Coffee Production, Processing and Quality Control

CHAPTER ONE.
Introduction
1.1 Origin, history, and spread of coffee
Coffee belongs to the family of Rubiaceae, a genus of Coffea. Scientifically coffee is grouped
as the Angiosperm. Angiosperms are plants that are reproduced by seeds enclosed in a box-
like structure and its ovary located at the base of the flower.
The genus of Coffea was first described in the 18th century by the Swedish botanist, Carolus
Linneaus. He also described Coffea Arabica in his Species Plantarum in 1753.

Under the genus of caffea, have over 500 genera and 6,000 species are found in tropical trees
and shrubs. But Commercial important species in the coffee industry are C. Arabica, C.
canophora (Robusta) and Coffea liberica.

Coffee is growing to more than 30 feet (9 meters) high in its natural habitat. Each tree is
covered with green, waxy leaves growing opposite each other in pairs. Coffee cherries grow
along the branches. Coffee is an everyday beverage and is consumed strongly throughout the
world
1.1.1. The Birth and History of Coffee
A widely accepted legend history for the birth of coffee is the Abyssinian Goat Herd Kaldi,
who first discovered the potential of these beloved beans. The story goes that Kaldi noticed,
after eating the berries of coffee, his goats became so energetic they did not want to sleep at
night. Kaldi reported his findings to the abbot of the local monastery, who made a drink with
the berries and found that it kept him alert through the long hours of evening prayer. The
abbot shared his discovery with the other monks at the monastery, and knowledge of the
energizing berries began to spread. As the world moved and coffee reached the Arabian
Peninsula, it began a journey that would bring these beans across the globe.
1.1.2. Origin of Coffee

Species of the Coffea sub genus are originated in humid and evergreen forests of Africa
(kaffa, Wolega, up to Sudan). The largest number of endemic species in Africa is present
between 200 and 1000 m above sea level, including C. canephora and C. liberica

C. arabica originated in the highlands of tropical forests located in south-western Ethiopia,

especially in the kaffa area, considering the possibility states Boma plateau in Sudan and
Mount Marsabit of Kenya. The origin of C. arabica has been subject to both molecular and

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archaeological studies, confirming that the Ethiopian is the origin of C. Arabica.

Ethiopia is the motherland of Coffee Arabica. The word coffee drives from Kaffa, (‘kafee’
means from kaffa) name of a place in the South Western Ethiopian highlands where first
discovered. Africa (Ethiopia) is first Coffea Arabica exporter and is currently the fifth largest
coffee producer in the world.
Based on historical and scientific data, C. arabica divided in to two;
 C. arabica var. arabica (or var. Typica Cramer) which originated from a single plant
that was taken from Yemen to India and
 C. arabica var. Bourbon (B. Rodr.) originated with the re-introduction of coffee trees
to Bourbon from Yemen. But var. Bourbon are a more compact and upright growth
habit, higher yield and better cup quality
C. liberica: originates in lowland habitats of West Africa, often coastal. Liberica coffee was
originally found near Monrovia in Liberia (There exist also two additional minor coffee
species). The original identification of this species was made in Liberia; hence it was named
Coffea liberica. It accounts nearly 1% of world production

C. canephora (Robusta) originated in central and western sub-Saharan Africa. Native to the
tropical forests around Lake Victoria in Uganda. It account 20% of world production

Dispersion of coffee species

The history of coffee cultivation is incompletely documented with regard to its domestication
in Africa and dispersion throughout the world by humans. C. arabica cultivation was started
after wild coffee was introduced from Ethiopia to Yemen as early as 575 AD. After its
introduction to Yemen, the coffee arabica was distributed worldwide and became the most
popular beverage crop.

The spreading of coffee drinking to many countries created a lucrative trade for the Arabians,
which they guarded jealously for many years. The raw beans were not allowed out of the
country of cultivation without first being steeped in boiling water or heated to destroy their
germinating power. Moreover, strangers were not allowed to visit the plantations. This firm control
of the crop ensured them to be the only providers of coffee. However, the channels through which
coffee was traded from Arabia and the Middle East to Europe were not easy in those early days and
the product was costly to import. In the course of time, its monetary value increased tremendously.

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Because of its increasing importance both as a beverage and a prodigious source of income. Several
expeditions were sent by the Dutch, French and British to obtain seed or planting material from
Arabia. The first person who was successful in his attempt to steal coffee from Arabia, Mecca, was an
Indian pilgrim called Baba Budan. He smuggled out the first seeds capable of germination from the
highly protected plantations. He is said to have smuggled out seven coffee seeds, strapped to his belly,
from Mecca and planted them at Chikmagalur in the mountains of Mysore (India) at about 1600 A. D.

C. Canephora (Robust) coffee occurs wild in the equatorial forest from West Africa to Lake Victoria,
mainly between 10° north and south of the equator from sea level to 1500 m. Specimens of this
species have been collected as early as 1792 in Sierra Leone. It was first grown at Kew
Botanic Gardens (England) in 1872. But, it was not named until 1874. From its origins, C.
canephora is widely dispersed in tropical Africa at altitudes below 1000 m. because it can,
grow at lower altitudes and fit well in the equatorial, warm and wet tropics. They occur
naturally in the western Congo basin. It is resistant to coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix)
and, therefore, with the expansion of coffee production in the world it replaced Arabica in the
areas where coffee leave rust was devastating the production. As for Arabica, some early
Brazilian coffee was labeled after its major port of export, Santos. Currently, it represents
36% of world production and is grown in tropical countries in Indonesia and Vietnam,
through Sub-Saharan Africa to Br.azil.
C. canephora (Robusta) coffee was introduced into Uganda early in the twentieth century, in
the belief that it was a different species. It spread from Central Africa throughout the world
and is more recent taken to Indonesia in the 20th century as a solution to the coffee leaf rust,
which thrives in warmer regions and the need for breeding programs.

There are many varieties of C. canephora in Africa. However, only two have been
commercially disseminated throughout the world: C. canephora from Guinea, and C.
canephora from Congo

C. Liberica was widely distributed throughout the tropics from Kew and other gardens.
Planting material reached Sri Lanka and Java in 1873, and Trinidad and Malaya in 1875. In
Java, originally it was used to replace Arabica coffee which was being destroyed by Coffee
Leaf Rust. However, it soon became susceptible and was replaced first by a hybrid of Arabica
coffee and Liberica coffee which was first discovered in 1885, and later by robusta coffee
which was introduced in 1900.

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Liberica coffee did not become important and it contributes less than 1 percent to the coffee
market in the world.

1.2. Status of coffee production and consumption

Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages in the world and one of the most traded
commodities globally. The largest coffee-producing countries are Brazil, Viet Nam and
Colombia, while the European Union and the United States of America are the largest
consuming and importing markets globally. Coffee is a growing market due in part to
increasing consumption in emerging economies and a stronger interest in specialty coffee and
product innovations in developed countries. Despite the expansion of the sector, recurrent and
detrimental market imbalances and asymmetric income distribution among market players
can threaten the livelihood of millions of smallholder producers.
Coffee crops, are in current times, spread over 10 million hectares grown in more than 80

tropical and sub-tropical nations. It is world’s second most traded commodity. In fact, only
oil is more traded than coffee. The world coffee demand and supply have traditionally
followed a cyclical pattern driven by prices on the world market. It production in 2020/2021
is estimated at approximately 9 million bags (60 kilograms) superior to the past year’s record
of 176.1 million

Ethiopia is the region’s largest producer and consumer of coffee. Coffee production in
Ethiopia has grown steadily over the past three years and, with suitable growing conditions, is
forecasted to reach to 7.62 million bags (457,200 MT) in 2021/22. 50-55% of Ethiopia’s
production is consumed domestically. Local consumption is estimated to increase to 3.55
million bags in MY 2020/21. Ethiopia is the largest coffee exporter in the region and its

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shipments are primarily green coffee. In 2019, the country enacted a new marketing and
export policy to allow direct coffee exports by smallholders with a minimum of two hectares
of land and by commercial farms in order to encourage vertical integration and improve
coffee traceability. Exports from October 2019 to September 2020 reached to 4.135 million
bags (248,129 MT), 2326 MT lower than MY 2018/19. Ethiopia’s primary export
destinations in 2019/20 were Saudi Arabia, Germany, the USA, Japan, and Belgium.
1.3. Coffee production systems in Ethiopia
Settled agriculture began in Ethiopia some 2000 years ago. The time of immemorial, Arabica
coffee has been growing in the wild forests of the South-western highlands of Kaffa and
Buno districts of Ethiopia and other parts of the country. Ethiopian coffee is rightly known as
highland coffee by consumers.
Generally four production systems are distinguished in Ethiopia; forest coffee, semi-forest
coffee, garden coffee and plantation coffee.

A. Forest coffee:
This system is found in South and South-Western Ethiopia (Bale, West-wolega, Bench- Maji,
Keffa, Sheka, Metu and Jimma). These areas are the centres of origin of Arabica coffee
(Coffea arabica L.). Forest coffee is self-sown and grown under the canopy of natural forest
trees. Forest coffee has a wide genetic diversity and accounts for about 10% of the total
coffee production in the country.
B. Semi-Forest coffee:
This system is also found in the South and South-West parts of the Country. Farmers acquires
forest land for coffee farms, and then thin and select the forest trees to ensure both adequate
sunlight and proper shade for the coffee trees. Farmers slash the weeds once a year to
facilitate harvesting. This system accounts for about 35% of the total coffee production of the
country.
C. Garden coffee:
Garden coffee is grown in the vicinity of farmer`s residences, mainly in the Southern, Eastern
parts of the country (Kaffa, Sidamo, Gedeo, South and North Omo Hararghe, Wolega and
Gurage Zones, East and West). The coffee is planted at low densities (1000 -1800 trees/ha),
mostly fertilized with organic material and inter- cropped. It accounts about 35% of the total
production in the country.
D. Plantation coffee :

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Plantations coffee is owned by the state and on some well managed smallholders coffee
farms. In this system, recommended agronomic practices like improved seedlings, spacing,
proper mulching, maturing, weeding, shade regulation and pruning are practiced. Only state
owned plantations (5%) are use chemical fertilizers and herbicides. In the remaining 15% of
the plantation coffee owned by smallholder farmers such chemicals are not applied.
1.4. Coffee producing area in Ethiopia
2. Yirgachffee Origin
Internationally Known and recognized as Yirgachaffee Brand Name Grown coffee and has
intense flavor known as flora. Has fine acidity and rich body. Many rosters are attracted to its
fine flavor and are willing to pay a premium price for it.
3. Harar Origin
Coffee with medium-sized beans with greenish-yellow color, medium acidity, and full body.
It has distinctive Mocha flavor. Internationally known and recognized as Harar Trade Brand
Name and the highest premium coffee in the world.
4. Sidama Origin
Medium-sized bean, greenish-greyish in color. Due to balanced tastes and a good flavor
called Sweet coffee, has fine acidity and a good body, it is always blended for gourmet or
specialty coffee
5. Limmu Origin
Spicy and Winy flavor and attracts many roasters, especially in Europe and USA, has good
acidity and body, washed Limmu is of premium coffee, medium-sized bean, and greenish-
bluish in color mostly round in shape.
6. Djimma Origin
Altitude heavy-bodied cup with winy after the test can be prepared as washed sun-dried red.
The catchment area for Ethiopian Mocha Djimmah is the largest in Ethiopia. These coffees
are well known for their body and acidity. Djimmah is grown in the Illubabor and Kaffa
regions of Ethiopia at elevations from 4,400 to 6,000 feet above sea level within the biggest
catchment area in Ethiopia, an area that produces and exports about 60,000 tons of coffee
each year. Djimmah is also called Jimma Coffee. A unique coffee thought to be the variety
closest in flavor to the original wild plant. This is an ideal climate and the plants are well
protected by the larger forest trees which provide shade from the midday sun and preserve the
moisture in the soil.

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7. Tepi Origin
Low acidity but the better body, there are commercially important which is the used for a
special blend.
8. Bebeka Origin
Low acidity but better body, Tyer are commercially important which is used for special
blend.
Lekempti Origin
Medium-to-bold bean known for its fruity taste, has greenish-brownish in color with good
acidity and body, there are many roasters who put its flavor in their blends, but it can also
sold as an original gourmet or special original flavor.
1.4. Problems of Coffee production in Ethiopia
Coffee production in Ethiopia is constrained by:
 Lack of competitiveness,
 lack of infrastructure,
 in adequate access to services,
 low value addition,
 In adequate technology transfer and research.
 khat, a plant is competing for farm land with coffee.
 Is the variability of weather pattern such as rainfall variability on the onset of the wet
season, extension of dry season and more extreme (drier and hotter).
 Deforestation and change in land use are threatening coffee forest gene pools in Ethiopia.
 Coffee price crisis on the world market as a result of market liberalization.
 land degradation, diseases, predominant traditional production,
 failure of using appropriate coffee technologies,
 inadequate services (credit, inputs, equipment’s), and
 lack of sustainability and competitiveness
 Biennial bearing characterizes of coffee: the cause for biennial bearing of are
 Nutrient deficiency
 Over bearing in previous year
 Disease and pest problems
To mechanism to overcome biennial bearing of coffee plants
 Shade managements of coffee plants
 Appling organic and inorganic nutrients
 Flowering tinning to avoid over breaning
1.5. Opportunity of coffee production in Ethiopia
 Genetic diversity and favorable Environments,
 Agro-forestry based production system,

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 Known brands in the world market, trademarked and licensed benefit to all,
 Modern Marketing System (ECX),
 Encouraging policy
 Suitable altitude, optimum temperature, low labor costs and fertile soil.
 high national and international demand for the product,
 increasing interest of private sector with high investment potential,
 High support by both regional and federal governments
1.6.Importance of coffee
1.3.1. Economical uses
 To earns foreign currency for the country
Coffee is by far Ethiopia’s most important export crop in the national economy, contributing
decisively to the country’s foreign currency income. It accounts for 35% of the total
agricultural export earnings and 10-20% of the total government revenue
 To create Job opportunity to people:
Worldwide, an estimated 125 million people are dependent on coffee for their livelihoods. The
livelihood of 25% of the total population directly or indirectly depends on its production,
processing and marketing.
1.3.2. Health uses
 Drinking coffee burn fat and improve physical performance,
 It may also lower your risk of several conditions, such as type 2 diabetes, cancer and
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease.
1.3.3. Social uses

In Ethiopia, coffee is traditionally prepared and drunk two to three times a day. It has various
special cultural ceremonies related to coffee
 It helps to serving a respected guest
 is means of gathering neighbors to discuss economic, social and other matters
 Religiously, it is a means of "Communicating" with God
 The two beans are considered as love for pledging parties especially in some African
countries
These cultures represent a strong heritage for the country’s sustainable coffee production,
currently consumed in a variety of way like
 Buna Kella: ripe-red fruits boiled with fresh butter;
 Buna Besso: fruits or beans roasted or boiled with butter forming part of other food
items which are roasted and ground to be used by travellers, warriors, etc.;

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 Buna Keshir or Hoja: roasted pulps or mixture of pulps and beans drunk alone or with
milk, butter, honey or salt;
 Kuti: dried and pounded coffee leaves boiled with milk;
 Buna Areki: liquor made from roasted coffee beans; and
 Cheme: fresh leaves with pepper and other spices boiled with water and served with or
without food
1.3.4. Environmental uses
 It contribute to high biodiversity levels in the growing area
 Its canopies provides a valuable habitat for indigenous animals
 preventing topsoil erosion and
 removing the need for chemical fertilizers
1.3.5. Biological

 Coffee contains the stimulating substance called caffeine (C8 H10 N4 O2)
 It also contains other aromatic substance such as furfurol, Aldehydes, Phenole s,
Hydrogen and Mercaptans.
 The only medically and socially stimulant in coffee is the alkaloid caffeine.
 It is contained in the different parts of the plant but it is rich in the seed.
 The caffeine content of coffee plant parts (Arabica coffee)
Plant part Caffeine (%) on dry matter basis
o Pulp 0.37 - 0.60%
o Parchment skin 0.14%
o Cherry husk 0.12 - 0.52%
o Apical leaf 0.32%
o Middle leaf 0.35%
o Twigs 0.35%
o Wood 0.12%
The chemical composition of the coffee bean
Bean composition Percentage
o Water 12%
o Protein 13%
o Fat 12%
o Sugar 9%
o Caffeine 1 - 15%
o Cafietonic acid 9%
o Other water soluble substances 5%
o Cellulose and allied substances 35%
o Ash 4%

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Reference: www.wickipedia .org, Banks (1999), Calvert (1994)

CHAPTER TWO
Botany of Coffee
This section covers the anatomy of the coffee plant, including the root system and aerial parts
of the plant, and provides an overview of the flowering process and coffee fruit development.
2.1. Taxonomy of coffee

Coffee Arabic the (Coffea arabica L) belongs to the family Rubiaceae, grown in tropical and
subtropical regions is a perennial woody shrub with a dimorphic growth characteristic which
consists of vertical (orthotropic) and horizontal (plagiotropic) branches.
 This species is predominantly self-pollinating (autogamous) and the only natural
allotetraploid (2n=4x=44) in the genus Coffea.
 About 100 species of the genus Coffea have been identified so far but commercial
production relies only on two species, Coffea Arabica L and Coffea canephora and in
small degree Coffee libireca.
 It is a perennial woody shrub with a dimorphic growth characteristic which consists of
vertical (orthotropic) and horizontal (plagiotropic) branches.
 This is a large family of some 400 genera and 5000 species
 Largely trees and shrubs
 Mostly tropically crops
 There are three commercially important coffee species in the world.
o Coffea arabica (Arabica Coffee)
o Coffea Canephora (Robusta Coffee)
o Coffea liberica (Liberica Coffee)
It can grow up to a height of 10 to 15 m at maturity, but is kept at 3 m in plantations for
harvesting purposes. The shrubs remain productive for 15 to 20 years.
Table 4: Comparisons of the three economically important coffee varieties
Basis of comparison C. Arabica C. canephora (Robusta) C. Liberica
Origin Ethiopia Congo Liberia
Chromosome number Allotetraploid(2n=44) Diploid(2n=22) Diploid(2n=22)
Yield/ha 327.5 Kg 810Kg 466Kg
Cheery size Medium Small Large
Caffeine content of beans (%) 1 – 1.5mg/mL 2 – 2.5mg/mL 1.4 – 1.6mg/mL
Pollination habit Self-fertile Self-sterile Self-sterile
Bearing age 2-3 years 3-4 years 4-5 years
Cup quality Good Fair Bad (Bitter)
Leaf size Small Large Medium

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 Coffee Production, Processing and Quality Control 2 – 2.5m
Tree height (cultivated) 1.5 – 1.82m 2 – 2.5m
Relative care Most Medium Least
Heat tolerance Poorest Intermediate Best
Altitude 1000 –2000m 600 –1600m 0 – 540m
Drought hardness Fair Good Best
Coffee leaf rust Susceptible Tolerant Resistant
Commercial growing coffee Arabica are divided in to two
a) Coffee Arabica Variety Typica
 It is considered to be the primitive form and It has the dominant typical alleles TT
 It is vigorous and grows quickly into a sturdy tree if not topped
 Young leaves are reddish brown and bronze tipped and is relatively narrow
 Growth is fast and vigorous with slender and horizontal branching system
 Still provides the bulk of the world’s coffee.
b) Coffee Arabica Variety Bourbon
 It is a double recessive mutant from Coffee Arabica L. Variety Arabica
 young leaves are always green tipped and relatively broader than Arabica
 Primarily fruiting branches are born stiffly at an acute angle but may be pulled down by
the weight of the fruits.
 Trees are slender if not topped gives higher yield under favorable conditions than Arabica
2.1. Morphology coffee tree
A. Root System

Coffee plants are perennial, and the establishment of an adequate root system is fundamental
to the health of the tree and its subsequent production throughout its lifetime. The basic
function of coffee root is:

 Fixing the plant in the soil or substrate,

 providing water to the plant (water acts as a solvent that serves to transport gases,
minerals and other solutes from cell to cell and organ to organ; is a reactant in
important processes such as photosynthesis; and maintains turgor, which is essential
for cell enlargement and growth).
 Serves as a reserve for carbohydrates, and produces and accumulates key
phytohormones such as auxins, abscisic acid and cytokines.
Coffee plats contain tap roots, axial roots, lateral roots, feeder roots and root hairs.
1. The tap root
 It is central, short and dominate figure e and often branched due to transplanting
 Can grow as deep as 1m and rarely recognizable beyond 45cm
 Functions - Stability and anchorage and ensure supply of water

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2. Axial root
 Arise from tap root and grow Verticals to a depth of 3m
 Usually 4 to 8 in number and fairy thick and branched
 Functions - Water absorption in dry periods and achorage for stability.
3. Lateral roots
 A like axial roots arise from the tap root which grow horizontally as far as 1.2 to 1.8m
 They are the feeding roots in the superficial and richest soil layer
 Function: for mineral absorption
 Laterals near the surface are affected by deep cultivation
 In most and cool soil the surface laterals are better developed.
4. Feeder bearers
 are born on the tap, axial and lateral roots and evenly distributed at an interval of
25mm
 They are shorter and numerous near the surface of the soil.
 They give rise to the feeder roots
5. Feeder roots
 Are first roots developed on feeder bearers and are highly branched and numerous
 Function: water absorbing roots for coffee
 Their numbers slightly increase near the surface of the soil.
Factors affect the pattern of the root system and the size of the roots: the aerial and root
systems of the plant are directly related
 species and cultivar of coffee
 physiological factors such as fruit load, vigour of the aerial part of the plant;
 plant reserves;
 pest and disease attacks;
 plant spacing and prunings;
 the chemical, physical and biological conditions of the soil;
 the soil water content of the soil

B. Stem
Coffee plants exhibit a dimorphic branching behaviour, in which orthotropic (vertical) stems
produce plagiotropic (horizontal) branches, which in turn produce more plagiotropic branches
and coffee fruit. The principal plant stem, or trunk, is orthotropic. There can be one or several
main orthotropic stems per plant, depending on the desired plant stand. Orthotropic stems
always grow vertically, or perpendicular to the soil. The apical meristem gives rise to two
types of vegetative buds: serial buds and head of series buds.
 A serial bud on orthotropic stems forms other orthotropic stems, called suckers.
 Head of serial buds on orthotropic stems produce primary plagiotropic shoots, or
branches. Each head of series bud is capable of producing only a single branch.

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Therefore, should the branches die (from frost, hail, over-shading, drought or other factors), it
is necessary to stump the tree back, inciting the growth of new orthotropic stems, which will
have new head of series buds capable of forming more primary Plagiotropic branches.

Plagiotropic branches are the lateral branches, which originating from the orthotropic stems,
and secondary and tertiary originating from other plagiotropic branches. Plagiotropic
branches have serial buds and head of series buds.
 Serial buds in plagiotropic stem: contained in the leaf axils, may form either fruit or
more Plagiotropic branches.
 Head of serial buds on the Plagiotropic stem only forms other plagiotropic branches.
Since plagiotropic branches cannot generate orthotropic stems. During propagation,
cuttings that will be used for plantings must originate from orthotropic stems in order to
generate a normal, vertically growing tree.

C. The Leaves

The foliar surface of adult coffee trees varies according to species, state of health, irradiance
levels, and many other factors. In the principal commercial varieties, C. arabica and C.
canephora, leaves are thin, shiny, waxed, elliptical in form, and conspicuously veined. It
grows in pairs that are opposite to each other on the branch. The difference between the two
species of leaves was Coffee Arabica leaves are smaller, with a glossy dark upper surface and
coffee C. canephora have large and slightly undulating, less waxy, and lighter in colour
leaves.

D. Flowering

Coffee flowering consists of two processes: Flower bud initiation and flower opening, or
anthers opening. Flower bud initiation occurs when the serial buds of plagiotropic branches
are induced to differentiate into flower buds. Buds grow to 4–6 mm and then enter a
dormancy period, which in most growing regions coincides with a dry season.

The dry period is necessary to break the dormancy of the floral buds. An extended dry season
affects phytohormone levels in the plant.

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During the first 3–4 days after a water stimulus, meiosis occurs and there is an increase in the
levels of endogenous hormone, (active Gibberellic acid) in the flower buds. The flowers are
ephemeral, generally lasting for two days. The floral formula of coffee is Calyx K(5) Corolla
C(5) A5 G(2)
E. The Fruit

Have a drupe, fleshy, indehiscent fruit with a pericarp that is clearly differentiated into an
exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. These layers surround the coffee seed, which comprises an
embryo, endosperm, and perisperm.

 Exocarp: is skin or peel, is the outermost tissue of the coffee fruit.

 Mesocarp: is the mucilage or ‘pulp’, is the fleshy part of the fruit between the parchment
and the skin. Is divided into an inner mesocarp, called mucilage, and an outer mesocarp,
which is pulp per
 Endocarp: is called the parchment, is composed of sclerenchyma cells and completely
envelops the seed.
 Seed: is elliptical and plane-convex in shape, with a longitudinal furrow on the plane
surface.
Normally coffee fruits have two seeds per fruit. But unfortunately, it develops. It includes
 A peaberry is a single seed that develops due to failure of fertilization of one of the ovules
or subsequent abortion
 Triage is the occurrence of 3 -seeds in a fruit – due to genetic abrasion and such seeds are
triangular
 Big seeds called Elephant seeds happen when one of the seeds develops at the expense of
the other seed
CHAPTER THREE
Ecological and Soil Requirements of Coffee

3.1. Environmental factors affecting coffee production

3.1.1. Altitude and latitude requirements

In Ethiopia, coffee grows at various altitudes, ranging from 550-2,750m above sea level.
However, the bulk of Arabica coffee is produced in altitudes ranging from 1,300 - 1,800
m.a.s.l.

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Elevation increased (in higher elevation): have low temperature:

 The slowed-down ripening process of coffee berries at higher elevations
 Allows more time for complete bean filling,
 yielding beans that are denser and far more intense in flavor
 High cup quality, possibly by guaranteeing the full manifestation of all biochemical steps
required for the development of the beverage quality.
 chromogenic acids and fat content have been found to increase
 the slower the coffee grows the more labor is required and the lower the yield
Lower elevation: where the temperature is high
 Overbearing due to effects of high temperature
 Coffee ripens more quickly leading to a fall in inherent quality.
 favor for the spread of certain pests and diseases
 Low flyover and quality
 Expose to high temperature
3.1.2. Climatic requirements

Climate is the atmospheric condition of the area for a long period of time. Annual rainfall in
the coffee-growing varies from 1,500-2,500mm.
 climate conditions that affect the production of coffee are:
1. Temperature
 Coffee requires moderate temperature. Extreme fluctuations during the day and night
have adverse effects on coffee.
 Optimum day T0 =15 - 240c = for growth & reproductive (24- 300c , Canephora)
Low temperature
• affects coffee growth
• discoloration of leaves due to damage to the chlorophyll
• death of outer tissue of the stem
To high temperature
• Decrease photosynthesis because of acceleration of transpiration, dehydration of tissue
• Malformed flowers (star flowers)
• Excess vegetative growth like large leaves, Wide internodes, and Succulent fast
growth
• Too early bearing and overbearing

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 Coffee Production, Processing and Quality Control

• Early exhaustion and dieback affect the color of the leaf

2. Rainfall

Rainfall requirements depend on the retention properties of the soil, atmospheric humidity,
cloud cover, and cultivation practices.
• Optimum rainfall = 1500 - 2000mm with 2-4 months of dry period (<50mm)
• The dry spell is needed to allow buds, flowering, and new growth
• Sporadic shower induces anthesis -low yield
• Bimodal rainfall distribution (southeastern region)
• Flowering period heavy rainfall affects pollination
• Moisture stress during early fruit expansion causes heavy fruit shading
• Moisture stress during bean development reduces the size of the beans
• Low Rainfall areas need conservation techniques such as terraces, ridges, mulch, and
irrigation
• Abundant rainfall is often responsible for the scattered harvest and low yields.
3. Light: Light has 3 perspectives for coffee production
 Intensity: Coffee requires 50% light intensity. To satisfy these light requirements
planting shade trees and close planting is important special in developing countries.
 Quality (Wavelength): The red and Blue to violet color components are effective
 Day-length (photoperiod) coffee is a short-day plant
4. Humidity: medium to high Relative Humidity
Tropical rainforest (80-90%RH) best for Robusta than Arabica coffee (cool and dry season is
best). 50 - 70% RH is best = this controlled by proper pruning and shade regulation
5. Wind: there is a disadvantage of winds in the coffee industry
 Cause both mechanical and physiological damage
 High wind affects plant growth
 Wind dries the leaves out too quickly (increases Water requirement)
 Tree damage and shade tree damage
 Dispersal of weeds & pests
6. Slope: is the inclination of a land. The optimum slope is 0 -15% for coffee production, it
facilitates the drainage of water
7. Aspect: is the orientation of the land
The desirable aspect of coffee depends on the altitude
 For cool, high, and medium elevations: Warm south-to-southeast aspect

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 Coffee Production, Processing and Quality Control
 For hot lower altitudes: The cooler north-to-northwest aspect
3.1.3. Soil requirements

Arabica coffee requires fertile, friable, loamy soils, with a depth of at least 1.5m and a
relatively high water-holding capacity. The fertility of coffee soils is naturally maintained
through organic recycling of litter falling from coffee, and shade trees. Relatively acidic soil
is suitable for Arabica coffee (5-6.8). The soil of most coffee-growing regions in Ethiopia
satisfies these characteristics of coffee soil.
The soils that are not suitable for coffee plantation are:
 a strongly alkaline
 a very high percentage of sand
 heavy clays
 Soil with no humus,
The characteristics of ideal or suitable for coffee production are
 Slightly acid (between 4.5 -5.5pH)
 Good friable sandy loams or Certain not-too-sticky clays
 Good humus Content
 The naturally rich content of N2 P, K, and available minor elements
 Recent volcanic deposit
 Covered with broad-leaved vegetation
 Well drained
 Soil depth: not less than 1.5 m deep allows for prolific root development

Chapter FOUR.
Coffee Propagation and Recent Developments (4hrs)
3.2. Coffee propagation methods

Propagation by seed is the cheapest and easiest method for coffee propagation. Coffee can be
also propagated by vegetative like grafting, stem-cutting, or in-vitro propagation.
The choice of appropriate propagation technique is influenced by:
 Coffee species to be propagated
 Ultimate goals of the project, (for research and experimentation or commercial purposes
3.2.1. Propagation by seed
The sources of seeds for propagation should be limited to disease-free areas like coffee Berry
Disease, Leaf Rust, and, especially, seed-borne diseases like tracheomycosis. Cherries are
harvested at full maturity to provide optimal germination conditions. Cherry harvested at the
beginning or the end of the harvesting season should not be used for germination purposes.
Advantages of seed propagation
 It may be quicker and more economical than asexual propagation.

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 Coffee Production, Processing and Quality Control

 It may result in new cultivars and vigorous hybrids.

 It avoids the transmission of particular diseases, such as viruses.
 It maintains genetic variation, which increases the potential for plants to adapt to
environmental pressures
The disadvantage of seed propagation
 takes longer than asexual reproduction
 it is not possible for an isolated individual to reproduce
 Heterogeneity of offspring
3.2.2. Vegetative propagation

Vegetative propagation is a method of producing planting materials using plant vegetative

parts instead of seeds. The materials produced by vegetative are genetically identical to the
mother plant. Vegetative propagation of coffee can be done by rooting of cuttings, grafting,
top-working and micro propagation of tissue culture.
Advantage
 New plants contain the genetic material of only one parent,
 To reproduce the highest-quality plants
 Ensure consistency of a variety of plants or crops for sale.
 It takes short time to reach maturity
Disadvantage
 Impact on biodiversity of a species.
 Plant clone is susceptible to certain diseases,
 Potential to lose entire crops
Vegetative propagation includes
1. Cutting
 Single node cutting
 Half-trimmed leaves (pair leaves). The hormone used IBA 1500-2500 ppm for fast
rooting capacity
 Robusta coffee 90% no needs hormones because easy to root
 Arabica coffee is difficult to root so needs the hormone
 Wounding is a possible method to rooting of coffee cutting rotting surface area.
 Split the end of the stem in order to the rotting surface area
2. Grafting
 Is the art of connecting two pieces of living plant tissue together

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 Coffee Production, Processing and Quality Control

 Where Robusta selection is grafted onto a nematode-resistant rootstock for planting is

areas badly infested with eelworms.
C. Liberica coffee more preferable as a root stock for two reasons
1. To adapt alkaline and poor soil areas 2. Resistant soil-borne disease
 Robusta and Arabica were used as scions
 The grafting process takes place at the soldier or butterfly stage of seedling
 Growing stage - 1st appears is the hook stage, 2nd soldier stage 1-2 weeks, and 3rd butterfly
stage
2. Budding: this is similar to grafting except that the scion is reduced in size to usually
contain only one bud.

 In contrast to grafting every litter used has been made of the budding coffee tree
 This may be due to the weaker union formed by budding than by grafting and budding
being more delicate than by grafting
 Using bud from young upright growth (orthotropic shoots or suckers) inserted in a T or
inverted T cut just below the anode.
3. Micro-Propagation (Biotechnology)
• Another possible way of propagating coffee is through Micro-propagation
• This technique is used specifically to refer to the application of tissue culture
techniques to the propagation of plants starting with very small plant parts grown
aseptically in an arrest tube or another container
Chapter 5.
Nursery Establishment and Management
5.1. Coffee nursery establishment and its management

Nursery is palaces where seedlings are raised with maximum care until they are planted in
permanent fields.
5.1.1. Coffee nursery site selection and seedbed preparation

The criteria for coffee nursery site selection are:-

 It should be close to a source of good-quality water
 Accessibility (should be easy for transport)
 Gentle slope (>8%), the land should be protected against erosion.
 Free from frost risks area
 good drainage of cold air
 Valley bottoms and hollows that can become frost pockets should be avoided

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 Coffee Production, Processing and Quality Control

 Soil should be deep, light textured, friable, fertile, free-draining, not capped, and,
above all, free of nematodes.
 close as possible to the plantation area
 never be located on the old plantation site nor should it be used several years
consecutively because of the threat of soil-borne parasites (nematodes in particular
Calculate the amount of seed and the area required
 Coffee seed rapidly loses viability. So store the seed in cool moist conditions (such as the
bottom of a refrigerator).
 To calculate the number of seeds and seedlings require, knowing the following criteria is
important
 The area to be planted;
 Plant spacing;
 The number of plants per hectare;
 How many seeds per kg;

5.1.2. Sowing coffee seed

The seedbeds should be prepared about 1 month before sowing. The nursery includes the
seedbeds or germination beds Polyethylene bag where the seeds are sown to germinate.
Coffee seedling is sown in two ways. These are:
1. directly sowing in the field: is not common in our area
2. Raised (sown) in seedbeds are divided in to two
 Sowing in bare root ( bed)
 Sowing in container
A. Sowing in bare bed
Producing seedlings without containers seems like the easiest option for the nursery.
Advantage
 One person can carry several hundred seedlings to the field
 Smaller holes are dug than for plant
 lower production costs because
 less soil is needed
Disadvantage
 Competition for light, nutrients and water is high
 Depletion of soil nutrients in the nursery beds
 Slow initial growth in the field

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 Coffee Production, Processing and Quality Control

 High mortality in the field

 Difficult to long distance transportation
B. Sowing in the continuers
There are different kinds of containers: Polythene bags, Pot, Plastic sleeves
 The polythene bags should be open ended for drainage.
 Recommended sized of polythene bags is
 Length= 22cm, Diameter= 16cm,Thickness =6μ a black color
Advantage of raising seedlings in polythene bags
 No root disturbance therefore there is better take rate
 Easy for long distance transportation
 Should rains fail, Seedlings can be collected and watered easily
 Ensure nematode free planting materials
Disadvantage
 Cost of polythene bag
 Environmental pollution from discarded poly bags
 Requires more labor for pot filling and arranging.
 Consume more time
5.2. Coffee nursery management
5.2.1. Watering nursery
 Germinating coffee seeds are very sensitive to water stress
 In case of excessive drought the seeds die, but if the soil is too wet the seeds may rot and
young seedlings can be killed by damping-off
 Irrigation at 4 days interval until seed germination
 A week internal after germination up until 4 pairs of leaves
 The soil of the germination beds should never be allowed to dry out completely
 1 to 2 weeks interval after 4 pair of leaves
5.2.2. Constructing nursery shade
 Traditional shade consists of a roof placed on wooden posts.
 It should be about 2- 2.5 m high in order to allow people to enter without stooping.
 It ties for the posts and the grills for the roof are made with plain galvanized wire.
5.2.3. Care of coffee seedlings
The most destructive infection disease in coffee nursery is damping-off caused by
Rhizoctonia and Fusarium fungus. Another serious seed infection is often caused by
nematodes which is revealed by flaccidity and yellowing of the leaves. The most harmful pest
in seed beds are crickets that cut the tender stems of the coffee plantlets

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 Coffee Production, Processing and Quality Control
5.2.4. Hardening off coffee seedlings
 Hardening - off - training seedlings to adverse environmental condition such as.
 Low moisture
 High T0
 High to strong sunshine
 Reducing the shade level step by step
Remove shade before two months to transplanting

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