The dynamics of a tennis racket

Research question: How does the thickness of strings in a tennis

racket affect the force exerted on the ball?

Physics Internal Assessment

1
Introduction

As a former tennis player, I have always tried to use different rackets so I don’t have to use
much force for the ball to travel the same distance. Whilst using different rackets, I realized
that each of them have a different gauge (thickness of the string), I could see the difference in
the spin of the ball and other qualities such as sound and how much my hand shook after hitting
each shot. This made me wonder the number of qualities that are affected by different thickness
of the strings. Upon further inspection, I realized the amount of force I used to hit the ball also
varied. With these observations, I pondered how thickness can affect my game and how I can
determine the best racket for myself. This in turn, gave rise to my RQ: How does the thickness
of the strings in a tennis racket affect the force exerted on the ball?

Background research:
Through my experience, I noticed the gauge affects the spin, flexibility and the power
produced. The gauge is a ‘ranking’ value given to the thickness of the string. The lower the
gauge corresponds to a higher thickness of the string.

GRAPH 1: Spin potential vs Durability (“Foster”).

The graph shows how the gauge affects the spin potential.

The table shows the ‘gauge’ and the thickness of each string. Higher gauge, lower thickness.

Gauge Thickness (mm)

13 1.65 – 1.80
14 1.50 – 1.65
15 1.41 – 1.49
15L 1.33 – 1.41
16 1.25 – 1.34
16L 1.22 – 1.30
17 1.16 – 1.24
18 1.06 – 1.16
19 0.90 – 1.06
20 0.80 – 0.90
21 0.70 – 0.80
22 0.60 – 0.70
TABLE 1: String gauge and the thickness (mm) (“16 vs 17 Gauge Tennis String”)

2
A standard racket has approximately 4 spots. Dead spot, sweet spot, center of percussion and
best bounce.

Figure 1: Spots on a tennis racket (“Tennis Raquet Physics”).

Each spot serves a different purpose. My coach always insisted to try to avoid the dead spot as
much as I can. This is because the ball doesn’t bounce at all when its hit near the dead spot.
This is because all the energy from the impact is transferred to the racket rather than the ball.
The CM point (as mentioned in the image) in the racket which is towards the end cause the
most recoil. This causes the whole racket to move away and disrupt the player’s balance. The
spots do play an important role but the grip of the player also matters a lot. This was concluded
by an investigation done by Simon Richard Goodwill (287). Another study by Mr. J.E Gordon
derived the formula to calculate e the force exerted on a ball. This paper was published in the
Nature journal. The formula is as followed:

𝜋 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 ! × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 =
2

The equation takes into account a lot of factors but misses out on a few such as knowing the
location (spots) of the impact.

Along with the properties of the racket, the properties of the tennis ball also play a role in the
force exerted on it.

The air pressure inside the ball is a secondary force but does play an important role on the force
exerted on the ball. If the air pressure in the ball is high compared to the standard value of 100
psi (pounds per square inch), the force required for the ball to travel the same distance would
be lesser. Having a greater air pressure would push back the racket after the impact (asper Sir
Newton’s second law) with a greater force compared to a ball with lower air pressure. A higher
air pressure will also cause the ball to bounce higher. This is because a higher air pressure ball
will have more air molecules, (considering the volume is same) allowing the ball to store more
energy and bouncing higher.

Other qualities such as mass, surface area and elasticity of the ball also determine the force
exerted on the ball.

3
Other controlled variables such as the material of the string also determine the force exerted.
Different rackets of different sports use different strings and different materials. This needs to
be constant as the tension of the string varies from one material to another.
At higher heights, the altitude is higher and the air is thinner. This causes lesser air resistance.
Hence, higher altitude (height above sea level), less air resistance and further distance.

GRAPH 2: Trajectories vs Drag coefficient (“Cross and Lindsey”).

The most important thing to note is that the point at which the ball hits the racket. For an
experiment like this, it’s necessary that the ball hits the center of percussion (C O P). This is
also called the ‘sweet spot’ of the racket. When the ball hits this spot, the player experiences
the least force on his hand as the racket recoils with the same speed as the ball.

Figure 3: Centre of gravity (C O P). (“Center of Percussion”)

The figure shows a beam and different points on the beam. It explains that the recoil of the
beam depends where the force is directed on the beam. The figure explains how the racket
moves forward without rotation when hit on the center of gravity (C O P). Section (a) of the
figure shows the racket being hit on the C O P and the result is the dotted line. Section (b)
shows the object being hit elsewhere and how it causes the racket to rotate.

The reason why it’s important is because when the ball makes contact with the C O P, the
energy lost is the least. To have fair results for each reading, I did multiple trials and only
measured those that hit the center of percussion.

4
Hypothesis:
Since a thicker string would require more force to stretch it and would absorb more energy,
considering all the playing conditions are standard, my hypothesis is that higher the thickness
of the string, the lesser the distance traveled by the ball after bouncing once. The increment in
gauge will have a larger force exerted on a ball compared to the lowest gauge.

Variables:
Independent variable:
• Thickness of the strings (mm). I have used rackets of different gauge for this variable.
I will be using different gauge varying with 1-unit intervals: 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19

Dependent variable:
• Distance travelled by the ball after a bounce. This was measured using a measuring
tape of uncertainty ± 1mm and marker cones.

Control variables
Table 2: Identifying and analyzing controlled variables.
Variables to be controlled Why and how the variable is controlled
Mass of ball (g) The mass of the ball plays an important role
in determining the force exerted on it. A
heavier ball will require more force to travel
the same distance and visa-versa.
To keep this constant, I used balls of the
similar mass. This was done by buying a box
of balls of the same company. The average
mass came to 85 grams.
Air pressure inside the ball (psi) The air pressure inside the ball is a secondary
force but contributes in determining the
distance traveled. A higher air pressure ball
will require less force to travel the same
distance and visa-versa. I used the balls of the
company to control this. Each ball has an air
pressure of 10 pounds per square inch (psi).
Velocity of the ball (kmh-1) This has to remain constant as with varying
velocities the force will also vary. To keep
this constant, I have used an automatic ball
throwing machine where the velocity will be
constant. For the experiment I have used the
speed of 45 kmh-1 for all trials.
Tension of string for each racket (N) Tension of the string of each racket has to
remain constant throughout the trials. To
control this, I have purchased new rackets
with the range of tension mentioned and
haven’t used them elsewhere as the tension
may reduce. The range is from 25-30 N.
‘Spot’ of impact. Although this cannot be measured, its
necessary for the ball to hit the same spot for
fair trials. The center of percussion will be
used throughout the experiment. The spot has
been marked in Figure 1.

5
Apparatus
Table 3: The apparatus used and the properties.
Material Properties
4xTennis balls Air pressure: 10 psi; Mass: 85±1g
Circumference: 2.7 inches

4xTennis racket Gauge: 15-18; Tension: 25-30 N

Automatic ball throwing machine Velocity ball thrown at: 45 ±1 kmh-1

Top pan balance Uncertainty; ±1 g

Measuring tape Uncertainty; ± 1 mm

Method

The setup isn’t very complicated. With the apparatus listed above a simple setup can be
achieved.

Illustration showing the setup and required apparatus.

Observations before carrying out the experiment.
1. Let the automatic ball thrower have a few test runs to know the ball’s trajectory and
where to place the racket.
2. Before taking the raw data let the ball hit the center of percussion and make any
adjustments if required.
3. Before every trial, check the velocity of the ball and make sure its constant.
4. Verify the distance traveled and the with the help of the instructor.
5. Make sure to mark where the racket is held at as this will be the starting point to measure
the distance the ball traveled after one bounce.

Collection of raw data:

1. Ask the attendant to turn on the machine and hold the racket in a way where it doesn’t
move much.
2. Pause after every trial to place the marker cone. Watch the video recorded and place the
marker. Once verified, place the marker cone.

6
 3. After each trial, measure the distance from racket to the marker cone. Write down the
measurement of each.

Risk Assessment:

The experiment should be conducted in a close environment as the ball can hit someone. The
ball may hit the experimenter’s hand. Lastly, the racket’s recoil can cause harm. This is a safe
experiment with little to no environmental and ethical issues in the methodology.
Problems faced:
My original idea was to clamp the racket to a few stands to keep it sturdy and use G-clamps
for the stands to remain in place. This would keep the racket in a fixed position. To keep the
velocity of the ball constant, I built a trebuchet from scratch using wood. I then used screws to
nail everything and my trebuchet was ready. I used a spring to pull back and release the ball.
However, the ball’s trajectory wasn’t constant and the force provided wasn’t enough. I tried
multiple springs and none of them were working. I decided to use the automatic ball throwing
machine instead but was upset as I had built the trebuchet by myself and it didn’t work out.

Data and analysis

The readings were taken in inches and converted to metres. This was done by dividing each
value by by 39.37 to convert to meter (“Convert Inches”). Data was calculated for gauge 19
to gauge 15. Some qualitative differences noticed were:

1. The spin of the ball decreased.

2. The distance decreased.
3. The ‘vibrations’ due to impact decreased as the gauge reduced.
Table 4: Raw data showing distance(m) for gauge (19).

Distance travelled by the ball in meters

∆ m = ±1cm
Thickness of D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
string
(gauge)
19 0.653 0.638 0.671 0.649 0.608

18 0.608 0.625 0.599 0.592 0.597

17 0.495 0.493 0.475 0.544 0.544

16 0.447 0.396 0.460 0.465 0.452

15 0.389 0.396 0.366 0.371 0.441

Gauge 19 is the thinnest. This gauge isn’t used usually but offers a high spin potential of the
ball. This also depends on the hand movement. Although gauge 19 exerts the most force on the
ball, the reason why it isn’t used by many is because the strings are thin and have high tension,
therefore offering a low durability. 18 gauge also has the same problem as gauge 19. Offering
low durability, it is difficult for players to play their game where they have to hit shots across
the court. Gauge 17 is one of the preferred gauges. It is durable and offers a decent amount
of spin as well. The force exerted on the ball is also good as the ball traveled a high distance

7
 comparatively. This is also my preferred gauge size.16 gauge is the standard size of strings
used. The results may not be accurate as I was holding the rackets on both ends. At a speed of
~45 ms-1, the average distance moved by the ball was 0.51435 m. Along with a spin potential,
gauge 16 also provides more durability. Gauge 15 is the lowest gauge available. The strings
are the thickest in this and the ball travelled the least distance. While it comes with high
durability, gauge 15 requires the player to give more power output and also provides a
low spin potential.

Table 5: Processed data for all thickness

Gauge Average distance traveled Uncertainty in average
D/m distance D/m

19 0.644 0.0315

18 0.605 0.0165

17 0.510 0.0255

16 0.444 0.0345

15 0.393 0.0375

Graph 3: Gauge vs d in meters. Graph was made using Desmos (“Error bar”)

Gauge vs Distance

Legend:
Blue- Line of best fit
Orange- Max slope
Green-Mon slope
D/m

Equation of best fit line

y = 0.0663x - 0.6079
R² = 0.9855

Gauge/Units
Line type Equation of line
Maximum slope 𝑦 = 0.08𝑥 − 0.8385

Minimum slope 𝑦 = 0.0455𝑥 − 0.258

Best fit line 𝑦 = 0.0663𝑥 − 0.6079, 𝑅! = 0.9855

8
Graphical analysis:
The systematic errors were majorly due to distance measured after the ball bouncing. This is
showcased by the graph having a y intercept which is greater than 0. The y-max and y-min help
calculate the uncertainty in the gradient.

Uncertainty in gradient:
0.08 − 0.0455
= 0.01725
2
Calculations:
Example 1:
Average distance travelled:
0.653 + 0.638 + 0.671 + 0.649 + 0.608
= 0.6438 ≈ 0.644 m
5

Example 2:
Uncertainty in average distance travelled:
0.671 − 0.608
= 0.0315 m
2
Error propagation

Uncertainty in the measurement of distance.

1
× 10 = ±0.03 cm = 3%
300

This calculation suggests that there is a total of 3% uncertainty due to systematic errors.

The graph compares all the values for the different gauges tested. The graph shows that there
is a direct relationship between both the quantities. As the gauge increased, the distance
travelled by the ball also increased. The error bars show the uncertainty of the measuring tape.

Conclusion

The research question of the research was How does the thickness of strings in a tennis
racket affect the force exerted on the ball? For this research the hypothesis made was ‘The
increment in gauge will have a larger force exerted on a ball compared to the lowest
gauge.’

After collecting and examining the processed data, it can be concluded that the results show
that the greater the sting thickness or lower gauge value, lesser the distance traveled by the
wall, supporting the hypothesis. With increasing the gauge and reducing the thickness of the
string, the ball travelled further. The distance travelled by each ball was measured and multiple
trials were taken using different sets of rackets. The graph also suggests the same when plotted.

There were quite a few limitations which lead to random errors and systematic errors. The
errors can be reduced by following these methods. 1. Attach the racket instead of holding it to
get more reliable results. 2. Having a better indication to know where the ball fell. To find the
exact place where the ball fell, my first idea was to paint the ball because it will leave a mark.
This wasn’t possible as I was taking the trials at a rented place.

9
Hence, the research question, how does the thickness of a string of a tennis racket affect the
force exerted on the ball, was worthy to investigate and answered. Using theory, a thicker
string would absorb more energy and exert less force on the ball. With the results that were
measured during the investigation, I found that the thinnest string had exerted the most force
on the ball and allowed it to move the furthest.

Evaluation

Strengths:

The aim of the experiment was met and the hypothesis was supported. A model trebuchet was
built by scratch, attaching woodwork together. The tennis racket was positioned using clamps
and ‘G-clamps’ to a table top.

Figure 4: Trebuchet built to launch the ball toward the racket at constant velocity. Figure 5: Racket attached to table using clamps.

Attaching the racket to the table was a good option as the racket wouldn’t move due to recoil
and would reduce the uncertainty by a great margin. Along with this, the results would be more
accurate. However, the trebuchet did not work as it was unstable and I couldn’t judge where
the ball would land due to the instability. I overcame this by using the machine. This allowed
me to choose the velocity I wanted to. The accuracy of where the ball would land was also high
and therefore this was better.
Table 6: Possible strengths and effect
Strength Effect

Different rackets were used for each gauge Tension plays a very important role in this
and new rackets were bought, making sure experiment. Having varying tensions, the
each had the same tension. results will be affected. After rethreading,
the tension was set to the same values for
each racket
New ball of the same brand was used for After each reading was collected, a new ball
each reading. was used as

10
Weakness, improvements and strengths
The experiment was accurate to a certain extent, although there are a lot of improvements that
can be made to get better results.
Table 7: Weakness and improvements
Source of error and its Significance and evidence Improvements
affect
Systematic errors affecting accuracy
Holding the racket with hand: High significance as the balls By using clips or attaching the
Although the racket didn’t in all the trials would’ve racket. This is will allow
move much because of the traveled a greater distance as minimal energy loss and give
slow velocity, there is a less energy would’ve been the most accurate results
significant amount of energy absorbed by another practically.
that was transferred from the alternative.
racket to my hand.
The speed at which the ball Medium to low significance as Use a speedometer and run a
was thrown at. This may have the speed of the ball wouldn’t few test trials. Take the average
varied as the machine had an be changed by much and the of the speed while collecting
uncertainty of ± 1 ms-1. Due to impact on the readings would data and use that for more
this variance, the results may not be very significant. accurate readings. Also check
have been tampered. the speed before each trial.
Random errors affecting accuracy
Landing of the ball: With the Low significance as the By painting the ball to find the
naked eye and the help of difference wouldn’t be very exact location of the balls
cameras, it is difficult to find high and won’t tamper with landing.
the exact spot where the ball the results.
giving the readings off by a
few centi-meters.
Not holding the measuring High significance as the By making sure that the tape is
tape straight: Although I made shortest distance travelled is uniform and no bends are
sure that the tape was as always a straight line, it will encountered. The landing spot
straight as possible, this could give false readings if won’t always be in front of the
be an error further if the topic measured otherwise. point of contact, it may be
is investigated. deviated towards the side.
However, to get the shortest
distance, move towards the side
of the landing spot whilst
having the same contact area.

Further research questions

There a few questions that came to my mind whilst investigating, the most prominent one being
how the material of the string of different rackets affect the distance traveled by the ball.
Different material of the string will have different tension and hence leading to a different force
traveled by the ball. Material can be changed by using rackets of different sport such as squash
and badminton.

Other sports that use strings and rackets such as squash, badminton and others can also have
research conducted upon. As the rackets, material of string change, different results will be
obtained.

11
 References

“16 vs 17 Gauge Tennis String Explained (What’s the Difference).” The Tennis Bros, thetennisbros.com/tennis-tips/equipment-advice/16-vs-17-

gauge-tennis-string-explained-whats-the-difference/#:~:text=The%20gauge%20of%20a%20tennis. Accessed 13 Mar. 2024.

“Bocchi, Fabio”. “The Physics of Tennis Racket Sweet Spots.” COMSOL Multiphysics, 2015, www.comsol.com/blogs/the-physics-of-tennis-racket

sweet-spots/.

“Center of Percussion.” Sciencedemonstrations.fas.harvard.edu, sciencedemonstrations.fas.harvard.edu/presentations/center-percussion.

“Convert Inches to Meters.” Www.unitconverters.net, www.unitconverters.net/length/inches-to-meters.htm.

“Cross, Rod, and Crawford Lindsey”. “Tennis Ball Trajectories — the Role of Aerodynamic Drag and Lift in Tennis Shots".” Twu.tennis-

warehouse.com, 22 Dec. 2013, twu.tennis-warehouse.com/learning_center/aerodynamics2.php.

“Foster, Joshua”. “How Tennis String Gauge Affects Spin, Power and Durability.” Sportch, 10 May 2020, www.sportch.co.uk/how-tennis-string-

gauge-affects-spin-power-and-durability/. Accessed 13 Mar. 2024.

“Tennis Raquet Physics.” Usyd.edu.au, 2010, www.physics.usyd.edu.au/~cross/tennis.html.

“Error Bars.” Desmos, www.desmos.com/calculator/otruwtozco.

12