
matter.
• Organic ammonia in water indicates the presence of nitrogen before
the decomposition of organic matter has started.
• Presence of nitrite in water is highly dangerous as it indicates the
partially decomposition of the organic matter.
• Presence of Nitrate in water is not harmful as it indicate the complete
decomposition of organic matter. If it is in excess then it affects the
infants and results the disease as Methemoglobinemia or blue baby
diseases.

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Chloride content
• Presence of chlorine in water indicates its
pollution due to industrial waste or due to
sewage.
• Acceptable limit- 200 mg/l
• Cause for rejection- 1000 mg/l

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Fluoride content
• Up to 1 mg/l fluoride is required to prevent dental cavity
and for the growth of permanent teeth.
• If concentration is greater than 1.5 mg/l, causes
decolourisation of teeth and results in the disease
referred as Fluorosis.
• Fluoride concentration more than 5 mg/l causes
deformation of the bones and the result in the disease
Bone- fluorosis.
• Acceptable limit- 1 mg/l, Cause for rejection- 1.5 mg/l

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Different gases
• Presence of CH4, H2S, CO2, NH3 indicates the
presence of organic matter.
• CH4 is known for its explosive property.
• H2S give pungent smell in water.
• C02 add bad taste and corrosions in water.
• O2 in water indicates the absence of organic
matter.

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Metals
• Na- If it is in excess the it ass bad taste and it is
harmful for heart and kidney patients.
• Limit - 50-250mg/l
• Fe and Mn- It causes colour problem in water.
• Limit for Fe- 0.1-1 mg/l, Limit for Mn- 0.05-0.5mg/l
• Cu- If it is in excess then it affect the lungs and
respiratory organ.
• Limit- 0.05-1.5 mg/l

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TABLE: FUNTIONS OF WATER TREATMENT UNITS

Unit treatement Function (removal)

Aeration, chemicals use -> Colour, odour, taste

Screening -> Floating matter

Chemical methods -> Iron, Manganese etc.

Softening -> Hardness

Sedimentation -> Suspended matter

Coagulation -> Suspended matter, a part of colloidal matter and bacteria

Filtration -> Remaining colloidal dissolved matter, bacteria

Disinfection -> Pathogenic bacteria, organic matter and reducing substances

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Biological Parameters

a. Bacteriological aspects
b. Virologic aspects
c. Parasitological aspects
d. Algae
 Lecture 09

Environmental Engineering

1
 Waste Water
Wastewater is liquid waste, often produced as the byproduct
of many uses of water.
Household uses
Industrial uses
Commercial uses
Agricultural uses
Livestock uses

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Waste Water
• Mixture of water and liquid waste generated due
to different activities in the community is
referred as sewage.
• If this liquid waste generated due to domestic
activities then it is referred as domestic sewage.
• If it is generated due to industrial activity then it
is referred as industrial waste.
• Liquid waste after heavy rainstorm is referred as
drainage.

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Waste Water
• Mixture of domestic and industrial sewage taken
together referred as sanitary sewage.
• Pipes or conduits required to carry the sewage
from one point to another point, is referred as
sewers.
• The entire process of collecting, treating,
disposing sewage, is referred as sewerage
system.

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Quality parameter
• Physical parameter- Same as raw water
• Chemical parameter-
➢ Dissolved oxygen
➢Chemical oxygen demand
➢Theoretical oxygen demand
➢Total organic matter
➢Biochemical oxygen demand

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Treatment of Wastewater

Raw Sewage
Screening Grit Chamber

Tertiary Secondary Primary

treatment Treatment Sedimentation
Primary Treatment- Removal of portion of the suspended solids
and organic matter from the wastewater.

Secondary treatment- Removal of biodegradable organic matter

and suspended solids.

Tertiary Treatment- Removal of residual suspended solids

(after secondary treatment ) by granular medium filtration or
microscreens.

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Pollution
• Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances,
particularly a contaminant or toxin, which produces some
kind of harmful impact on the environment or living
organisms.
• It can be defined as any undesirable change in the physical,
chemical, biological characteristics of any component of the
environment which can cause harm to life and property.
Air Pollution
• Air pollution could be in the form of the emission of harmful
chemical gases (e.g. carbon monoxide) or particulates (e.g.
soot) in to the air.
Sources of Air Pollution
Sources

Natural Anthropogenic

Volcanic Eruptions, Forest

Fires, Sea Salt Sprays, Thermal Power Plants,
Biological Decay, Pollen Vehicular Emissions,
Grains, Marshes, Industrial Units
Photochemical Oxidation of
Terpenes
The main types of pollution gases
• Carbon dioxide
• Carbon monoxide
• Methane
• Sulphur dioxide
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• Nitrogen oxides.
Effects of Air pollution
• Air pollution adversely affects humans by causing cardio-
respiratory problems among other health problem.
• On the environmental front, air pollution results in problems
such as
global warming
climate change
acid rain
Earth’s ozone depletion
Control Of Air Pollution
• Proper air pollution control devices in industries
• Using low sulphur coal
• Regular engine tune up, replacement of old more polluting
vehicles
• Using mass transport system, bicycles etc
• Shifting to less polluting fuels
• Planting more trees
Water Pollution
Water pollution could be in the form of any change in the
physical, chemical and biological properties of water which has a
harmful effect on living things. It could take place in various
water sources, like ponds, lakes, rivers, seas and oceans.
Sources of water pollution are
• Release of waste into the water bodies,
• Domestic wastes
• Industrial effluents
• Agricultural wastes
• Marine dumping
• Oil spills
Effects of Water pollution
 Unfit for drinking and other uses.
 Depletion of dissolved oxygen
 Eutrophication
 Pathogen….spreading diseases
 Bio-magnification
 Genetic deformities
 Blue baby Syndrome
Control of Water Pollution
• Treatment of water before leaving in water bodies.
• Restoration of polluted water bodies.
• Ganga Action Plan
• River Water Monitoring
Land / Soil Pollution
• Land pollution is mainly about the contamination and
degradation of Earth’s land surfaces.
Sources of Land pollution
• Dumping of wastes causes soil pollution
• Garbage
• Rubbish like glass, plastics, metallic cans, papers, cloth rags,
containers
• Discharge of Industrial wastes.
• Fly ash from Thermal power plants
• Fertilizers and pesticides: DDT, endrin, Lindane.
• Sewage sludge and radioactive wastes
Effects of Land Pollution
 Reduce soil productivity
 Affects soil flora and fauna
 Sludge contains worms, bacteria and pathogens.

Control of Land Pollution

 Treatment before discharge
 Convert waste to biogas, fuel etc.
 Recycling.
 Noise pollution
 Unwanted and unbearable sound is “Noise”
 Sound travels in form of pressure waves through air,
liquid or solid
 Measured on DECIBEL SCALE.
Sources of Noise Pollution
• Transportation
• Heavy Machinery
• Construction activities
• Celebrations and household appliances
Effects of Noise Pollution
• Physiological and psychological changes
• Interferes communication
• Hearing damage
• Sleep disturbance