Fluid Mechanics

Lesson 1
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
TOPICS
1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
2. The Concepts of Fluids
3. Types of Fluids
4. Classification of Fluid Flows
5. Properties of Fluids
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Understand the principle of Fluid dynamics and its contribution to today’s knowledge;
 Understand the concept, nature and characteristics of fluids;
 Discuss and differentiate each type of fluids and the characteristics of each flow
 Be able to familiarize with the different properties of fluids
 Be able to solve problems involving properties of fluids

TOPIC 1: History of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics is the study of motion of fluids (fluid dynamics) or fluid at rest (fluid statics or
hydrostatics) and the forces acting on them. It deals with the study of effect of forces and energy on liquids
and gases.
Like any other disciplines, fluid mechanics has a diverse history gaining early achievements and
immediate era of steady fundamental discoveries in the 18 th and 19th centuries. Certain flow problems
during the early civilizations already existed such as sailing ships with oars and irrigation system and
design considerations. Archimedes and Hero of Alexandria postulated the parallelogram law of for addition
of vectors that gave birth o thee laws of Buoyancy and applied them for floating and submerged bodies.
Design of aqueduct systems, flow system for ships and canals and water conduits were recorded but no
evidence on the application of fundamentals of flow analysis. Some of the notable discoveries leading to
the fundamentals of fluid mechanics are as follows.
 Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) stated that the equation of conservation of mass in one –
dimensional steady flow; from the experiments he conducted he briefly described the waves, jets,
hydraulic jumps, eddy formation and low-drag and high-design.
 Edme Marriotte (1620-1684) built the first wind tunnel and tested models related to wind
properties.
 Isaac Newton (1642-1727) postulated the Laws of Motion and Law of Viscosity of the linear fluids
called as Newtonian.
 Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli; Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre-Simon Laplace
produced many solutions of frictionless-flow problems.
 Leonhard Euler developed the differential equations of motion and their integration form known
as the Bernoulli’s equation.
 Jean d’ Alembert used the equations of Euler to prove his famous paradox: that a body
immersed in a frictionless fluid has zero drag
 Chézy, Pitot, Borda, Weber, Francis, Hagen, Poiseuille, Darcy, Manning, Bazin, and
Weisbach produced data on a variety of flows such as open channels, ship resistance, pipe
flows, waves, and turbines.
 William Froude (1810–1879) and his son Robert (1846–1924) developed laws of model testing;
 Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919) proposed the technique of dimensional analysis;

1|Page
Fluid Mechanics

 Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) published the classic pipe

experiment in 1883, which showed the importance of the
dimensionless Reynolds number named after him. The experimental
setup was then adapted and created to an equipment known today
as the Reynold’s Apparatus
 Navier (1785-1836) and Stokes (1819-1903) exploited the viscous-
flow theory and added newtonian viscous terms to the equations of
the motion known as the Navier-Stoke equation
 Ludwig Prandtl (1875, 1953), regarded as the “Father of Modern Reynold’s Apparatus
Fluid Mechanics”. Prandtl pointed out that fluid flows with small
viscosity, such as water flows and airflows, can be divided into a
thin viscous layer, or boundary layer, near solid surfaces and
interfaces, patched onto a nearly inviscid outer layer, where the
Euler and Bernoulli equations apply. Boundary-layer theory has
proved to be a very important tool in modern flow analysis.

Ludwig Prandtl with his fluid test channel (Baars, 2016)

Since water is can be found everywhere and 75% percent of Earth is covered with water, the scope
of application of fluid mechanics is vast and dimensionless. Water flow characteristics and properties are
one of the fundamental concepts in the study of fluid mechanics. Fluid motion, naval hydrodynamics of
ships and submarines are some of the areas where application of Fluid mechanics is of great importance.
All combustion problems involving fluid motion like the classic problems of irrigation, flood control, water
supply, sewage disposal, projectile motion, and oil and gas pipelines are areas of concern of fluid
mechanics.

Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas of engineering and science. Examples are:
1. Biomechanics
 Blood flow through arteries and veins
 Airflow in the lungs
 Flow of cerebral fluid

2. Households
 Piping systems for cold water, natural gas, and sewage
 Piping and ducting network of heating and air-conditioning systems refrigerator, vacuum
cleaner, dish washer, washing machine, water meter, natural gas meter, air conditioner,
radiator, etc

3. Meteorology and Ocean Engineering

 Movements of air currents and water currents

4. Mechanical Engineering
 Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment pollution-control equipment;
 Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind turbines,
biomedical devices, the cooling of electronic components, and the transportation of water,
crude oil, and natural gas

2|Page
Fluid Mechanics

5. Civil Engineering
 Transport of river sediments
 Pollution of air and water
 Design of piping systems
 Flood control systems

6. Chemical Engineering
 Design of chemical processing equipment

7. Turbo machines:
 pump, turbine, fan, blower, propeller, etc.

8. Military:
 Missile, aircraft, ship, underwater vehicle, dispersion of chemical agents, etc.

9. Automobile:
 IC engine, air conditioning, fuel flow, external aerodynamics, etc.

10. Medicine:
 Heart assist device, artificial heart valve, Lab-on-aChip device, glucose monitor, controlled
drug delivery, etc.

11. Electronics:
 Convective cooling of generated heat.

12. Energy:
 Combuster, burner, boiler, gas, hydro and wind turbine, etc.

13. Oil and Gas

 Pipeline, pump, valve, offshore rig, oil spill cleanup, etc.

TOPIC 2: The Concept of Fluids

A fluid is either a liquid or a gas.

A fluid is a substance which deforms
continuously under the application of a shear
stress. Any shear stress applied to a fluid, no
matter how small, will result in motion of that
fluid. The fluid moves and deforms
continuously as long as the shear stress is
applied. As a corollary, we can say that a fluid
at rest must be in a state of zero shear
stress, a state often called the hydrostatic stress
condition in structural analysis. Figure 1.1
shows the concept of fluids in terms of static
deflection, equilibrium and Mohr’s Circle.

Illustration of properties of fluids (White, 2011)

3|Page
Fluid Mechanics
The figure illustrated a solid block resting on a rigid plane acted upon by its own weight. Under
static deflection, it can be observed that the solid sags/deform resting the shear without flow. The free body
diagram of the solid shows that there is a shear in the block along a plane cut at an angle, 𝜃 through A;
with zero stress on the ledt and right sides and compression stress equivalent to 𝜎 = −𝑝 on top and
bottom; and Mohr’s circle does not reduce to a point, and there is nonzero shear stress in the block.

Furthermore, the liquid and gas in the Figure 1.11 require the supporting walls to eliminate the
shear stress. The walls exert a compression of – p and reduce. Mohr’s circle to a point with zero shear
indicating a hydrostatic condition. While, the liquid retains its volume and forms a free surface in the
container. If the walls are removed, shear develops in the liquid and a big splash will form. Whereas, if the
container is tilted, shear again develops, waves form, and the free surface seeks a horizontal configuration,
pouring out over the lip if necessary.

While gas is unrestrained and expands out of the container, filling all available space. Element A in
the gas is also hydrostatic and exerts a compression stress – p on the walls.

Since fluids can be a liquid or gas, fluids will take the following characteristics:
1. In a liquid, molecules can move relative to each other, but the volume remains relatively constant
because of the strong cohesive forces between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape
of the container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container in a gravitational field.
2. A gas, on the other hand, expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the entire
available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely spaced, and the cohesive forces
between them are very small. Unlike liquids, gases cannot form a free surface

TOPIC 3: Types of Fluid

Types of Fluids (White, 2011)

Fluids can be classified as:

1. Ideal fluid
An ideal fluid is defined as a fluid in which there is no friction; it is inviscid (its viscosity is zero);
the internal forces at any section within it are always normal to the section, even during motion and
forces are purely pressure forces. Although such a fluid does not exist in reality, many fluids
approximate frictionless flow at sufficient distances from solid boundaries, and so we can often
conveniently analyse their behaviours by assuming an ideal fluid.

4|Page
Fluid Mechanics

2. Real Fluid
Real fluid is a fluid which possesses viscosity. In general, all fluid is considered as real fluids. In
a real fluid, either liquid or gas, tangential or shearing forces always develop whenever there is motion
relative to a body, thus creating fluid friction, because these forces oppose the motion of one particle
past another. These friction forces give rise to a fluid property called viscosity.

3. Newtonian Fluid
Newtonian fluid is a fluid for which the constant of proportionality (i.e., the absolute viscosity)
does not change with rate of deformation, and has a straight line plot.

4. Non-Newtonian Fluid
Non-Newtonian Fluid is a real fluid, in which shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear
strain (or velocity gradient).

5. Ideal Plastic Fluid

A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to the
rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as ideal plastic fluid

TOPIC 3: Classification of Fluid Flows

When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops between them and the
slower layer tries to slow down the faster layer. This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid
property viscosity, which is a measure of internal stickiness of the fluid. Viscosity is caused by cohesive
forces between the molecules in liquids and by molecular collisions in gases.

There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid flows involve viscous effects to some degree.
Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called viscous flows. However, in many flows of
practical interest, there are regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces. Neglecting the viscous terms in such inviscid flow
regions greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in accuracy

Flow domain decomposition into external inviscid flow and viscous boundary layer flow region (Garrel, 2004)

Internal and external Flows

A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow in
a confined channel or over a surface. The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire,
or a pipe is external flow. The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by
solid surfaces. Water flow in a pipe, for example, is internal flow, and airflow over a ball or over an exposed
pipe during a wind day is external flow

5|Page
Fluid Mechanics

Compressible and incompressible Flow

A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the level of variation of
density during flow. Incompressibility is an approximation, and a flow is said to be incompressible if the
density remains nearly constant throughout. Therefore, the volume of every portion of fluid remains
unchanged over the course of its motion when the flow (or the fluid) is incompressible. The densities of
liquids are essentially constant, and thus the flow of liquids is typically incompressible. Therefore, liquids
are usually referred to as incompressible substances. While, gases are highly compressible.

Laminar and turbulent Flow.

Fluid flows can be smooth, orderly or chaotic. The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by
smooth layers of fluid is called laminar such as the he flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low
velocities. The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and characterized by
velocity fluctuations is called as turbulent flow such as the flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high
velocities. And the flow that alternates between being laminar and turbulent is called transitional.

Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow

Laminar versus turbulent flow (SimScaleStaff, 2017)

Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced flow based on how the fluid motion is initiated. In forced
flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan. In
natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself
as the rise of the warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid .
Steady and Unsteady Flow
The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in engineering, and thus it is important to have a
clear understanding of their meanings. The term steady flow implies no change at a point with time while
the unsteady flow abrupt changes in the flow; and the uniform flow implies changes in the location over a
specified region.

6|Page
Fluid Mechanics

TOPIC 3: Properties of Fluids

Fluids are substances that deform when acted upon by external forces; has no permanent resistance to
any force causing change of shape. Fluid flow under their own weight and take the shape of any solid body
with which they are in contact.

I. DENSITY, 𝝆 (𝒓𝒉𝒐)
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume; the density of the fluid is temperature dependent
and to a lesser extent is pressure dependent. 𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4℃ = 1000 𝑚𝑘𝑔3 ; 𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 50℃ = 988 𝑚𝑘𝑔3 ;
𝒎
𝝆=
𝑽

II. SPECIFIC WEIGHT, 𝜸 (𝒈𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒂)

Specific weight is defined as its weight per unit volume or the product of density and acceleration
due to gravity
𝑾
𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈 =
𝑽
𝑓𝑡 𝑚
Table 1.1 Specific weights of common liquids at 68°F (20°C), 14.7 psia (1013 mb abs) with 𝑔 = 32.2 (9.81 ) (White, 2011)
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑙𝑏 𝐾𝑁
𝑓𝑡 3 𝑚3

Carbon tetrachloride 99.4 15.6

Ethyl alcohol 49.3 7.76

Gasoline 42 6.6

Glycerin 78.7 12.3

Kerosene 50 7.9

Motor oil 54 8.5

Seawater 63.9 10.03

Water 62.3 9.79

III. SPECIFIC VOLUME, 𝒗

Specific volume is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid; and usually express it in cubic feet
per slug (m3/kg in SI units); and specific volume is the reciprocal of density. Thus:
𝟏
𝒗=
𝝆

IV. SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SG

The specific gravity of a fluid, designated as SG, is defined as the ratio of the density of the fluid to
the density of water at some specified temperature.
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠
For gases: 𝑆𝐺𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝜌 = 𝑘𝑔
𝑎𝑖𝑟 1.205 3
𝑚
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
For liquid: 𝑆𝐺𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝜌 = 𝑘𝑔
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1000 3
𝑚

7|Page
Fluid Mechanics
Example 1:
If 5.6m3 of oil weighs 46,800N, calculate the following:
1. Unit weight
2. Density
3. Specific gravity

Solution:
For the unit weight of water
𝑊
𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
𝑉
46,800𝑁
𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
5.6𝑚3
𝑁
𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 8,357.1429
𝑚3

For the density

𝑚
𝜌= 𝑉
For the 𝑊 = 46,800𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑊 𝑚
𝑚 = 𝑔 ; 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑠2

𝑚
46,800𝑘𝑔. 2
𝑚= 𝑠
𝑚
9.81 2
𝑠
𝑚 = 4,770.6422 𝑘𝑔
Then:
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
4,770.6422𝑘𝑔
𝜌=
5.6𝑚3
𝒌𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟖𝟓𝟏. 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟒 𝟑
𝒎

For the specific gravity

𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤
𝑘𝑔
851.9004
𝑆𝐺 = 𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
1,000 3
𝑚
𝑺𝑮 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟗

Example 2:
𝑙𝑏
The unit weight of water at 50℉ is 62.4𝑓𝑡 3. if the volume of the vessel that contains water is 3.50𝑓𝑡 3 .
𝑙𝑏
1. What will be the change in its volume when it is heated to 160℉ (𝛾𝑤 = 61.0 at 160℉)
𝑓𝑡 3
2. Compute the percentage change of volume
3. What weight of water must be removed to maintain its original volume

Solution:
Change in volume:
𝑊
𝛾𝑤 =
𝑉
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑉
𝛾𝑤50℉ 𝑉50℉ = 𝛾𝑤160℉ 𝑉160℉
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
(62.4 𝑓𝑡 3 ) (3.5𝑓𝑡 3 ) = (61.0 𝑓𝑡 3 ) 𝑉160℉
𝑉160℉ = 3.5803𝑓𝑡 3

8|Page
Fluid Mechanics
Percentage change in volume:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
% 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 =
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
3.5803𝑓𝑡 3 − 3.5𝑓𝑡 3
% 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 =
3.5𝑓𝑡 3
% 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟗𝟒 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟗𝟒%

Weight of water must be removed to maintain the original volume:

𝑊𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 : 𝛾𝑤 ∆𝑉
𝑙𝑏
𝑊𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 : 61.0 3 (3.5803𝑓𝑡 3 − 3.5𝑓𝑡 3 )
𝑓𝑡
𝑾𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 : 𝟒. 𝟖𝟗𝟖𝟑𝒍𝒃

Example 3:
𝐾𝑁
The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 9.81 𝑚3 . The specific gravity
of mercury is 13.56. Compute the density of water and the specific weight and density of mercury?

Solution:
For the density of water:
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
𝐾𝑁
For the 𝛾 = 9.81 𝑚3 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑊 𝑚
𝑚= 𝑔
;𝑔
= 9.81 𝑠2
𝑚
9810𝑘𝑔 2
𝑚= 𝑠
𝑚
9.81 2
𝑠
𝑚 = 1000 𝑘𝑔

Then:
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
1000𝑘𝑔
𝜌=
1𝑚3
𝒌𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑
𝒎

Specific weight of mercury

𝛾𝐻𝑔
𝑆𝐺 =
𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝐻𝑔 = 𝑆𝐺𝛾𝑊
𝐾𝑁
𝛾𝐻𝑔 = 13.56 (9.81 3 )
𝑚
𝑲𝑵
𝜸𝑯𝒈 = 𝟏𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝟑
𝒎

Density of mercury
𝜌𝐻𝑔
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 𝑆𝐺𝜌𝑊
𝒌𝒈
𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13.56 (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑 )
𝒎
𝒌𝒈
𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 𝟏𝟑, 𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝟑
𝒎

9|Page
Fluid Mechanics
V. VISCOSITY, 𝝉 (𝒕𝒂𝒖)
Viscosity is the measure of the fluid’s resistance to flow. The viscosity of a liquid is related to the
ease with which molecule can move with respect to the molecules. For liquids, viscosity decreases with
temperature while for gases, viscosity increases with temperature. Viscosity is dependent on:
 Strength of attractive force between materials, which depend on their composition, size and
shape
 The kinetic energy of the molecule that is temperature dependent.

The behavior of a fluid in laminar flow between two parallel plates when the upper plate
moves with a constant velocity ( Shemeri, 2012)

Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear stress are called Newtonian
fluids as named after Sir Isaac Newton, who expressed it first in 1687. Most common fluids such as water,
air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian fluids. Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.
In one-dimensional shear flow of Newtonian fluids, shear stress can be expressed by the linear relationship
𝑑𝑢
𝜏= 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝜏 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( . 𝑠)
𝑚

The shear force acting on a Newtonian fluid layer (or, by Newton’s third law, the force acting on the
plate) is:
𝑑𝑢
𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴 = 𝜇𝐴
𝑑𝑦
Then the force F required in moving the upper plate at a constant velocity of V while the lower plate
remains stationary is:
𝑉
𝐹 = 𝜇𝐴
𝑙
Types of viscosity
1. Dynamic viscosity, 𝜇 (𝑚𝑢)
- Defined as the constant of proportionality a particular fluid, (kg/ms; Pa.s)
247.8𝐾
𝜇 = 2.414 𝑥 10−5 (10𝑇−140𝐾 )

Dynamic viscosity of particular fluid separating two plates is given as:

𝑉
𝜏= 𝜇
𝑙
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑙 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

2. Kinematic viscosity, 𝑣
𝜇 𝑚2 𝑐𝑚2 𝑚2
- The ratio of dynamic viscosity to density, 𝑣 = 𝜌; ,1 = 0.0001 = 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒
𝑠 s s

10 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics

Example:
Calculate the dynamic ad kinematic viscosity of water at 20℃ respectively. Assume the water is
𝑘𝑔
incompressible and density is 1000𝑚3
Solution:
For the dynamic viscosity
247.8𝐾
𝜇 = 2.414 𝑥 10−5 (10(𝑇−140𝐾) )
At T = 20℃ = 𝑇 = 20 + 273 = 293𝐾
247.8𝐾
𝜇 = 2.414 𝑥 10−5 (10293𝐾−140𝐾 )
𝒌𝒈
𝝁 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝟑
𝒎

For the kinematic viscosity

𝜇
𝑣=
𝜌
𝑘𝑔
1.0054 𝑥 10−3
𝑣= 𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
1000
𝑚3
𝒌𝒈
𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝒎𝟑

The viscosity of gases is expressed as a function of temperature by the Sutherland correlation (from The
U.S. Standard Atmosphere) as:
𝑎𝑇 1/2
𝜇= 𝑏
1+
𝑇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
−6 kg
𝑎 = 1.458 x 10
𝑚. 𝑠. 𝐾1/2
𝑏 = 110.4K

While, the viscosity of liquids is approximated:

𝑏
𝜇 = 𝑎10(𝑇−𝑐)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Ns−5
𝑎 = 2.414 x 10 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝑚2
𝑏 = 247.8K 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑏 = 140K 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Consider a fluid layer of thickness, 𝑙, within a small gap between two concentric cylinders, such as
the thin layer of oil in a journal bearing. The gap between the cylinders can be modeled as two parallel flat
plates separated by a fluid. Since 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹𝑟 (force times the moment arm, which is the radius R of the
inner cylinder in this case), the tangential velocity is 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 (angular velocity times the radius), and taking
the wetted surface area of the inner cylinder to be 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 by disregarding the shear stress acting on the
two ends of the inner cylinder, torque can be expressed as:
2𝜋𝑟 3 𝜔𝐿 4𝜋 2 𝑟 3 𝑁𝐿
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑟 = 𝜇 == 𝜇
𝑙 𝑙
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

11 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics
Example 1:
A shaft 100mm diameter (D) runs in a bearing 200mm long. The two surfaces are separated by
𝑘𝑔
an oil film of 2.5mm thick take the oil viscosity = 0.25 𝑚𝑠 . If the shaft rotates at a speed (N) of revolutions
per minute.
1. Show that the torque exerted is given as:
𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁𝐿 3
𝑇= 𝐷
120𝑡
2. Calculate the torque necessary to rotate the shaft at 600rpm

Solution:
For the torque exerted:
𝐷 = 100𝑚𝑚
𝐿 = 200𝑚𝑚
𝑡 = 2.50𝑚𝑚, 𝑙
𝐹 𝑉
If = 𝐴 ; 𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑙
𝑉
𝐹 = 𝜇 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿
𝑡
𝑉
𝐹 = 𝜇 ( 𝜋𝐷𝐿)
𝑡
𝐷 𝜋𝑁𝐷
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 𝜔𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑁; 𝑟 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: 𝑉 =
2 60
𝜋𝑁𝐷
𝜇
𝐹 = 60 ( 𝜋𝐷𝐿)
𝑡
𝜋𝑁𝐷
𝜇
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑟 = 60 ( 𝜋𝐷𝐿)𝑟
𝑡
𝜋𝑁𝐷
𝜇
𝑇= 60 ( 𝜋𝐷𝐿) 𝐷
𝑡 2
𝝁𝝅𝟐 𝑵𝑳 𝟑
𝑻= 𝑫
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒕

Torque to rotate the shaft at 600rpm :

𝜇𝜋 2 𝑁𝐿 3
𝑇= 𝐷
120𝑡
𝑘𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑣
0.25 𝑚𝑠 𝜋 2 (600 𝑚𝑖𝑛 )(0.20𝑚)
𝑇= (0.10𝑚)3
120(0.0025𝑚)
𝑘𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑣
0.25 𝑚𝑠 𝜋 2 (600 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) (.200𝑚)
𝑇= (0.100𝑚)3
120(.0025𝑚)
𝑚
𝑇 = 0.987𝑘𝑔 2 𝑚
𝑠

𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟕𝑵𝒎

Example 2:
A 1-in-wide space between two horizontal plane surfaces is filled with SAE 30 Western lubricating
𝑠
oil at 80°F 𝜇 = 0.0063 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡2 . What force is required to drag a very thin plate of 4-ft2 area through the oil
at a velocity of 20 ft/min if the plate is 0.33 in from one surface?

12 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics
Solution:
Required force:
𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝑠 (20 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∗ 60𝑠 ) 𝑙𝑏
𝜏1 = 𝜇 = 0.0063 𝑙𝑏 2 = 0.07636 2
𝑙 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
0.33𝑖𝑛 ∗
12𝑖𝑛
𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝑠 (20 ∗ ) 𝑙𝑏
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60𝑠
𝜏2 = 𝜇 = 0.0063 𝑙𝑏 2 = 0.03761 2
𝑙 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
0.67𝑖𝑛 ∗
12𝑖𝑛
𝑭
Since 𝝉 = ; 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑭 = 𝝉𝑨
𝑨
𝑙𝑏
𝐹1 = 𝜏1 𝐴 = 0.07636 (4𝑓𝑡 2 ) = 0.30544 𝑙𝑏
𝑓𝑡 2
𝑙𝑏
𝐹2 = 𝜏2 𝐴 = 0.03761 (4𝑓𝑡 2 ) = 0.15044 𝑙𝑏
𝑓𝑡 2

Required Force to drag the thin plate:

𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝐹 = 0.30544 𝑙𝑏 + 0.15044 𝑙𝑏
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟓𝟖𝟖𝒍𝒃

Example 3:
The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer
constructed of two 40-cm-long concentric cylinders. The outer
diameter of the inner cylinder is 12 cm, and the gap between the two
cylinders is 0.15 cm. The inner cylinder is rotated at 300 rpm, and the torque
is measured to be 1.8 Nm. Determine the viscosity of the fluid.

Solution:
Viscosity of the fluid:
𝐷 = 12𝑐𝑚; 𝑟 = 6𝑐𝑚
𝐿 = 40𝑐𝑚
𝑙 = 0.15𝑐𝑚
𝑁 = 300𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑇 = 1.8𝑁𝑚

4𝜋 2 𝑟 3 𝑁𝐿 𝑇𝑙
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑟 = 𝜇 ;𝜇= 2 3
𝑙 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑁𝐿

𝑇𝑙 1.8𝑁(0.0015𝑚)
𝜇= =
4𝜋 2 𝑟 3 𝑁𝐿 4𝜋 2 (0.06𝑚)3 (300𝑟𝑝𝑚)(0.40𝑚)

1.8𝑁(0.0015𝑚)
𝜇=
𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑛
4𝜋 2 (0.06𝑚)3 (300 ∗ )(0.40𝑚)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60𝑠
𝑵𝒔
𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟑
𝒎𝟐

13 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics
VI. FLUID PRESSURE , 𝑷
The fluid pressure is the force exerted by the fluid per unit area; and transmitted with equal
𝑁
intensity in all directions and acts normal to any plane. Unit of pressure is 𝑚2 ; 𝑃𝑎
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
Units for pressure:
1 bar = 10,000Pa
1 atmosphere = 101,325Pa
1 psi = 6895 Pa
I Torr = 133.3 Pa

 Pressure Head- the pressure intensity oat the base of a column of homogenous fluid on a
given height in meters
 Vacuum – a perfect vacuum is an empty space in which the pressure is zero
 Atmospheric pressure – the pressure at the surface of the earth due to the heads of air
above the surface. At the sea level the atmospheric pressure is 101.325KPa
 Gauge Pressure –the pressure measured above or below the atmospheric pressure
 Absolute pressure – the pressure measured above absolute zero or vacuum
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
 Vapour pressure – the partial pressure form when the liquid evaporates within an enclosed
surface

VII. COMPRESSIBILITY OF FLUIDS

A. Bulk Modulus
Fluid mechanics deals with incompressible and compressible fluids considering liquids and
gases of either constant or variable density. Incompressible fluid in terms of liquids are described
those that experiences changes in the density with pressure that is negligible. While for gases,
incompressible fluids happened when there is a pressure variation that is small as compared to the
absolute pressure.

In general, liquids are considered as incompressible fluids like the sound waves under
pressure. Gas is also considered as incompressible fluids like the flow of air in ventilating system or
the gas or steam flowing at a high velocity through a long pipeline where the drop in pressure is so
great that we cannot ignore the change in density.

The compressibility of the liquid is defined as the change in volume due to change in
pressure; and inversely proportional to the volume of modulus of elasticity, known as the Bulk modulus
define as:
𝒅𝒑 𝒗
𝑬𝒗 = −𝒗 𝒅𝒗 = − (𝒅𝒗) 𝒅𝒑

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝐸𝑣 = 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑣
𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑑𝑣

The bulk modulus is a property of the fluid and for liquids is a function of temperature and
pressure. Table 1.2 shows some of the values of bulk modulus at a given pressure and
temperature.

14 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics
Table 1.2 Bulk Modulus of Water, 𝐸𝑣 (𝑝𝑠𝑖)(White, 2014)
Pressure, Temperature, ℉

psia 32 68 120 200 300

15 293,000 320,000 333,000 308,000

1500 300,000 330,000 342,000 319,000 248,000

4500 317,000 348,000 362,000 338,000 271,000

15,000 380,000 410,000 426,000 405,000 350,000

At a given temperature, it can be observed that 𝐸𝑣 increases with pressure value and obtained its
maximum value at 120°F (50°C). Thus water has a minimum compressibility at about 120°F (50°C). Also,
the table presented that at any temperature, the bulk modulus of water does not vary a great deal for a
moderate range in pressure. Then by re-arranging the definition of bulk modulus and using approximation
for a fixed mass of liquid at a constant temperature.

∆𝒗 ∆𝒑
≈−
𝒗 𝑬𝒗
Or:
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑝2 − 𝑝1
≈−
𝑣1 𝐸𝑣
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑣2 , 𝑝2 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑣1 , 𝑝1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

Example:
At a depth of 8 km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8 MPa.
Assume that the specific weight of seawater at the surface is 10.05
𝐾𝑁 𝑁
(10,050 𝑚3 ) and that the average volume modulus is
𝑚3
𝑁
2.34 𝑥 109 𝑚2 for that pressure range.
(a) What will be the change in specific volume between that at the
surface and at that depth?
(b) What will be the specific volume at that depth?
(c) What will be the specific weight at that depth?

Solution:
For the change in specific volume between the surface and the depth:
1 𝛾 1 𝑔
𝑣1 = 𝜌 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔; 𝜌 = 𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: 𝜌 = 𝛾
1
1 𝑔
𝑣1 = 𝜌
= 𝛾
𝑚
1 9.81 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣1 = 𝜌
= 𝑘𝑔
10,050 3
𝑚
𝒎𝟑
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟔𝟏 𝒌𝒈

For the change in specific volume between at that depth:

∆𝒗 ∆𝒑
=−
𝒗 𝑬𝒗
𝒗𝟏 (∆𝒑)
∆𝒗 = −
𝑬𝒗
𝑚3 𝑵
0.0009761 (𝟖𝟏. 𝟖 𝟐 − 𝟎)
𝑘𝑔 𝒎
∆𝒗 = −
𝑁
2.34 𝑥 109
𝑚2
𝑚3
∆𝒗 = −𝟑. 𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
𝑘𝑔

15 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics

Since ∆𝑣 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + ∆𝑣
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑣2 = 0.0009761 + (−𝟑. 𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝒎𝟑
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟏𝟗𝟖
𝒌𝒈

Specific weight at that depth:

𝛾 1 𝑔 𝑔
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔; 𝜌 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: =𝑣= ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: 𝛾 =
𝑔 𝜌 𝛾 𝑣2
𝑚
𝑔 9.81
𝑠𝑒𝑐2
𝛾= = 𝒎𝟑
𝑣2 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟏𝟗𝟖
𝒌𝒈
𝑵
𝜸 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟒𝟏𝟒
𝒎𝟑

B. Compression and Expansion of gases

When gases are compressed (or expanded), the relationship between

pressure and density depends on the nature of the process. If the compression or
expansion takes place under constant temperature conditions (isothermal
process), then:
𝑝
= constant
𝜌

If the compression or expansion is frictionless and no heat is exchanged with the surroundings
(isentropic process), then
𝒑
𝒌
= constant
𝝆

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑘 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐶𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑐𝑣
𝒄𝒑
𝒌=
𝒄𝒗
With explicit equations relating pressure and density, the bulk modulus for gases can be
𝑑𝑝
determined by obtaining the derivative 𝑑𝜌and substituting the results.

Then, for isothermal process

𝑬𝒗 = 𝒑

For Isentropic process

𝑬𝒗 = 𝒌𝒑

In both cases the bulk modulus varies directly with pressure. For air under standard atmospheric
conditions with 𝑝 = 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (𝑎𝑏𝑠)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 1.4 the isentropic bulk modulus is 20.6 psi

16 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics

C. Speed of Sound
Another important consequence of the compressibility of fluids is that disturbances introduced
at some point in the fluid propagate at a finite velocity. For example, if a fluid is flowing in a pipe and a
valve at the outlet is suddenly close, creating a localized disturbance, the effect of the valve closure is
not felt instantaneously upstream. It takes a finite time for the increased pressure created by the valve
closure to propagate to an upstream location. Similarly, a loudspeaker diaphragm causes a localized
disturbance as it vibrates, and the small change in pressure created by the motion of the diaphragm is
propagated through the air with a finite velocity. The velocity at which these small disturbances
propagate is called the acoustic velocity or the speed of sound, c

The speed of sound is related to changes in pressure and density of the fluid medium through
the equation:
𝑑𝑝
𝑐= √
𝑑𝜌
In terms of bulk modulus

𝑬
𝒄 = √ 𝝆𝒗

Since the disturbance is small, negligible heat transfer is considered and the process is assumed
to be isentropic. Then the pressure–density relationship
𝑑𝑝
𝑐 = √𝑑𝜌 is for an isentropic process. For gases undergoing an isentropic process of 𝐸𝑣 = 𝑘𝑝; the
equation will become:
𝑘𝑝
𝑐= √
𝜌
and making use of the ideal gas law, it follows that

𝒄 = √𝒌𝑹𝑻

For ideal gases the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature;
𝑓𝑡.𝑙𝑏 1117𝑓𝑡
for air at 60℉ with k =1.40 and R = 1716 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔°𝑅, it follows that 𝑐 = 𝑠

2.19𝐺𝑁 𝑘𝑔 1481𝑚 𝑓𝑡
For water at 20, 𝐸𝑣 = and 𝜌 = 998.2 𝑚3 ; 𝑐 = 𝑜𝑟 4860
𝑚2 𝑠 𝑠

Example:
A jet aircraft flies at a speed of 550 mph at an altitude of 35,000 ft, where the temperature is -66℉
and the specific heat ratio is 𝑘 = 1.4. Determine the ratio of the speed of the aircraft, V, to that of the
speed of sound, c, at the specified altitude.

Solution:
Given:
𝑚𝑖 𝑚𝑖 1ℎ𝑟 5280𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = 550 = 550 ∗ ∗ = 806.6667
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 3600𝑠 1 𝑚𝑖 𝑠
𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 35,000𝑓𝑡
𝑇 = −66℉
𝑘 = 1.4

17 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics
For the ratio of the speed of the aircraft to the speed of the sound:
𝑐 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑓𝑡. 𝑙𝑏
𝑐 = √(1.4)(1716 )(−66℉ + 460)°𝑅
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔°𝑅
𝒇𝒕
𝒄 = 𝟗𝟕𝟐. 𝟗𝟎𝟓𝟖
𝒔

The ratio is:

𝑓𝑡
𝑉 806.6667
= 𝑠
𝑐 𝑓𝑡
972.9058 𝑠

𝑽
= 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟏
𝒄
𝑽
The ration of 𝒄 𝒊𝒔 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

VIII. COEFFICIENT OF VOLUME EXPANSION, 𝜷 (𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑎)

In general, the density of a fluid, depends more strongly on temperature than it does on pressure,
and the variation of density with temperature is responsible for numerous natural phenomena such as
winds, currents in oceans, rise of plumes in chimneys, the operation of hot-air balloons, heat transfer by
natural convection, and even the rise of hot air and thus the phrase “heat rises”. These effects can be
quantify by a property represents the variation of the density of a fluid with temperature at constant
pressure that can be defined by the so-called of coefficient of volume expansion (or volume expansivity)

𝟏 𝝏𝑽 𝟏 𝝏𝝆
𝜷= ( ) = − ( )
𝑽 𝝏𝑻 𝑷 𝝆 𝝏𝑻 𝑷

It can also be expressed approximately in terms of finite changes as:

∆𝑽/𝑽 ∆𝝆/𝝆
𝜷≈
∆𝑻
= −
∆𝑻
at constant pressure

It can be shown easily that the volume expansion coefficient of an ideal gas, 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 at a
temperature T is equivalent to the inverse of the temperature:
𝟏
𝜷𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒂𝒔 = (𝑻 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆)
𝑻

The combined effects of pressure and temperature changes on the volume change of a fluid can
be determined by taking the specific volume to be a function of T and P. Differentiating 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑇, 𝑃) and
using the definitions of the compression and expansion coefficients 𝛼and 𝛽 give:
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = ( ) 𝑑𝑇 + ( ) 𝑑𝑃 = (𝛽𝑑𝑇 − 𝛼𝑑𝑃)𝑉
𝜕𝑇 𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝑇

Then the fractional change in volume (or density) due to changes in pressure and temperature can
be expressed approximately as:
∆𝑉 ∆𝜌
= − ≅ 𝛽∆𝑇 − 𝛼∆𝑃
𝑉 𝜌

18 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics

Example:
Consider water initially at 20°C and 1 atm. Determine the final density of water (a) if it is heated to
50°C at a constant pressure of 1 atm, and (b) if it is compressed to 100-atm pressure at a constant
temperature of 20°C. Take the isothermal compressibility of water to be 𝛼 = 4.80 𝑥10−5 𝑎𝑡𝑚−1

Solution:
The following assumptions are used to solve the problem:
 The coefficient of volume expansion and the isothermal compressibility of water are constant in the
given temperature range.
 An approximate analysis is performed by replacing differential changes in quantities by finite
changes
𝑘𝑔
 At 20°C and 1 atm pressure, the density of water is equal to 𝜌 = 998.0 3
𝑚
 The coefficient of volume expansion at the average temperature of (20+ 50)/2 = 35°C is β =
0.337 x 10−3 K −1
 The isothermal compressibility of water is given to be α = 4.80 x10−5 atm−1

∆𝜌
− = 𝛽∆𝑇 − 𝛼∆𝑃
𝜌
∆𝜌 = − 𝜌(𝛽∆𝑇 − 𝛼∆𝑃)
∆𝜌 = 𝛼∆𝑃 𝜌 − 𝛽∆𝑇𝜌

For the change in density due to the change of temperature from 20°C to 50°C at constant
pressure:
∆𝜌 = 𝛼∆𝑃 𝜌 − 𝛽∆𝑇𝜌, considering constant pressure, then:
∆𝜌 = −𝛽∆𝑇𝜌
𝑘𝑔
∆𝜌 = −0.337 𝑥 10−3 𝐾 −1 (50℃ − 20℃) (998.0 3 )
𝑚
𝑘𝑔
∆𝜌 = −10.08978 3
𝑚

Since ∆𝜌 = 𝜌2 − 𝜌1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 50℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝜌2 = 𝜌1 + ∆𝜌
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝜌2 = 998.0 3 + −10.08978 3
𝑚 𝑚
𝒌𝒈
𝝆𝟐 = 𝟗𝟖𝟕. 𝟗𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝟑
𝒎

For the change in density due to a change of pressure from 1 atm to 100 atm at constant
temperature:
∆𝜌 = 𝛼∆𝑃 𝜌 − 𝛽∆𝑇𝜌; at constant temperature then:
∆𝜌 = 𝛼∆𝑃𝜌
𝑘𝑔
∆𝜌 = 4.80 𝑥10−5 𝑎𝑡𝑚−1 (100𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 1𝑎𝑡𝑚) (998.0 3 )
𝑚
𝒌𝒈
∆𝝆 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟒𝟐𝟓 𝟑
𝒎

Since ∆𝜌 = 𝜌2 − 𝜌1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 100 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝜌2 = 𝜌1 + ∆𝜌
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝜌2 = 998.0 3 + 4.7425 3
𝑚 𝑚
𝒌𝒈
𝝆𝟐 = 𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟐. 𝟕𝟒𝟐𝟓 𝟑
𝒎

19 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics

IX. ENERGY AND SPECIFIC HEAT

Energy exists in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electrical,
magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit mass basis) of
a system. The forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the
molecular activity are referred to as the microscopic energy. The sum of all microscopic forms of energy
is called the internal energy of a system, and is denoted by U (or u on a unit mass basis).
1. The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some reference frame is
called kinetic energy.
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑣 2
2
2. The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field is called
potential energy and is expressed on a per-unit mass.
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑔𝑧

In the analysis of systems that involve fluid flow, we

frequently encounter the combination of properties u and Pv. For
convenience, this combination is called enthalpy h. That is,
𝑃
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑢 +
𝜌

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
ℎ = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑢 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃
= 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘)
𝜌

In the absence of such effects as magnetic, electric, and surface tension, a system is called a
simple compressible system. The total energy of a simple compressible system consists of three parts:
internal, kinetic, and potential energies. On a unit-mass basis, it is expressed as:
𝑃 1
𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 = + 𝑒 = ℎ + 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = ℎ + 𝑣 2 + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑃
ℎ = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦, 𝑢 +
𝜌
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

X. STATE RELATION FOR GASES

In general, most of the properties of gas are related to one another. When the conditions of most
real gases are far removed from liquid phase, they can related to the so-called perfect gases. Perfect
gases, often called as Ideal Gases are defined to have constant specific heat and in good agreement with
the Perfect Gas Law.
𝑃
= 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝜌
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑅 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ˚𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝐾

20 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics
Since the specific weight 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 from which the specific weight of any gas at any temperature
and pressure can be computed if R and g are known. Since the perfect gas law relate the various gas
properties at a particular state, they are known as equations of state and as property relations.
𝛾
Since the specific weight, 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 and 𝜌 = 𝑔, Then:
𝑔𝑃
𝛾=
𝑅𝑇
Avogadro’s law states that all gases at the same temperature and pressure under the action of a
given value of g have the same number of molecules per unit of volume, from which it follows that the
specific weight of a gas is proportional to its molar mass (molecular weight
𝛾2 𝑀2
=
𝛾1 𝑀1
𝛾2 𝑅2
= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔
𝛾1 𝑅1

then for a perfect gas:

𝑀1 𝑅1 = 𝑀2 𝑅2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅0
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑓𝑡.𝑙𝑏 𝑁𝑚
𝑅 = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡( 49,709 𝑜𝑟 8312 )
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔−𝑚𝑜𝑙.°𝑅 𝑘𝑔−𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
𝑅0
𝑅=
𝑀

When various gases exist as a mixture, as in air, Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that each
gas exerts its own pressure as if the other(s) were not present. Water vapor as it naturally occurs in the
atmosphere has a low partial pressure, and can be consider as a perfect gas. As we increase the pressure
and simultaneously lower the temperature, a gas becomes a vapor, and as gases depart more and more
from the gas phase and approach the liquid phase.

Another fundamental equation for a perfect gas is:

𝑃𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑃1 𝑣1 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃 𝜌 𝑛
= ( ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃1 𝜌1

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Since this equation describes the change of the gas properties from one state to another for a
particular process, we call it a process equation.
1. Isothermal process - the process of change is at a constant temperature, n = 1
2. Adiabatic process - there is no heat transfer to or from the gas,
𝑐𝑝
3. Isentropic process- a frictionless and reversible) adiabatic process where 𝑘 = 𝑐
𝑣

Relating all the equations and processes, we can obtain:

(𝑛−1)
𝑇2 𝑣1 𝑛−1 𝜌2 𝑛−1 𝑃2 𝑛
= ( ) =( ) =( )
𝑇1 𝑣2 𝜌1 𝑃1

21 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics
Example 1:
If an artificial atmosphere consists of 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen by volume, at 14.7 psia and
60°F, what are (a) the specific weight and partial pressure of the oxygen and (b) the specific weight of the
mixture?

Solution:
Given:
𝑓𝑡 2
𝑅02 = 1554
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 . °𝑅
𝑓𝑡 2
𝑅𝑁02 = 1773
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 . °𝑅

For 100% oxygen

𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 (12𝑖𝑛)2
32.2 2 ( 14.7 2 ∗ 2 )
𝑔𝑃 𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
𝛾02 =
𝑅𝑇
= 𝑓𝑡2
= 0.08435 3
1554 (60℉+460)°𝑅 𝑓𝑡
𝑠𝑒𝑐2 .°𝑅

For 100% nitrogen

𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 (12𝑖𝑛)2
32.2 2 ( 14.7 2 ∗ 2 )
𝑔𝑃 𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
𝛾𝑁02 =
𝑅𝑇
= 𝑓𝑡2
= 0.07393 3
1773 (60℉+460)°𝑅 𝑓𝑡
𝑠𝑒𝑐2 .°𝑅

For each 𝒇𝒕𝟑 of mixture contains 𝟎. 𝟐𝒇𝒕𝟑 of oxygen and 𝟎. 𝟖𝒇𝒕𝟑 of nitrogen
For 20% oxygen: 𝛾02 = 20% (0.08435 𝑙𝑏3 ) = 0.20 (0.08435 𝑙𝑏3) = 0.01687 𝑙𝑏
3
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑔𝑃 𝛾𝑅𝑇
From: 𝛾 = ;𝑃 =
𝑅𝑇 𝑔

For partial pressure of oxygen:

𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡2
𝛾𝑅𝑇 0.01687 3 (1554 )(60℉ + 460)°𝑅
𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 . °𝑅
𝑃= =
𝑔 𝑓𝑡
32.2 2
𝑠
𝒍𝒃
𝑷 = 𝟒𝟐𝟑. 𝟑𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝒂𝒃𝒔
𝒇𝒕𝟐

For 80% nitrogen:

𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
: 𝛾𝑁02 = 80% (0.07393 3) = 0.80 (0.07393 3) = 0.059144 3
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡

The specific weight of the mixture:

𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝛾02 ,20% + 𝛾𝑁02 ,80%
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝛾𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 0.01687 3 + 0.059144
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡3
𝒍𝒃
𝜸𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟎𝟏𝟒
𝒇𝒕𝟑

22 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics
Example 2:
A gas having a volume of 40 litres (0.04m3) has a pressure of 0.24MPa at 24℃. If the gas constant
𝑁
R is equal to 212𝑘𝑔.𝐾.. Compute the:
1. Density of the gas
2. Mass of the gas
3. Weight of the gas

Solution:
For the density of the gas:
𝑃 𝑃
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇; 𝜌 =
𝜌 𝑅𝑇
𝑁
0.24 𝑥 106
𝜌= 𝑚2
𝑁
(212 )(24℃ + 273)°𝐾
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝒌𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟏𝟏𝟕 𝟑
𝒎

For the mass of the gas:

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉
𝑘𝑔
𝑚 = 3.8117 3
(0.04𝑚3 )
𝑚
𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈

For the weight of the gas:

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑚
𝑊 = 0.1525𝑘𝑔(9.81 )
𝑠2
𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝟕𝑵

Example 3:
If natural gas has a specific gravity of 0.6 relative to air at 14.7 psia and 68°F, what are its specific
weight and specific volume at that same pressure and temperature? What is the value of R for the gas?

Solution:
Given:
𝑆𝐺 = 0.6
𝑙𝑏
𝑃 = 14.7 𝑎𝑏𝑠
𝑖𝑛2

For the specific weight of the gas

𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑆𝐺 = ; 𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑆𝐺 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑙𝑏
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0.60( 0.0765 )
𝑓𝑡3
𝑙𝑏
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0.0459
𝑓𝑡3

Since 𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈

23 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
𝛾𝑔𝑎𝑠 = (0.0459 3 )(32.2 2 )
𝑓𝑡 𝑠
𝒍𝒃
𝜸𝒈𝒂𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕𝟕𝟖𝟕
𝒇𝒕𝟑

For Specific volume:

1
𝑣=
𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠
1
𝑣=
𝑙𝑏
0.0459 3
𝑓𝑡
𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝒗 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟔𝟓
𝒍𝒃

For the gas constant:

𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑔𝑃
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝑅𝑇; 𝑅 = ; 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: 𝑅 = 𝛾 =
𝜌 𝜌𝑇 𝑇𝑔 𝛾𝑇
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 (12𝑖𝑛)2
32.2 2 (14.7 2 ∗ )
𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡2
𝑅=
𝑙𝑏
1.47787 3 ((68℉ + 460)°𝑅
𝑓𝑡
𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟖𝟕. 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟓 °𝑹
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐

XI. SURFACE TENSION, 𝝈𝒔 (sigma)

It is often observed from a drop of blood forms a hump on a horizontal glass; a drop of mercury
forms a near-perfect sphere and can be rolled just like a steel ball over a smooth surface; water droplets
from rain or dew hang from branches or leaves of trees; a liquid fuel injected into an engine forms a mist of
spherical droplets; water dripping from a leaky faucet falls as spherical droplets; a soap bubble released
into the air forms a spherical shape; and water beads up into small drops on flower petals.

Surface Tension examples (Helmenstine, 2019)

From this observation, liquid droplets behave like small

spherical balloons filled with the liquid, and the surface of the liquid
acts like a stretched elastic membrane under tension. The pulling
force that causes this tension acts parallel to the surface and is
due to the attractive forces between the molecules of the liquid.
The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface
tension expressed in N/m or lbf/ft . This effect is also called
surface energy and is expressed in

24 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics
the equivalent unit of N.m/m2 or J/m2. Surface tension represents the stretching work that needs to be
done to increase the surface area of the liquid by a unit amount.

Considering the liquid film suspended on a U-shaped wire frame in Figure 1.5, the liquid film tends
to pull the movable wire inward in order to minimize its surface area. A force F is needed to be applied on
the movable wire in the opposite direction to balance the pulling effect. The thin film in the device has two
surfaces (the top and bottom surfaces) exposed to air and thus the length along which the tension acts in
the figure is 2b. The force balance on the movable wire is can be given as 𝐹 = 2𝑏𝜎𝑠 ; then:

𝑭
𝝈𝒔 =
𝟐𝒃

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝜎𝑠 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 Liquid film on a U-shaped wire (LPS, 2004)

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
2𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

A droplet that keeps growing by the addition of more mass will break down when the surface
tension can no longer hold it together such as the balloons that will bust if too much air is inflated when the
pressure inside rises above the strength of the balloon material. A curved interface indicates a pressure
difference (or “pressure jump”) across the interface with pressure being higher on the concave side. The
excess pressure, 𝑃 inside a droplet or bubble above the atmospheric pressure, is can be explained by
considering a half spherical vessel representing a droplet or a bubble. Considering the half droplet or
bubble in Figure 1.5 it can be observed that the

From the FBD of the Droplet:

2𝜋𝑅𝜎𝑠 = 𝜋𝑅 2 ∆𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡
Where:
𝟐𝝈𝒔 𝟒𝝈𝒔
∆𝑷𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕 = 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝟎 = =
𝑹 𝑫

From the FBD of the Bubble:

2(2𝜋𝑅)𝜎𝑠 = 𝜋𝑅 2 ∆𝑃𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒
Where:
𝟒𝝈𝒔 𝟖𝝈𝒔
∆𝑷𝒃𝒖𝒃𝒃𝒍𝒆 = 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝟎 = =
𝑹 𝑫

FBD of half droplet and bubble (LPS, 2004)

The excess pressure in a droplet (or bubble) also can be determined by considering a differential
increase in the radius of the droplet due to the addition of a differential amount of mass and interpreting the
surface tension as the increase in the surface energy per unit area. Then the increase in the surface energy
of the droplet during this differential expansion process becomes:
𝛿𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝜎𝑠 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜎𝑠 𝑑(4𝜋𝑅 2 ) − 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝛿𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 8𝜋𝑅 𝜎𝑠 𝑑𝑅

25 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics

The expansion work done during this differential process is determined by multiplying the force by
distance to obtain:
𝛿𝑊𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐹 𝑥 𝑑 = 𝐹𝑑𝑅 = ∆𝑃𝐴𝑑𝑅 = 4𝜋𝑅 2 ∆𝑃𝑑𝑅

Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet:

Considering the liquid jet of diameter D, and length L as
shown in Figure 1.8. From the FBD:

𝐹𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑡

𝐹𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃 𝑥 𝐿 𝑥 𝐷
𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜎𝑠 𝑥 2𝐿

Then:
𝐹𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃 𝑥 𝐿 𝑥 𝐷 = 𝜎𝑠 𝑥 2𝐿
FBD of Liquid jet (Kasundra, 2006)
𝟐𝝈𝒔
𝑷=
𝑫
Example:
The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm2 (atmospheric
pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 N/m of water.

Solution:
Given:
𝐷 = 0.04𝑚𝑚 = 0.00004𝑚
𝑁 𝑁
𝑃𝑜 = 10.32 2 = 103,200 2
𝑐𝑚 𝑚

For a droplet of water

4𝜎𝑠
∆𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃0 =
𝐷
4𝜎𝑠
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃0 =
𝐷
4𝜎𝑠
𝑃𝑖 = + 𝑃0
𝐷
N
4( 0.0725 m) 𝑁
𝑃𝑖 = + 103,200 2
(0.00004𝑚) 𝑚
𝑵
𝑷𝒊 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎, 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟐
𝒎

XII. CAPILLARY RISE or MENISCUS EFFECT

A common phenomena associated with surface
tension is the rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube. The
narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called as
capillaries. This effect is what we observed when there is a
rise of kerosene through a cotton wick inserted in to a
container of a kerosene lamp; the rise of water to the top of
tall trees. The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary
tune created is called as meniscus. The rise of liquid
surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid
surface is known as capillary depression.
The contact angle for wetting and
nonwetting fluids (White, 2011)

26 | P a g e
 Fluid Mechanics

Water in a glass container curves up slightly at the edges where it touches the glass surface; but
the opposite occurs for mercury: it curves down at the edges. This effect is usually expressed by saying
that water wets the glass (by sticking to it) while mercury does not. The strength of the capillary effect is
quantified by the contact (or wetting) angle∅, defined as the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface
makes with the solid surface at the point of contact. The surface tension force acts along this tangent line
toward the solid surface. A liquid is said to wet the surface when ∅ < 90° and not to wet the surface
when∅ > 90°. In atmospheric air, the contact angle of water (and most other organic liquids) with glass is
nearly zero, ∅ ≈ 0°.

Consider a glass tube of small diameter, “d”, opened at both

end and is inserted in a liquid, like water. The liquid will rise in the tube
above the level of the liquid. Considering the height of the liquid in the
tube, h, with the radius of the tube as R, specific weight of the liquid as
𝛾, and the angle of contact, ∅ between the fluid and the tube. Under
equilibrium condition, the weight of the liquid of height, h is equal to the
force at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But the force at the surface
of the liquid is due to surface tension. Then:
The capillary rise of water and the capillary
fall of the mercury (White, 2011) 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑉𝑔 =
2
𝜌𝑔(𝜋𝑅 ℎ)

Equating the vertical component of the surface tension force to the weight gives:
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 → 𝜌𝑔(𝜋𝑅 2 ℎ) = 2𝜋𝑅𝜎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Solving for h gives the capillary rise as:

𝟐𝝈
𝒉 = 𝝆𝒈𝑹𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ 𝑅 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
The forces acting on a liquid column
that has risen in a tube due to the
capillary effect (White, 2011)
Example 1:
Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a)
water and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions σ = 0.0725 N/m for water and σ = 0.52 N/m for mercury in
contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact
∅ = 130°

Solution:
Given:
𝐷 = 2.50𝑚𝑚 = 0.0025𝑚; 𝑅 = 0.00125𝑚
𝑁 𝑘𝑔
𝜎𝑤 = 0.0725 ; 𝜌 = 1000 3
𝑚 𝑚
𝑁 𝑘𝑔
𝜎𝐻𝑔 = 0.52 ; 𝑆𝐺𝐻𝑔 = 13.6; 𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13,600 3
𝑚 𝑚
∅ = 130°

For the capillary rise in water:

Using contact angle of water with the glass ∅ = 0°
2𝜎𝑤
ℎ= 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝜌𝑔𝑅
𝑁
2(0.0725 𝑚)
ℎ= 𝑐𝑜𝑠0
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
(1000 )(9.81 2 )(0.00125𝑚)
𝑚3 𝑠
ℎ = 0.011824𝑚
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟐𝟒𝟕𝒎𝒎

27 | P a g e
Fluid Mechanics

For the capillary rise in mercury:

Using contact angle of water with the glass ∅ = 130°
2𝜎𝑤
ℎ= 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝜌𝑔𝑅
𝑁
2(0.52
)
ℎ= 𝑚 cos(130°)
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
(13,600 3 )(9.81 2 )(0.00125𝑚)
𝑚 𝑠
ℎ = −0.0040085𝑚
𝒉 = −𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟓𝒎𝒎

Example 2:
Water at 10°C stands in a clean glass tube of 2-mm diameter at a height of 35 mm. What is the
true static height?

Given:
𝑁 𝑁
𝑎𝑡 10℃, 𝛾𝑤 = 9804 3
; 𝜎𝑤 = 0.0742
𝑚 𝑚
Using contact angle of water with the glass ∅ = 0°
𝐷 = 2.0𝑚𝑚 = 0.0020𝑚; 𝑅 = 0.0010𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛:
2𝜎𝑤
ℎ= 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝜌𝑔𝑅
𝑁
2 (0.0742 𝑚)
ℎ= cos(0°)
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
(1000 )(9.81 2 )(0.0010𝑚)
𝑚3 𝑠
ℎ = 0.01513𝑚
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟏𝟑𝒎𝒎

Therefore:
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 35𝑚𝑚 − 15.13𝑚𝑚
𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟕𝒎𝒎

XIII. VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS

All liquids tend to evaporate or vaporize, which they do by projecting molecules into the space
above their surfaces. A change from a liquid state to gas state is known as vaporization which happens
because of the continuous escaping of molecules through the free liquid surface. If this is a confined space,
the partial pressure exerted by the molecules increases until the rate at which molecules re-enter the liquid
is equal to the rate at which they leave. For this equilibrium condition, we call the vapour pressure the
saturation pressure.

Molecular activity increases with increasing temperature and decreasing pressure, and so the
saturation pressure does the same. At any given temperature, if the pressure on the liquid surface falls
below the saturation pressure, a rapid rate of evaporation results, known as boiling; regarding the
saturation pressure as the boiling pressure. If the pressure is reduce to such extent that it become equal
to or less than the vapour pressure, the boiling of liquid will start, through the temperature of the liquid is
20℃.
Considering a flowing liquid in a system; if the pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes
equal or less than the vapour pressure, the vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of the liquid are
carried by the flowing fluid into the region of the high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high
impact pressure. The pressure developed by collapsing bubbles is so high that the material from adjoining
boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed. Such phenomenon is known as the cavitation or the
formation of the vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below
the vapour pressure and the sudden collapse of the bubbles in areas of high pressure.

28 | P a g e