Jan 19th

What are groups

- 2 or more individuals who are connected to one another by and within social
relationships
- They must be connected to one person
o Ex: holding hands
o Communications ect
- Need to be influential and purposes
- John James
o Determined how big or small groups are
o Typically groups are usually small
o Cant go smaller than 2
Type of groups
- Categories
o Group of people that share common attributes
o Have to be related some how
o Ex: lawyers doctors, ect
- Aggregate
o Group of ppl present at the same time and place
o Do not form a unit
o Ex: varal hall : people that at the same place but not a group
 Ppl that are walking around campus
- Collective
o Any goup of individuals that are 2 or more
o Loose association
o Spontaneous
o Creat a unit that are associate
 Ex: tim hortns line
- Cooley
o First one to make distinction between primary and secondary group
 Primary
 Intimate
 Common goal
 Small
 Long- term groups
 Face to face interaction
 High levels of cohesiveness
 Solidarity
  Member identification
 Secondary
 Social groups
 Lager
 Less intimate
 Less commitment
 More goal focused groups
 Complex societies

Cartwright and Zander (1960) were reluctant to classify groups as Cooley did – underestimated
the complexity of groups

Brain Lickel
- Presented 40 aggregates to us and polish undergraduates
- Wanted to see how participants perceived groups and comparied one another
- Used 1-9 scale : firm low entitativity to high entitativity
 o Size
o Duration
o Intensity
-

- Most group like 2,3,4

What are some common characteristics of group
- Size : make decisions based on size
o Group size influences structure and features
o Lager groups are connected indirectly
 Connected to the group as a whole or subgroups
o Smaller groups
 More direct ties
 Ex: parents , Families
o Connection equation n(n-1)/2: need to know this!
- Interaction
o Groups create systems, organize and sustain interaction between groups
o Task interaction
 Actions performed by individuals pertaining to groups task and goals
 Long term
  Short term
 Different types of goals
 Process goals(discussions)
 Performance (task)
 Intellectual (decision making)
o Relationship Interaction
 Actions performed by the group relating to emotional and interpersonal
bonds
 As groups increase in size the more task and relationship interaction is
needed

- Goals
o McGrath cirvumplex model
 4 Quadrants specifying task performance
 Generating – something is created/produced
 Choosing – selecting (from alternatives)
 Negotiation – group resolves conflict
 Executing – requires action

Need to know the quadrants and the types

- Interdependence
 o Unilateral
 One person influencing
o Sequential
 Influence of one member to the next
o Reciprocal
 2 or more members might influence each other
 Relationship might be unequal
o Multilevel
 The outcome of larger groups are influenced by the activites
 Some groups are nested in one group

- Structure
o Allows the groups to be organized in some way
o 2 structures
 Roles
  Set of behaviors expected of people who occupy certain positions
 Norms
 Standard that describes what behaviors should and should not be
performed in a given context
 There are expectation of the person that is playing the role
Cohesiveness
- The stronger the bond the stronger the cohesion
- Think more grouplike
Carron, Brawley and Widmeyer
- Defined cohesivness: Dynamic process that is reflected in tendency of a group to stick
together
o Attraction to specific group members and efforts to achieve goals

More grouplike?
- Donald Campbell’s Theory of Entitativity
 Entitativity: is perceived groupness rather than an aggregation of independent,
unrelated individuals
 Gestalt principles = groups are more than the some of its parts
- Common Fate – do individuals experience the same outcomes?
- Similarity – do individual perform similar behaviours or resemble one another
- Proximity – how close together are the individuals in the group

Perception of membership
- Membership – the amount someone perceives themselves to be part, or included within
a group
- People are not part of a group unless they perceive themselves to be part of the group
- Thomas Theorem – if people define a group as real, then it has real consequences
- Minimal groups paradigm – split into meaningless groups (Overestimaters vs.
Underestimater of jellybeans, # of dots, etc.) – clear favouritism for their group,
emotional attachment to the group
Chapter 2 class notes
- Emotional cotangent
o Spontaneous
o 2 or more people include
- Groups as they are ae not intelligent
- Groups don’t share energy
- Emotions and intelligent are individual based
- Group fallacy
o Explaning a group as a whole and limiting an indicidual lebel analysis
Norman triplett : important
o First person to research group integrations
o Cycles
o Social facilitation: presence of other would affect their performance
 Associated with it- did not come up with it
o Behavior would change when in presence of others
 Task mater
Kurt Lewin
- Created an area of research on group dynamics
- Field theory remember
o Group is made of a hole
o Action research
 Theories and model
 Asking questions to groups
 Collected data
 Took the research he got and would apply the research he found with the
group
 Theory: framework
 Research: validates or disconfirms theory
 practice : new theory and research
 He would redo this method
 Tried to eliminate as much of error as possible
 About performance
- B=f(p,e)
 B=behavior
 F = function
 P= personal characteristic
 E= environment

Multi-level; perspective
- Examining group behavior from several different levels of analysis
o Micro -level- qualities , attributes
  Individual person
o Meso-level: group level factors
 2 or more
 There’s no limit
o Macro- level: larger group qualities
 Communities , societies
o Multi level: adopt multiple perspectives on group
- Tuckmans theory of group development
o Orientation )forming)
o Conflict (stroming)
o Structure (norming)
o Performance (performing )
o Dissolution (adjouringn)
o

Floyd Allport
- Personality psychologist
- Believed that groups are real but there’s no group level
- Believed in individual intelligence
- No group confidence
- “actions of all are nothing more than the sum of actions taken separately”

Reliability
- Persistency and consistency
o Look at accuracy/ percion over time
- Looks at wither the test or measurement tool is consistent
- Internal consistence
o Look at the reliability of a specific test
 Item- total correlation: correlation of the item with the remainder of the
items
- Test retest reliability
o When you look at more than one inmidstarion over time and how they are
related
o Same test same ppl over time
o Lowest reliability
 b/c different moods
 more desirable outcome
- inter score reliability
o 2 different raters scored the same test and have to have the same score
o Inter rater
 Same test but
o Test retest
 Same people tested more than once
  You still want consistency
o Internal consistency : not in textbook
 Looks at all the items on how we collect the data
 But the items must be related to each other
 If it’s not you take it away
-
Validity
- Measuring what you intend to measure
- Would not measure something you are ready to measure
- Predictive
o Collect the data at one time and can predict it
 Standards test
 Mcat/ sat
Relationship between reliability & validity
- Can go hand in hand
- Test that are reliable are not always valid or predictive
- If reliability measure increases the validity Is also expected to increase
Self reports
- Group members describe their perceptions and experiences
- Used a lot
o n micro- and meso
- individual assessments
- group assessments
Personality theories
Trait theory: ppl differ based on stable attributes
- The big 5 (ocean)
- Neuroticism
o Low
 Secure
 Emotional stability
 They are not that worried
o High
 Worried
 Fear
 Doubt : does not mean they are anxious
- Agreeableness
o Low
 More independent
 Think about their selves more
o Higher
 More able to think about others as they behave and interact with others
 Trusting
 Interdependent
- Excerversioness
o How people get energy from others
o Low
 Get energy from things
 Do things on their own
o High
 Energy from people

- Consciences
o How you plan and how you follow through
o Systematic
o High
 Organized to the highest degree
 Follow through
o Lower
 Not organized and they don’t plan
 They follow through is less
- Openness to experience
o How they collect the dita
o Higher: they are more freer
 More creative
 Fall mostly in the middle
o Low: more factual and more systematic

 There are subtypes in each of these
 Midterm: what is a high score and low score w=and what they
mean
o
 Personality trait fall on a continuum
 Ppl are evaluated with ppl that are like them

- Type theory: people are sorted into categories
o Different components
o More categorical in nature
 You are rather this or that
- Emotions: positive or negative
o Behavioral, arousal, physiological
o 2 types
 Basic
 Primitive
 Innate and universal
 There is many but class looks at 6
 o Fear, anger, sad, happy, surprise, disgust
 Develop during infancy
 Self-conscious
 Develop after first year of life
 Perceived or actual
 Develop over time
 Dependent on the group you are part of
o Ex: shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride
 Feeling : subjective repetition of emotions
 Mood: interrupts thoughts and behaviors
 Affect: refers to pattern of observable behaviors associated with
emotions
o Mood and feeling
Emotional intelligence (stead into emotions)
- Ability to monitor one’s own and their feelings and emotions
- Have 4 recognition of regulation
o Can you regulate and manage others’ emotions
- Salovey and Mayer:
- Mseit ( emotional intelligence test )
o There is a right and wrong answers
o Not a self report
o There’s 4 components
 Perceive/ identify
 How you identify emotions
 Using/ Facilitate thought
 Understand
 Understand the emotional content
 Manage
 Are you able to manage your emptions and those of others?
- Self report
o EI: trait or mixed models
 Emotion
o Some will have personality, cognition, and emotional
group oriental assessments
- self reports taken by the individual of a group
- its about them but there are some that are group-oriented questions, and they bring
them together
- can be meso and micro
sociometry
- report shows the structure of the group
- the questions are given individually
- created by Jacob Moreno
- the output of this is the sociogram
 o the way to graphically report the results
- ask specific questions individually
- structures
o stars (populars) – well liked, pick by many
o unpopulars (Rejecteds) – not well like, not picked by many
o isolates (neglected) – are more independent, not selected by many people
o sociable (amiables/positives) – select many others to interact with
o negatives (unsociable) – select few people to interact with
o pairs (couples or dyads) – two members who like each other and have
o reciprocal bonds
o clusters (clique members) – subgroup
o gatekeepers – control the follow of information to and between groups
- might be liked to one another

Disadvantages of self report test

- social desirability
- faking “good”
- facing “bad”
- random responding
Measurement
- Observation
o William foote white
 Studied a group of boys
 Covert : no one new he was observing
 He become friends with some of them : they knew he was observing them
 He had took part in there daily life
o Participate observation
 He had took part in there daily life
o Hawthorne effect
 Workers effect
 A person changes there behavior because they think they are being
watched
 Managers observation
- Robert bales
o Interaction process (ipa)
 A structured observational method
 A group of words were seen as a unit
 2 categories and 4 subgroups
1. Social emotional
 1. positive ( jokes and laughs): releases tension
 2. negative reaction
2. Task
 3. Attempted answers
  4. Attempted questions

Need to belong
- Evolution theory: group behavior is rooted in physiological processes
- Baumeister and Leary
o Humans have innate feelings of wanting to belong
Hierociay of needs
- Need to know them in order
1. Physiological need
2. Safety needs
o Might need a group of ppl to fufile them
3. Belonginess and love needs
o If these are compressed you need a person to bring you up
4. Esteem needs
o Need for self esteem, achievements
o Groups can help you achieve this
5. Self actualization needs
o Need to live up to potential
o Path to being
3

- Social capital : leverage of your own and the others

o Reconnected with your group members
-

Question one dictates q2

Intro does not have need a header

Need to compar and contrasrt your experience

Do not put names for the groups

Ex: group meber a
Conculsion
Summarize your experience and research as well as a improvments
Need to be objective as possible no I , me , my. You are the author.
If you are part of the group you will be group member a (author)

formation in groups
 need to know hierarchy of needs in order from top-bottom
 our arousal levels change when deficiency needs
 step 1 - 4 are are known as growth needs
 self actualized ppl give back to ppl more
o is a growth need
o state of being instead of state of diciency needs
 for animals some of them are are stuck in safety needs
o animals have a sense of belongingness and love needs
  but humans are the most sense of it
 person- group fir
o chose groups that fit your trait
o group=person fit
 the group seeks out the individual that fit the groups personality or
person structure
 relationality

 needs for affiliation : just connections

o connections with other ppl

 need for intimacy
o
 Need for power
o

Feb 14th
Norms
 Implicit/explicit
o Dictates how we think act and behave
 4 different norms : based on the observer norms
o Perspective norms
 Different groups have different norms but they all follow santions
o Proscriptive norms

o Descriptive norms
 Having a video all over the campus and watching those behaviors
 Not judged
 Whatever is the typical norm
 Ex: walking in a park while someone is vandalizing a car

o Injunctive norms
 Evaluated and judged by another
 Evaluated by other group members
 Non typical norms
 Ex: evaluating a situations
 If you interact with a situations than you have evaluated
 Biased on the observes norms

 Organizational citizenship behavior

o Behavior that goes above or beyond In the work place
o
 Altruism
 any way a person would help because they care about the
organization and the people within it
 Generalized compliance
 Helps the broader organization
 Behavior that is obligated to partake in but not actual rules
 The perception of the person
 Similar to injection norm because you feel like
o Criticism: because they don’t know if it’s true
o Possibly
 Norm development
o Autokinetic effect
 Visual perception that happens
 Wanted to see how a persons internalize norms would change
o Social influence
o Internalized norms are then tested using confederates (other ppl that know
what’s going on)
 So see how norms would change over time
 Commorancy
 o Informational influence
 Conform to the opinions of other because you want to be right
o Normative influence
o Pluralistic ignorance
 Know its not the right opinion and go with the rest because they beilive
that the norms will never change
 Norms in groups
o Social tuning
 Roles
o They are expectations of the others who are group members
 As well as the person that plays the role
o Can be categorized in 2
 Both roles are not possible to do both
 Can go between them
 Task
 Social
o How each person plays specific roles differently
o Role-taking
 Dependent on how
o Self-presentation
 Ex: biased on the way a person is dressed
 Role differentiation
o As a group changes over time it becomes different
 Roles of the group need to be diffracted from each other
 Ex: how tech companies started out and how they are now
o Role ambiguity
 When certain roles are taken away ppl don’t know what to do
 Roles, stress, and well being
o Role conflict
 Interrole conflicts
 One person has different role
 Intrarole conflict
 Comflict within the role
 Ex: middle manager (unclear expectations)
 Role fit
 Stress biased on the expectation on a specific role
 Communication networks
o Create structure
o Decentralized
 More people have interactions with the group member
o Centralized
 One person communicates with the group
 Types of communication
 o Chain
o Wheel
o cirlce
o Common
 Most common communication style
 Symlog
o Domance and
o Need / submissiveness

Technology cant be part of your answer: discussion
Some norms a group perceived that they changed but the previous geration changed it ( have
to have support)

Research paper
- Research paper has to have precipitants
- Need at least 3 peer-revied research papers 10 years or less
- Have to talk about the concepts (collaboration)
o Need to have examples from your group

The Temporal Need-Threat Model of Ostracism: Williams, 2009

- Minimal signal
o Detection of ostracism
o Need to have a threat
- Reflexive stage
o Negative affects
 Sadness
 Anger
- Reflective stages
o Atend
o Appraise
o Attribute
- Resignation stage
o Depleted recourses
Lerys socimetery theory
- Lack of exceotance
- There are hormes that react when we feel social pain
o Pain is pain
 o Depends on how you perceive it

Individualism
- Persons individual goals is important
- Might leave if rights are not recognized
Collectivism
- Goal of the group is more important
- Individual belongs to the group

Structure
Group sture: fixed complex set of relations that organizes
 some structures are expressed even if you are not there
 determined by
o Norms
o Roles
o Intermember relation and communicational
 Norms
o Regulate our behavior
o Are emergent
o Self organizing
o They can happen from nothing
o Consensual
o Implicit
o Once they are solidified they are hard to change
 They can change
o There are 4 different norms
 Prescriptive Norms: Preferable, positively sanctioned behaviors
 Norms are encouraged
o Ex: saying thankyou when you get gifts
  Proscriptive Norms: - prohibited, negatively sanctioned
behaviors(discouraged) –
 e.g., in Canada kissing a stranger vs. in Greece
 Descriptive Norms: how people typically act, feel, and think in a given
Specific  situation (it is an observation made by the individual - most likely
happens)
 Injunctive Norms : – are more evaluative - how people should act, feel,
and think in a given situation rather than how people act, feel, and think
in a given situation
 Need social approval
 It is usually the people around that are evaluating the thing thst is
outside the norm

o What would you do video

 Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)
o Organized citizenship behavior
o Behavior that goes above and beyond explores
o Altruism: Helpful behaviors directed toward individuals or groups within the
organization
 Comes from within
o Generalized compliance: Behavior that is helpful to the broader organization
 Ppl will comply because they believe that the organization and the ppl
expect them to do the work
 We are scared of the consequences

Norm development
 Muzafer sheriffs
o Autokinetic effect : Judged distance a dot of light moved in a darkened room
Perceived movement of light upon a dark background with no comparison
 He took them alone and with a group
 He had confedits which gave social influence
 Convergence in actions, thoughts , and emotions over time
 Internalized norms: participants change to prescribed norms
Norms in groups
 Conformity: tendency for people to adopt the behavior and opinions presented by
others
 Information influence : wanting to be correct and understand the right way to act
 Normative influence: wanting to be liked and accepted by others
 Pluralistic ignorance: members may privately disagree with the norm but they assume
they are the onlu ones who do and so norm remains in place
 For a group norm to have an influence it must be recognized and accepted by self and
other group members
  Social tuning: individual actions become similar to the actions of those around them
o Lower level of importance generally has less adherence
o Less members that identify with the norm – decreased performance
o Less members follow the norm= decreased performance
Roles
 The type of behavior expected of individuals who occupy certern positions within the
group
o Independent of individuals : there are responsibilities specific to the role and the
group
o Role -taking: perceiving role requirements
o Self-Presentation – influencing how people within the group view you
(impression management?)
o Each person may play the role differently but no to much
o Fulfill two basic needs (task ach. and social)
Role differentiation
 Emergence and patterning of role related actions
o Formal vs informal
Roles, stress and well being
 Role ambiguity: unclear expectations about the behavior to be performed by and
individual
 Role cocnflict: state of distress or tension associated with inconsisten expectations
associated with ones role in a group
o Interrole conflict: form of role conflict that occurs when someone plays multiple
roles within a group
o Intrarole conflict : form of role conflict that occurs when the behavior make up a
a single role
o Role fit: degree of congruence between the demands of a specific role and the
attitudes values and other characteristic of the individual who occupies the role