School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

Course name : Geotechnical Engineering Design I (CEng 4151)
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 1
 Chapter One : Site Investigation
Content of the chapter
1. Introduction

2. Purpose of soil exploration

3. Phase of site explorations

4. Method of soil exploration

5. Soil sampling

6. Types of sampler

7. Field (in situ) testing

8. Standard penetration tests

9. Preparation of boring logs

10. Soil exploration reports

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 2

 1. Introduction
❑ Site Investigation or subsurface explorations are done for obtaining
the information about subsurface conditions at the site of proposed
construction.

❑Site investigation consist of :-

➢ Determining the profile of natural soil deposits at the site

➢ Taking the soil samples and determining the engineering

properties of the soil.

➢ In-situ testing of the soils.

❑ it is required for every big engineering projects,

✓ Highway projects

✓ High rise Buildings

✓ Dams
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 3
 2. Purpose of subsurface Exploration

1. To study the general suitability of the site for an engineering

project
✓ Ground water quality, depth and its fluctuations
✓ Topography of site
✓ Location of site
✓ Nature of the deposits of soils or rocks
✓ Geology of site

2. To enable a safe, practical and economic design to be prepared

✓ Bearing capacity
✓ Settlement

3. Temporary works design

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 4

 2. Purpose of subsurface Exploration (cont. . .)

4. To study the effects of the proposed project on its environment

5. To study the suitability of construction material

6. To investigate the safety of the existing structures and to suggest

the remedial measures

❑Lack of geotechnical investigation will lead to

➢ Failures of structures

➢ Significant delay and increase in construction costs when the design

has to be revised or amended

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 5

 Case history of Pisa Tower – bearing capacity failure
▪ Height of the soil =60m High

▪ Foundation diameter =19.6m

▪ Weight of the tower = 14,500 tons

▪ In 1990 the foundations were inclining due

south at about 5.5° to the horizontal.

• The target is reduction tilt to 0.5 degree

• Under excavation of 38m^3 of soil removal

• 41 holes were drilled

• Soil removal took almost an year

❑ Stabilization of the Leaning Tower of Pisa was achieved by means of an
innovative method of soil extraction which induced a small reduction in
inclination not visible to the casual onlooker.
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 6
Failure of road segment Bako -Shambu (2021)

Saturation and Ground water table may be the source for such failures

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 7

 ❖ Soil Exploration
❑ Soil Exploration :- the method of determining sub soil properties by
field tests or laboratory tests.

❑ Soil Exploration is the part of site investigation.

Objectives of soil exploration

❑ Determination of Nature of soil deposit

❑ Determinations of Depth and thickness of soil strata

❑ Determinations of Horizontal extent of soil strata

❑ Determinations of Depth of ground GWT and its fluctuations

❑ Engineering properties of soil and

❑ In situ soil properties

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 8
 ❖ Soil Exploration
❑ Soil Data Required

❑ Soil profile

✓ layer thickness and soil identification.

❑ Index properties

❖ Water content, Atterberg limits, etc.…

❖ Strength and compressibility characteristics

❖ shear strength parameters ( 𝑐 ′ , 𝜑)

❖ compressibility parameters
(𝐶𝑐 , 𝑂𝐶𝑅, 𝑐𝑢 , … . . )

❖ others (e.g. water table depth )

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 9

 3. Phase of Site Explorations
❖ The steps involved in the site explorations are: -

➢ Desk study to collect all the relevant data and information

➢ Reconnaissance of site works

➢ Planning program after reviewing the above

➢ Ground or soil exploration

➢ Laboratory testing (also field test if necessary)

➢ Preparation and documentation of SI report

➢ Engineering design stages

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 10

 3. Phase of Site Explorations
❖ Phase 1: Desk study to collect all the relevant data and information

✓ Type of structure to be built and its general use

✓ Literature review

✓ Drawing of structure if any

✓ General idea of topography and soil type have to be reviewed

from soil and geologic map

✓ Ground water condition

✓ Climatic condition

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 11

 3. Phase of Site Explorations
Literature Review Information
1 Site ➢ Finding country or town agents information on
Location/Demo base map
graphy ➢ Evaluation impacts by and on nearby facilities

2 Topography ➢ base map for surveying (bench mark location)

(includes assessing grade road, structures (slope and
surface water, direction)
landform)
➢ Drilling logistic (site access, water supplies)
locating water bearing landforms (alluvial fans,
terraces, etc.)
➢ Map ground water levels, direction of flow
(supply and septic)
➢ Identify potential problem (slide, slope,
flooding, septic, sewer line grade, sinkholes)

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 12

 3. Phase of Site Explorations
3 Air Photo ➢ Locating ground water (vegetation and its
Analysis density, landforms)

➢ Fracture pattern analysis: ground water, poor

rock conditions
➢ Identify potential problem: sinkholes

Other geological hazards, faults, slides, etc.

➢ identity nearby facilities and potential impacts

4 Climate, ➢ Drilling problems (frozen workers and drilling

Temperature, mud)
PPT, ET ➢ Drilling and construction days washed out

➢ water balance calculation, flood analysis,

ground water usage
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 13
 3. Phase of Site Explorations
5 Soil and ➢ Soil type
geology ➢ Depth of interest: drilling equipment
➢ Soil erosive: erosion control
➢ Soil expansiveness, surface drilling conditions,
shrink, swell
➢ soil corrosively: material for well casing
➢ Soil grain size analysis
➢ Rock weathering information, mineralogy, degree
of weathering; drilling methods, use of rock
6 Ground ➢ Septic, dewatering, contamination migration,
water settlement
➢ Depth of water table, fluctuation with time
➢ Flow direction
➢ Soil permeability
➢ Contamination; type and sources
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 14
 3. Phase of Site Explorations
Phase 2: Reconnaissance
❑ Make a visual inspection of the site to obtain information about
1. The general topography of the site, the possible existence of drainage
ditches, abandoned dumps of debris, and other materials present at the
site.
2. Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those made for the
construction of nearby highways and railroads.
3. The type of vegetation at the site, which may indicate the nature of the
soil.
4. High-water marks on nearby buildings and bridge abutments.
5. Groundwater levels, which can be determined by checking nearby wells.
6. The types of construction nearby and the existence of any cracks in
walls or other problems
• The nature of the stratification and physical properties of the soil nearby also can
be obtained from any available soil-exploration reports on existing structures.
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 15
 3. Phase of Site Explorations
Phase 3: Site Investigation
▪ The site investigation phase of the exploration program consists
of planning, making test boreholes, and collecting soil samples at
desired intervals for subsequent observation and laboratory tests.
➢ First need to run indirect and non-invasive techniques (Geophysical surveys)
➢ This procedures can also provide more information for direct exploration.

❑ Direct and invasive techniques

- Sounding (direct push, probing, manually to find the refusal( bedrock or
larger boulders)
- Drilling (churning, chiselling, rotary, percussion)
- Boring and coring , Geoprobe
- Multi-level sampling (groundwater chemistry)
- Trenching (time consuming and expensive)

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 16

 3. Phase of Site Explorations
Phase 3: Site Investigation

❑ Geophysical techniques

❖ Seismic refraction and reflection

❖ DC resistivity and self potential

❖ induced polarization

❖ Magnetic and magnetic gradiometric

❖ Electromagnetic induction (time domain and frequency domain)

❖ Ground penetrating radar

❖ Nuclear magnetic resonance

❖ Geophysical well logging

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 17

 3. Phase of Site Investigation
Phase 3: Site Investigation
❖ To draw the soil profile indicating:

✓ Sequence of the strata and

Properties of the soils
involved

❖ To obtain sub soil sampling and

information the following will be
done

✓ Trial pit

✓ Boring

✓ Penetration test and

geophysical test

Figure: Boring log for a residual soil derived from granite

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 18
 3. Phase of Site Investigation
❑ Determination of the minimum depth of boring
❖ The approximate required minimum depth of the borings should be
predetermined.
❖ To determine the approximate minimum depth of boring, engineers may use
the rules established by the American Society of Civil Engineers (1972):
1. Determine the net increase in the effective stress, ∆𝜎 ′ under
a foundation with depth as shown in Figure

2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective overburden

stress, 𝜎𝑜′ with depth.

3. Determine the depth,𝐷 = 𝐷1 at which the effective stress

𝟏
increase ∆𝜎 ′ is equal to 𝒒
𝟏𝟎

∆𝝈′
4. Determine the depth,𝑫 = 𝑫𝟐 at which = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓.
𝝈′𝒐

5. Choose the smaller of the two depths, 𝑫𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑫𝟐 , as the

approximate minimum depth of boring required
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 19
 3. Phase of Site Investigation
❑ Determination of the minimum depth of boring
• If the preceding rules are used, the depths of boring for a building with a
width of 30 m will be approximately the following, according to (1970):

• To determine the boring depth for hospitals and office buildings, Sowers
(1970) also used the following rules.
✓ For light steel or narrow concrete buildings,

• For heavy steel or wide concrete buildings,

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 20

 3. Phase of Site Investigation
❑ Determination of the minimum depth of boring
❖ Thus, Investigation should be carried extend below the depth where the
stress increase and settlement is significant

❖ Significant depth is depends on

✓ Type of structure
✓ Intensity of loading
✓ Shape and disposition of loading area
✓ Profile and characteristics of soil
❖ When deep excavations are anticipated, the depth of boring should be at
least 1.5times the depth of excavation.
❖ Sometimes, subsoil conditions require that the foundation load be
transmitted to bedrock.
❖ The minimum depth of core boring into the bedrock is about 3 m.
❖ If the bedrock is irregular or weathered, the core borings may have to be
deeper.
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 21
 3. Phase of Site Investigation
❖ Spacing of borehole

✓ There are no hard-and-fast rules

for borehole spacing.

Table , Spacing of boreholes according to Terzaghi (1983)

Spacing of boreholes in meter minimum
for horizontal stratification of number of
Types of Project soil borehole
Uniform Moderate erratic
Multistory Building 45 30 15 4
1 or 2 story 60 30 15 3
bridge Pier, towers and
abutments 30 7.5 1 or 2 for each
Highway and airports 300 150 30
Borrow pit (for compacted
fill) 150-300 60-150 15-30
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 22
 3. Phase of Site Investigation
❑ Number and location of boreholes
Most Projects are either of:
1. Isolated small structures: radio masts, small
houses (one borehole may be sufficient)
2. Compact projects: buildings, dams, bridges, small
landslips (require at least four boreholes; deep
and closely spaced)
3. Extended Projects: Highway, railways, reservoirs
(shallower more widely spaced boreholes)

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 23

 4. Methods of soil exploration
❑ The methods available for soil exploration may classified as
follows:

1. Direct methods. Test pits, trial pits or trenches

• Test pits or trenches are open type or accessible exploratory

• Soil can be inspected in their natural conditions.

• Suitable only for small depths up to 3m.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 24

 4. Methods of soil exploration
2. Semi-direct methods- borings

➢ Making or drilling bore holes into the ground with a view to

obtaining soil or rock samples from specified or known depth is
called boring

❖The common methods of advancing bore holes are :-

• Auger Boring

• Wash Boring

• Rotary Drilling

• Percussion Drilling

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 25

 4. Methods of soil exploration
a. Auger boring

❑ “ soil auger” is a device that is useful for advancing a bore hole

into the ground.

❑ Auger may be hand operated(used for small depth less than 3 to

5m ) or power operated( used for greater depth up to 60 to
70m).

❑ The soil auger advanced by rotating it while pressing it into the

soil.

❑ As soon as the soil gets filled with , it is taken out and the soil
sample collected.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 26

 4. Methods of soil exploration
❑ The soil sample obtained from this types of boings are highly
disturbed.

❑ Auger boring is convenient in case of partially saturated sands, silts

and medium to stiff cohesive soils.

❑ Figure below shows two types of hand auger: the posthole auger and
the helical auger.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 27

 4. Methods of soil exploration
b. Wash boring

▪ Wash boring is commonly used for exploration below ground

water for which the auger method is unsuitable.

▪ This method may be used in all kinds of soil excepts those mixed
with gravel and boulders.

▪ In this method, a casing about 2 to 3 m long is driven into the

ground.

▪ The soil inside the casing is then removed by means of a

chopping bit attached to a drilling rod.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 28

 4. Methods of soil exploration
▪ Water is forced through the
drilling rod and exits at a
very high velocity through
the holes at the bottom of
the chopping bit.

▪ Note that Change of the

progress and change of the
colors' of wash water
indicates changes in soil
strata

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 29

 4. Methods of soil exploration

▪ The water and the chopped soil particles rise in the drill
hole and overflow at the top of the casing through a T
connection.

▪ The wash water is collected in a container.

▪ The casing can be extended with additional pieces as the borehole

progresses; however, that is not required if the borehole will stay
open and not cave in.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 30

 4. Methods of soil exploration
c. Rotary Drilling
▪ Can be used In sand, clay and rocks( badly fissured).

▪ A drill bit, fixed to the lower end of a drill rod, is rotated by

power while being kept in firm contact with the hole.

▪ Drilling fluid or bentonite slurry is forced under pressure

through the drill rod and it comes up bringing the cuttings to
the surface.

▪ Even rock cores may obtained by using suitable diamond drill

bits.

▪ When soil sample are required, the drilling rod raised and
drilling bit is replaced by a sampler.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 31

 4. Methods of soil exploration

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 32

 4. Methods of soil exploration

d. Percussion Drilling

❑ A heavy drill bit is suspended from a drill rod or cable and is

driven by repeated blows.

❑ Water is added to facilitate the breaking of stiff soil or rock.

❑ The slurry of the pulverized material is bailed out at intervals.

❑ The method cannot be used in loose sand and in low plasticity

clay.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 33

 5. Soil Sampling
❑ Samples of soil taken out of natural deposits for testing may be
classified as

✓ Disturbed samples

✓ Undisturbed samples

❑ A disturbed sample is that in which the natural structure of the soils

gets modified partly or fully during sampling.

❑ An undisturbed sample is that in which the natural structure and

other physical properties remain preserved.

❑ disturbed but representatives samples can generally be used for

✓ Grain size analysis ✓ Organic content

✓ liquid limit and plastic limits ✓ Soil classification
✓ Specific gravity ✓ Compaction properties
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 34
 5. Soil Sampling
❑ Undisturbed Samples must be used for:-

✓ Consolidation test

✓ Hydraulic conductivity tests

✓ Shear strength test

❑ The disturbance of the soil depend mainly upon the following

features

1. area ratio

2. Inside clearance

3. Outside clearance

4. Recovery ratio

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 35

 5. Soil Sampling
1. Area ratio - The area ratio is defined as,
𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆
𝐴𝑟 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
𝑫𝟐𝟐 −𝑫𝟐𝟏
Area ratio 𝑨𝒓 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝟐𝟏

❑ for obtaining good quality undisturbed samples, the area ratio

should be 10 % or less.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 36

 5. Soil Sampling
𝑫𝟑 −𝑫𝟏
2. inside clearance ratio 𝑪𝒊 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝟏

❑ For undisturbed sample, the inside

clearance should be between 0.5 to 3%

𝑫𝟐 −𝑫𝟒
3. Outside clearance 𝑪𝒐 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑫𝟒

❑ For reducing the driving force, the outside clearance should be as

small as possible.
❑ Normally, it lies between zero to 2%

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 37

 5. Soil Sampling
4. recovery ratio
❑ The degree of disturbance of a cohesive soil or rock samples can be
estimated by recovery ratio (𝐿𝑟 )

𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆

𝑳𝒓 =
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
𝑳𝒓 = 𝟏(𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
= 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒎 )

❑Theoretically, the sample did not become compressed from friction on

the tube.

❑ 𝐿𝑟 = 1 indicates a good recovery

❑ 𝐿𝑟 < 1 indicates that the soil is compressed.

❑ 𝐿𝑟 > 1 indicates that the soil has swelled

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 38

 6. Types Soil Samplers
❑ soil samplers can be classified as:

1. ‘Thick wall’ samplers ( split spoon sampler)

2. ‘Thin wall’ samplers (Shelby tubes)

❑ Split Spoon Sampler - a drive shoe attached to lower end serves as the
cutting edge.

❑ A sample head may be screwed at the upper end of split spoon.

❑ the standard size of the split spoon sampler is of 35mm(34.9mm) internal

and 50.8mm external diameter.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 39

 6. Types Soil Samplers
❑ The sampler is lowered to the bottom of the bore hole by attaching it to
the drill rod.

❑ The sampler is driven by forcing it into the soil by blows from a hammer.

❑ The assembly of the sample is then extracted from the hole and the cutting
edge and coupling at the top are unscrewed.

❑ The two halves of the barrel are separated and the sample is thus exposed.

❑ For standard split spoon sampler

𝑫𝟐𝟐 − 𝑫𝟐𝟏 𝟓𝟎. 𝟖𝟐 − 𝟑𝟒. 𝟗𝟐

𝑨𝒓 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐%
𝑫𝟐𝟏 𝟑𝟒. 𝟗𝟐

Hence, the soil highly disturbed.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 40

 6. Types Soil Samplers

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 41

 6. Types Soil Samplers
‘Thin wall’ samplers

❑ commonly used to obtain undisturbed clay samples

❑ outside diameter: 50.8mm and 76.3mm

❑ A sampler with a 50.8 out side diameter has inside diameter of

47.63mm.

𝟓𝟎.𝟖𝟐 −𝟒𝟕.𝟔𝟑𝟐
𝑨𝒓 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟕𝟓%
𝟒𝟕.𝟔𝟑𝟐

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 42

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❖The most commonly used field tests are;

✓ Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

✓ Cone Penetration

✓ Pressure-meter Test

✓ Field Vane Shear Test

✓ Borehole Shear Test

✓ Dilatometer Test

✓ Plate Load Test

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 43

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❖ Penetration tests are the most
useful tests

✓ They are conducted mainly to

get information on the relative
density of soils with little or no
cohesion.

✓ The tests are based on the fact

that the relative density of a
soil stratum is directly
proportional to the resistance
of the soil against the
penetration of the drive point.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 44

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
a. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
✓ This is the most common of the field tests and
measures the resistance of the soil to dynamic
penetration by a 50mm diameter split spoon
sampler which is driven into the soil at the bottom
of a borehole (sometimes cased).

✓ The sampler is attached to drill rods and the

dynamic driving force is a 63.5kg mass falling
through a height of 76cm onto the top of the rods.

✓ The sampler is initially driven 15cm below the

bottom of the borehole.

✓ It is then further driven 30cm.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 45

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
✓ The number of blows required to drive the last
30cm is termed as the standard penetration value
denoted by N [ASTM D 1586]

✓ The test is usually performed by the three stages.

The blow count is found for every 150mm
penetration

✓ The blow for the first 150mm penetration is

disregarded due to the disturbance likely to exist
at the bottom of the drill hole.

✓ The test can be conducted at every 1m vertical

intervals

𝑵𝟏
𝑁2 Standard penetration resistance 𝑺𝑷𝑻 𝑵 = 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑵𝟑

𝑁3
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 46
 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 47

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❖ The refusal of the test when:

1. 50 blows are required for any 150mm increment

2. 100 blows are required for 300mm penetration
3. 10 successive blows produce no advance
❖ Once, N obtained correction is required for the factors that contribute to the
variation of the standard penetration number N at a given depth for similar soil
profiles.

❖ Among these factors are the SPT hammer efficiency, borehole diameter,
sampling method, and rod length (Seed et al., 1985; Skempton, 1986).

❖ The SPT hammer energy efficiency can be expressed as

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 48

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❖ In the field, the magnitude of 𝑬𝒓 can vary from 30 to 90%
❖ The standard practice now expresses the N-value to an average energy ratio of
60% (≈ 𝑵𝟔𝟎 ).

❖ In addition, the borehole diameter, rod length (i.e., borehole depth), and
whether a liner is used within the sampler can contribute to the energy loss
and hence influence the N-value.

❖ Therefore, the N-value corrected to account for these factors can be written as

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 49

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 50

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❖ Correlations For 𝑁60 In Cohesive Soil
➢ The standard penetration test works very well in granular soil.

➢ Due to the pore water pressures developed while driving the sampler through
clays, the effective stresses are changed, which can influence the N-values.

➢ As a result, the standard penetration test and the N-values are not reliable in
clays.

➢ when 𝑵𝟔𝟎 for clays is available, the consistency, undrained shear strength,
pre-consolidation pressure, and the over- consolidation ratio (OCR) of the
clay can be estimated using empirical correlations.

➢ Szechy and Vargi (1978) calculated the consistency index (CI) as

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 51

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❖ The approximate correlation among CI, 𝑵𝟔𝟎 , and the unconfined compression
strength 𝒒𝒖 is given in Table below

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 52

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 53

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
Correction for 𝑵𝟔𝟎 in Granular soil
❖ In granular soil, the value of 𝑵𝟔𝟎 is affected by the effective overburden
pressure,𝝈′𝒐 .

❖ For that reason, the value of 𝑵𝟔𝟎 obtained from field exploration under
different effective overburden pressures should be changed to correspond
to a standard value of 𝝈′𝒐 .

That is,

❖ In the past, a number of empirical relations were proposed for 𝑪𝑵 .

❖ The most commonly cited relationships are those of Liao and Whitman (1986) and
Skempton (1986).
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 54
 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 55

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 56

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

❖ Table below shows the comparison of 𝑪𝑵 derived using various relationships

cited above.

❖ It can be seen that the magnitude of the correction factor estimated by using
any one of the relationships is approximately the same, considering the
uncertainties involved in conducting the standard penetration tests.

❖ Hence, Eq. (3.13) may be used for all calculations.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 57

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❑ Cone Penetration Test
❖ The cone penetration test (CPT), originally known as the Dutch cone
penetration test, is a versatile in situ test that can be carried out in most soil
conditions to determine the soil profile and various soil parameters.

❖ The interpretation of the test is more rational than that of the standard
penetration test.

❖ SPT and CPT are used in more than 90% of soil exploration programs
worldwide.

❖ The original Dutch cone developed in Holland in 1932 was a 60° mechanical
cone with a 35 mm outside diameter, with approximately 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟐 projected
area.

❖ The cone is pushed into the ground, and the resistance at the cone, known as
cone resistance and the sleeve friction are measured separately. The
measurements are recorded at larger intervals in the order of 200 mm.
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 58
 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

❖ The mechanical cones are labor

intensive and are limited in accuracy

FIGURE: Mechanical friction-cone

penetrometer (After ASTM, 2001)
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 59
 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❖ Fugro developed the first electric cone in 1965 as an improvement of the
mechanical cone.

❖ In the electric cone the measurements are made using strain gauges and
transducers, generally for every 20 mm, thereby almost giving continuous
measurements with depth.

❖ The modern cones, which are also able to measure pore water pressure, are
known as piezocones (CPTu).

❖ The standard cone of 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟐 has a friction sleeve area of 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟐 .

❖ The 133.7 mm long frictional sleeve has an outer diameter of 35.7 mm.

❖ Piezocones are the modern electric friction cones.

❖ With the addition of sensors such as geophones, seismic cone penetration

tests (SCPTs) can now also measure shear wave velocity 𝒗𝒔 and hence the
shear modulus G.
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 60
 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

Figure: Electric friction-

cone penetrometer
(After ASTM, 2001)

Photograph of an electric friction-

cone penetrometer

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 61

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

Figure : Cone penetrometer test

with friction measurement
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 62
 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❑ Pressuremeter Test (PMT)
❖ The Pressuremeter test is an in-situ test
conducted in a borehole.

❖ It was originally developed by Menard

(1956) to measure the strength and
deformability of soil.

❖ It has also been adopted by ASTM as Test

Designation 4719.

❖ The Menard-type PMT consists essentially of

a probe with three cells.

❖ The top and bottom ones are guard cells, and

the middle one is the measuring cell, as
shown schematically in Figure.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 63

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❖ The test is conducted in a pre-bored hole with a diameter that is between
1.03 and 1.2 times the nominal diameter of the probe.

❖ The probe that is most commonly used has a diameter of 58 mm and a length
of 420 mm.

❖ The probe cells can be expanded by either liquid or gas.

❖ The guard cells are expanded to reduce the end-condition effect on the
measuring cell, which has a volume 𝑽𝒐 of 𝟓𝟑𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟑 .

❖ Following are the dimensions for the probe diameter and the diameter of the
borehole, as recommended by ASTM:

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 64

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❖In order to conduct a test, the measuring cell volume, Vo, is
measured and the probe is inserted into the borehole.

❖Pressure is applied in increments and the new volume of the cell is

measured.

❖The process is continued until the soil fails or until the pressure
limit of the device is reached.

❖The soil is considered to have failed when the total volume of the
expanded cavity (V) is about twice the volume of the original
cavity.

❖Upon completion of the test, the probe is deflated and advanced for
testing at another depth.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 65

 7. Field [In-situ] Tests
❖ The results of the Pressuremeter test are expressed in the graphical form of
pressure versus volume, as shown in Figure

1. Zone I represents the reloading

portion during which the soil
around the borehole is pushed
back into the initial state (i.e., the
state it was in before drilling).
• The pressure 𝑷𝒐 represents the in
situ total horizontal stress.

2. Zone II represents a pseudo elastic

zone in which the cell volume
versus cell pressure is practically
linear. The pressure 𝑷𝒇 represents
Figure : plot of pressure versus total cavity volume the creep, or yield, pressure.
3. The zone marked III is the plastic zone. The pressure 𝑷𝒍
represents the limit pressure.
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 66
 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

❖ The Pressuremeter modulus, 𝑬𝒑 , of the soil is determined with the use of

the theory of expansion of an infinitely thick cylinder. Thus,

❖ In order to overcome the difficulty of preparing the borehole to the proper

size, self-boring Pressuremeter (SBPMTs) have also been developed.

❖ Correlations between various soil parameters and the results obtained from
the Pressuremeter tests have been developed by various investigators.
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 67
 7. Field [In-situ] Tests

• Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) proposed that, for clays,

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 68

 10.Preparation of Boring Logs

• The detailed information gathered from each borehole is presented in a

graphical form called the boring log.

• As a borehole is advanced downward, the driller generally should record the

following information in a standard log:

1. Name and address of the drilling company

2. Driller’s name

3. Job description and number

4. Number, type, and location of boring

5. Date of boring

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 69

Boring Logs

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 70

 10.Preparation of Boring Logs

6. Subsurface stratification, which can he obtained by visual observation

of the soil brought out by auger, split-spoon sampler, and thin-walled
Shelby tube sampler

7. Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing and mud
losses, and so on.

8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT

9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected

10. In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for each run, the
actual length of coring, length of core recovery, and ROD

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 71

 11.Soil Exploration Report
❖ A soil exploration report should contain all available data from bore holes, test
pits, field and laboratory tests and site observation. Most reports have the
following contents

1. Introduction: - Purpose of investigation, type of investigation carried out.

2. General description of the site: - general configuration and surface features of

the site.

3. General geology of the area.

4. Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test pits)

5. Laboratory test results.

6. Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation design and

constructions.

7. Conclusion: - recommendations on the type and depth of foundations,

allowable bearing pressure and methods of construction.

14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 72

 Summary
❖ Subsoil exploration is an integral part of all geotechnical engineering projects.

❖ It is carried out during the very early stages of the projects in an attempt to
adequately define the soil conditions and the design parameters of the
different soil layers.

❖ The soil exploration includes in situ tests, sample collection, and tests in the
laboratory.

❖ There is a substantial cost associated with the soil exploration program, and
budgetary constraints often restrict the extent of the site investigation.

❖ In situ tests generally involve inserting a probe into the ground and measuring
the resistance to penetration, which is related to the strength and stiffness of
the soil.

❖ The standard penetration test and cone penetration test are the two majors in
situ tests commonly carried out in geotechnical engineering projects.
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 73
 Summary
❖ In soft clays, the vane shear test is very effective in determining the
undrained shear strength.
❖ The Pressuremeter test and dilatometer test are two specialized tests that
are becoming popular.
❖ Geophysical methods can also be used for soil exploration, as well as for
determining the soil profile and shear wave velocities. They are effective in
covering large areas.
❖ They can be complemented by traditional in situ tests, such as SPT or CPT.

End of chapter 1
14/04/2024 Chapter 1 – Ground Investigation 74