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Mathematical Analysis
Volume I

Teo Lee Peng

Mathematical Analysis
Volume I

Teo Lee Peng

January 1, 2024
Contents i

Contents

Contents i

Preface iv

Chapter 1 The Real Numbers 1

1.1 Logic, Sets and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Set of Real Numbers and Its Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Bounded Sets and the Completeness Axiom . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Distributions of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5 The Convergence of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.6 Closed Sets and Limit Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.7 The Monotone Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.8 Sequential Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Chapter 2 Limits of Functions and Continuity 82

2.1 Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.2 Continuity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.3 The Extreme Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.4 The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.5 Uniform Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.6 Monotonic Functions and Inverses of Functions . . . . . . . . 136

Chapter 3 Differentiating Functions of a Single Variable 146

3.1 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.2 Chain Rule and Derivatives of Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . 164
3.3 The Mean Value Theorem and Local Extrema . . . . . . . . . 172
3.4 The Cauchy Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.5 Transcendental Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.5.1 The Logarithmic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.5.2 The Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Contents ii

3.5.3 The Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

3.5.4 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . 223
3.6 L’ Hôpital’s Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.7 Concavity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

Chapter 4 Integrating Functions of a Single Variable 251

4.1 Riemann Integrals of Bounded Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.2 Properties of Riemann Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.3 Functions that are Riemann Integrable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
4.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
4.5 Integration by Substitution and Integration by Parts . . . . . . 317
4.5.1 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
4.5.2 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
4.6 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Chapter 5 Infinite Series of Numbers and Infinite Products 354

5.1 Limit Superior and Limit Inferior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
5.2 Convergence of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
5.3 Rearrangement of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
5.4 Infinite Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
5.5 Double Sequences and Double Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Chapter 6 Sequences and Series of Functions 452

6.1 Convergence of Sequences and Series of Functions . . . . . . 452
6.2 Uniform Convergence of Sequences and Series of Functions . 464
6.3 Properties of Uniform Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 479
6.4 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
6.5 Taylor Series and Taylor Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
6.6 Examples and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
6.6.1 The Irrationality of e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
6.6.2 The Irrationality of π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
6.6.3 Infinitely Differentiable Functions that are Non-Analytic548
6.6.4 A Continuous Function that is Nowhere Differentiable 554
6.6.5 The Weierstrass Approximation Theorem . . . . . . . 558
Contents iii

References 566
Preface iv

Preface

Mathematical analysis is a standard course which introduces students to rigorous

reasonings in mathematics, as well as the theories needed for advanced analysis
courses. It is a compulsory course for all mathematics majors. It is also strongly
recommended for students that major in computer science, physics, data science,
financial analysis, and other areas that require a lot of analytical skills. Some
standard textbooks in mathematical analysis include the classical one by Apostol
[Apo74] and Rudin [Rud76], and the modern one by Bartle [BS92], Fitzpatrick
[Fit09], Abbott [Abb15], Tao [Tao16, Tao14] and Zorich [Zor15, Zor16].
This book is the first volume of the textbooks intended for a one-year course in
mathematical analysis. We introduce the fundamental concepts in a pedagogical
way. Lots of examples are given to illustrate the theories. We assume that students
are familiar with the material of calculus such as those in the book [SCW20].
Thus, we do not emphasize on the computation techniques. Emphasis is put on
building up analytical skills through rigorous reasonings.
Besides calculus, it is also assumed that students have taken introductory
courses in discrete mathematics and linear algebra, which covers topics such as
logic, sets, functions, vector spaces, inner products, and quadratic forms. Whenever
needed, these concepts would be briefly revised.
In this book, we have defined all the mathematical terms we use carefully.
While most of the terms have standard definitions, some of the terms may have
definitions defer from authors to authors. The readers are advised to check the
definitions of the terms used in this book when they encounter them. This can be
easily done by using the search function provided by any PDF viewer. The readers
are also encouraged to fully utilize the hyper-referencing provided.

Teo Lee Peng

Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 1

Chapter 1

The Real Numbers

1.1 Logic, Sets and Functions

In this section, we give a brief review of propositional logic, sets and functions.
It is assumed that students have taken an introductory course which covers these
topics, such as a course in discrete mathematics [Ros18].

Definition 1.1 Proposition

A proposition, usually denoted by p, is a declarative sentence that is either
true or false, but not both.

Definition 1.2 Negation of a Proposition

If p is a proposition, ¬p is the negation of p. The proposition p is true if
and only if the negation ¬p is false.

From two propositions p and q, we can apply logical operators and obtain a
compound proposition.

Definition 1.3 Conjunction of Propositions

If p and q are propositions, p ∧ q is the conjunction of p and q, read as "p
and q". The proposition p ∧ q is true if and only if both p and q are true.

Definition 1.4 Disjunction of Propositions

If p and q are propositions, p ∨ q is the disjunction of p and q, read as "p or
q". The proposition p ∨ q is true if and only if either p is true or q is true.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 2

Definition 1.5 Implication of Propositions

If p and q are propositions, the proposition p → q is read as "p implies q".
It is false if and only if p is true but q is false.

p → q can also be read as "if p then q or "p only if q". In mathematics, we

usually write p =⇒ q instead of p → q.

Definition 1.6 Double Implication

If p and q are propositions, the proposition p ←→ q is read as "p if and
only if q". It is the conjunction of p → q and q → p. Hence, it is true if and
only if both p and q are true, or both p and q are false.

The stament “p if and only if q” is often expressed as p ⇐⇒ q.

Two compound propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent, denoted
by p ≡ q, provided that p is true if and only if q is true.
Logical equivalences are important for working with mathematical proofs.
Some equivalences such as commutative law, associative law, distributive law are
obvious. Other important equivalences are listed in the theorem below.

Theorem 1.1 Logical Equivalences

Let p, q, r be propositions.

1. p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q

2. De Morgan’s Law

(i) ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q
(ii) ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q

A very important equivalence is the equivalence of an implication with its

contrapositive.

Theorem 1.2 Contraposition

If p and q are propositions, p → q is equivalent to ¬q → ¬p.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 3

In mathematics, we are often dealing with statements that depend on variables.

Quantifiers are used to specify the extent to which such a statement is true. Two
commonly used quantifiers are "for all" (∀) and "there exists" (∃).
For negation of statements with quantifiers, we have the following generalized
De Morgan’s law.

Theorem 1.3 Generalized De Morgan’s Law

1. ¬ (∀x P (x)) ≡ ∃x ¬P (x)

2. ¬ (∃x P (x)) ≡ ∀x ¬P (x)

For nested quantifiers, the ordering is important if different types of quantifiers

are involved. For example, the statement

∀x ∃y x + y = 0

is not equivalent to the statement

∃y ∀x x + y = 0.

When the domains for x and y are both the set of real numbers, the first statement
is true, while the second statement is false.
For a set A, we use the notation x ∈ A to denote x is an element of the set A;
and the notation x ∈ / A to denote x is not an element of A.

Definition 1.7 Equal Sets

Two sets A and B are equal if they have the same elements. In logical
expression, A = B if and only if

x ∈ A ⇐⇒ x ∈ B.

Definition 1.8 Subset

If A and B are sets, we say that A is a subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B,
if every element of A is an element of B. In logical expression, A ⊂ B
means that
x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 4

When A is a subset of B, we will also say that A is contained in B, or B

contains A.
We say that A is a proper subset of B if A is a subset of B and A ̸= B. In
some textbooks, the symbol "⊆" is used to denote subset, and the symbol "⊂"
is reserved for proper subset. In this book, we will not make such a distinction.
Whenever we write A ⊂ B, it means A is a subset of B, not necessary a proper
subset.
There are operations that can be defined on sets, such as union, intersection,
difference and complement.

Definition 1.9 Union of Sets

If A and B are sets, the union of A and B is the set A ∪ B which contains
all elements that are either in A or in B. In logical expression,

x ∈ A ∪ B ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B).

Definition 1.10 Intersection of Sets

If A and B are sets, the intersection of A and B is the set A ∩ B which
contains all elements that are in both A and B. In logical expression,

x ∈ A ∩ B ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B).

Definition 1.11 Difference of Sets

If A and B are sets, the difference of A and B is the set A \ B which
contains all elements that are in A and not in B. In logical expression,

x ∈ A \ B ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈
/ B).

Definition 1.12 Complement of a Set

If A is a set that is contained in a universal set U , the complement of A in
U is the set AC which contains all elements that are in U but not in A. In
logical expression,

x ∈ AC ⇐⇒ (x ∈ U ) ∧ (x ∈
/ A).
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 5

Since a universal set can vary from context to context, we will usually avoid
using the notation AC and use U \ A instead for the complement of A in U . The
advantage of using the notation AC is that De Morgan’s law takes a more succint
form.

Proposition 1.4 De Morgan’s Law for Sets

If A and B are sets in a universal set U , and AC and B C are their

complements in U , then

1. (A ∪ B)C = AC ∩ B C

2. (A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ B C

Definition 1.13 Functions

When A and B are sets, a function f from A to B, denoted by f : A → B,
is a correspondence that assigns every element of A a unique element in B.
If a is in A, the image of a under the function f is denoted by f (a), and it
is an element of B.
A is called the domain of f , and B is called the codomain of f .

Definition 1.14 Image of a Set

If f : A → B is a function and C is a subset of A, the image of C under f
is the set
f (C) = {f (c) | c ∈ C} .
f (A) is called the range of f .

Definition 1.15 Preimage of a Set

If f : A → B is a function and D is a subset of B, the preimage of D under
f is the set
f −1 (D) = {a ∈ A | f (a) ∈ D} .

Notice that f −1 (D) is a notation, it does not mean that the function f has an
inverse.
Next, we turn to discuss injectivity and surjectivity of functions.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 6

Definition 1.16 Injection

We say that a function f : A → B is an injection, or the function f :
A → B is injective, or the function f : A → B is one-to-one, if no pair of
distinct elements of A are mapped to the same element of B. Namely,

a1 ̸= a2 =⇒ f (a1 ) ̸= f (a2 ).

Using contrapositive, a function is injective provided that

f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) =⇒ a1 = a2 .

Definition 1.17 Surjection

We say that a function f : A → B is a surjection, or the function f : A →
B is surjective, or the function f : A → B is onto, if every element of B
is the image of some element in A. Namely,

∀b ∈ B, ∃a ∈ A, f (a) = b.

Equivalently, f : A → B is surjective if the range of f is B. Namely,

f (A) = B.

Definition 1.18 Bijection

We say that a function f : A → B is a bijection, or the function f : A → B
is bijective, if it is both injective and surjective.
A bijection is also called a one-to-one correspondence.

Finally, we would like to make a remark about some notations. If f : A → B

is a function with domain A, and C is a subset of A, the restriction of f to C is
the function f |C : C → B defined by f |C (c) = f (c) for all c ∈ C. When no
confusion arises, we will often denote this function simply as f : C → B.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 7

1.2 The Set of Real Numbers and Its Subsets

In this section, we introduce the set of real numbers using an intuitive approach.

Definition 1.19 Natural Numbers

The set of natural numbers N is the set that contains the counting numbers,
1, 2, 3 . . ., which are also called positive integers.

N is an inductive set. The number 1 is the smallest element of this set. If n is

a natural number, then n + 1 is also a natural number.
The number 0 corresponds to nothing.
For every positive integer n, −n is a number which produces 0 when adds to
n. This number −n is called the negative of n, or the additive inverse of n.
−1, −2, −3, . . ., are called negative integers.

Definition 1.20 Integers

The set of integers Z is the set that contains all positive integers, negative
integers and 0.

We will also use the notation Z+ to denote the set of positive integers.

Definition 1.21 Rational Numbers

The set of rational numbers Q is the set defined as
nm o
Q= m, n ∈ Z, n ̸= 0 .
n

Each rational number is a quotient of two integers, where the denominator is

nonzero. The set of integers Z is a subset of the set of rational numbers Q.
Every rational number m/n has a decimal expansion. For example,
23
− = −5.75,
4
27
= 3.857142857142 . . . = 3.8̇57142̇.
7
The decimal expansion of a rational number is either finite or periodic.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 8

Definition 1.22 Real Numbers

The set of real numbers R is intuitively defined to be the set that contains
all decimal numbers, which is not necessary periodic.

The set of real numbers contains the set of rational numbers Q as a subset. If
a real number is not a rational number, we call it an irrational number. The set
of irrational numbers is R \ Q.
It has been long known that there are real numbers that are not rational numbers.
√
The best example is the number 2, which appears as the length of the diagonal
of a unit square (see Figure 1.1).

√
Figure 1.1: The number 2.

The addition and multiplication operations defined on the set of natural numbers
can be extended to the set of real numbers consistently.
If a and b are real numbers, a + b is the addition of a and b, and ab is the
multiplication of a and b.
If a and b are positive real numbers, a+b and ab are also positive real numbers.
The set of real numbers with the addition and multuplication operations is
a field, which you will learn in abstract algebra. These operations satisfy the
following properties.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 9

Properties of Real Numbers

1. Commutativity of Addition

a+b=b+a

2. Associativity of Addition

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

3. Additive Identity
a+0=0+a=a
0 is called the additive identity.

4. Additive Inverse
For every real number a, the negative of a, denoted by −a, satisfies

a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0

5. Commutativity of Multiplication

ab = ba

6. Associativity of Multiplication

(ab)c = a(bc)

7. Multiplicative Identity

a·1=1·a=a

1 is called the multiplicative identity.

8. Multiplicative Inverse
For every nonzero real number a, the reciprocal of a, denoted by 1/a,
satisfies
1 1
a· = ·a=1
a a
9. Distributivity
a(b + c) = ab + ac
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 10

The set of complex numbers C is the set that contains all numbers of the
form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, and i is the purely imaginary
number such that i2 = −1. It contains the set of real numbers R as a subset.
Addition and multiplication can be extended to the set of complex numbers. These
two operations on complex numbers also satisfy all the properties listed above.
Nevertheless, we shall focus on the set of real numbers in this course.
There are special subsets of real numbers which are called intervals. There
are nine types of intervals, four types are finite, five types are semi-infinite or
infinite. Their definitions are as follows.

Finite Intervals
1. (a, b) = {x ∈ R | a < x < b}

2. [a, b) = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x < b}

3. (a, b] = {x ∈ R | a < x ≤ b}

4. [a, b] = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤ b}

For the intervals (a, b), [a, b), (a, b], [a, b], the points a and b are the end points
of the interval, while any point x with a < x < b is an interior point.

Semi-Infinite or Infinite Intervals

5. (a, ∞) = {x ∈ R | x > a}

6. [a, ∞) = {x ∈ R | x ≥ a}

7. (−∞, a) = {x ∈ R | x < a}

8. (−∞, a] = {x ∈ R | x ≤ a}

9. (−∞, ∞) = R.

For the intervals (a, ∞), [a, ∞), (−∞, a) and (−∞, a], a is the end point of
the interval, while any other points in the interval besides a is an interior point.
The set of natural numbers is a well-ordered set. Every nonempty subset
of positive integers has a smallest element. This statement is equivalent to the
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 11

principle of mathematical induction, which is one of the important strategies in

proving mathematical statements.

Proposition 1.5 Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let P (n) be a sequence of statements that are indexed by the set of positive
integers Z+ . Assume that the following two assertions are true.

1. The statement P (1) is true.

2. For every positive integer n, if the statement P (n) is true, the statement
P (n + 1) is also true.

Then we can conclude that for all positive integers n, the statement P (n) is
true.

Before ending this section, let us discuss the absolute value and some useful
inequalities.

Definition 1.23 Absolute Value

Given a real number x, the absolute value of x, denoted by |x|, is defined
to be the nonnegative number

x, if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.

In particular, | − x| = |x|.

For example, |2.7| = 2.7, | − 2.7| = 2.7.

The absolute value |x| can be interpreted as the distance between the number
x and the number 0 on the number line. For any two real numbers x and y, |x − y|
is the distance between x and y. Hence, the absolute value can be used to express
an interval.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 12

Intervals Defined by Absolute Values

Let a be a real number.

1. If r is a positive number,

|x − a| < r ⇐⇒ −r < x − a < r ⇐⇒ x ∈ (a − r, a + r).

2. If r is a nonnegative number,

|x − a| ≤ r ⇐⇒ −r ≤ x − a ≤ r ⇐⇒ x ∈ [a − r, a + r].

Absolute values behave well with respect to multiplication operation.

Proposition 1.6
Given real numbers x and y,

|xy| = |x||y|.

In general, |x + y| is not equal to |x| + |y|. Instead, we have an inequality,

known as the triangle inequality, which is very important in analysis.

Proposition 1.7 Triangle Inequality

Given real numbers x and y,

|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

This is proved by discussing all four possible cases where x ≥ 0 or x < 0,

y ≥ 0 or y < 0.
A common mistake students tend to make is to replace both plus signs in the
triangle equality directly by minus signs. This is totally assurd. The correct one is

|x − y| ≤ |x| + | − y| = |x| + |y|.

For the inequality in the other direction, we have

Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 13

Proposition 1.8
Given real numbers x and y,

|x − y| ≥ ||x| − |y|| .

Proof
Since |x − y| ≥ 0, the statement is equivalent to

−|x − y| ≤ |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|.

By triangle inequality,

|x − y| + |y| ≥ |x − y + y| = |x|.

Hence,
|x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|.
By triangle inequality again,

|x − y| + |x| = |y − x| + |x| ≥ |y − x + x| = |y|.

Hence,
−|x − y| ≤ |x| − |y|.
This completes the proof.

Example 1.1

If |x − 5| ≤ 2, show that
9 ≤ x2 ≤ 49.

Solution
|x − 5| ≤ 2 implies 3 ≤ x ≤ 7. This means that x is positive. The
inequality x ≥ 3 then implies that x2 ≥ 9, and the inequality x ≤ 7 implies
that x2 ≤ 49. Therefore,
9 ≤ x2 ≤ 49.

Finally, we have the useful Cauchy’s inequality.

Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 14

Proposition 1.9 Cauchy’s Inequality

For any real numbers a and b,

a2 + b 2
ab ≤ .
2

Proof
This is just a consequence of (a − b)2 ≥ 0.

An immediate consequence of Cauchy’s inequality is the arithmetic mean-

geometric mean inequality. For any nonnegative numbers a and b, the geometric
√ a+b
mean of a and b is ab, and the arithmetic mean is .
2
Proposition 1.10
If a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0, then
√ a+b
ab ≤ .
2
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 15

Exercises 1.2
Question 1
Use induction to show that for any positive integer n,

n! ≥ 2n−1 .

Question 2: Bernoulli’s Inequality

Given that a > −1, use induction to show that

(1 + a)n ≥ 1 + na

for all positive integer n.

Question 3
Let n be a positive integer. If c1 , c2 , . . . , cn are numbers that lie in the
interval (0, 1), show that

(1 − c1 )(1 − c2 ) . . . (1 − cn ) ≥ 1 − c1 − c2 − · · · − cn .
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 16

1.3 Bounded Sets and the Completeness Axiom

In this section, we discuss a property of real numbers called completeness. The

set of rational numbers does not have this property.
First, we introduce the concept of boundedness.

Definition 1.24 Boundedness

Let S be a subset of R.

1. We say that S is bounded above if there is a number c such that

x ≤ c for all x ∈ S.

Such a c is called an upper bound of S.

2. We say that S is bounded below if there is a number b such that

x ≥ b for all x ∈ S.

Such a b is called a lower bound of S.

3. We say that S is bounded if it is bounded above and bounded below. In

this case, there is a number M such that

|x| ≤ M for all x ∈ S.

Let us look at some examples.

Example 1.2
Determine whether each of the following sets of real numbers is bounded
above, whether it is bounded below, and whether it is bounded.

(a) A = {x | x < 2}

(b) B = {x | x > −2}

(c) C = {x | − 2 < x < 2}.

Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 17

Solution
(a) The set A is bounded above since every element of A is less than or
equal to 2. It is not bounded below, and so it is not bounded.

(b) The set B is bounded below since every element of B is larger than or
equal to −2. It is not bounded above, and so it is not bounded.

(c) The set C is equal to A∩B. So it is bounded above and bounded below.
Therefore, it is bounded.

Figure 1.2: The sets A, B, C in Example 1.2.

If S is a set of real numbers, the negative of S, denoted by −S, is the set

−S = {−x | x ∈ S} .

For example, the set B = {x | x > −2} is the negative of the set A = {x | x < 2},
the set C = {x | − 2 < x < 2} is the negative of itself (see Figure 1.2). It is
obvious that S is bounded above if and only if −S is bounded below.
Next, we recall the definition of maximum and minimum of a set.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 18

Definition 1.25 Maximum and Minimum

Let S be a nonempty subset of real numbers.

1. A number c is called the largest element or maximum of S if c is an

element of S and
x≤c for all x ∈ S.
If the maximum of the set S exists, we denote is by max S.

2. A number b is called the smallest element or minimum of S if b is an

element of S and
x≥b for all x ∈ S.
If the minimum of the set S exists, we denote it by min S.

Obviously, b is the maximum of a set S if and only if −b is the minimum of

the set −S.

Example 1.3

For the set S1 = [−2, 2], −2 is the minimum, and 2 is the maximum.
For the set S2 = [−2, 2), −2 is the minimum, and there is no maximum.

This example shows that a bounded set does not necessarily have maximum
or minimum. However, a finite set always have a maximum and a minimum.

Proposition 1.11
If S is a finite set, then S has a maximum and a minimum.

Next, we introduce the concept of least upper bound.

Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 19

Definition 1.26 Least Upper Bound

Let S be a nonempty subset of real numbers that is bounded above, and
let US be the set of upper bounds of S. Then US is a nonempty set that is
bounded below. If US has a smallest element u, we say that u is the least
upper bound or supremum of S, and denote it by

u = sup S.

Example 1.4

For the sets S1 = [−2, 2] and S2 = [−2, 2),

sup S1 = sup S2 = 2.

Notice that sup S, if exists, is not necessary an element of S. The following

proposition depicts the relation between the maximum of a set (if exists) and its
least upper bound.

Proposition 1.12 Supremum and Maximum

Let S be a nonempty subset of real numbers. Then S has a maximum if and
only if S is bounded above and sup S is in S.

One natural question to ask is, if S is a nonempty subset of real numbers that
is bounded above, does S necessarily have a least upper bound. The completeness
axiom asserts that this is true.

Completeness Axiom
If S is a nonempty subset of real numbers that is bounded above, then S
has a least upper bound.

The reason this is formulated as an axiom is we cannot prove this from our
intuitive definition of real numbers. Therefore, we will assume this as a fact for
the set of real numbers. A lots of theorems that we are going to derive later is a
consequence of this axiom.
Actually, the set of real numbers can be constructed axiomatically, taken it
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 20

to be a set that contains the set of rational numbers, satisfying all properties
of addition and multiplication operations, as well as the completeness axiom.
However, this is a tedious construction and will drift us too far.
To show that the completeness axiom is not completely trivial, we show in
Example 1.6 that if we only consider the set of rational numbers, we can find a
subset of rational numbers A that is bounded above but does not have a least upper
bound in the set of rational numbers. We look at the following example first.

Example 1.5
Define the set of real numbers S by

S = x ∈ R | x2 < 2 .


Show that S is nonempty and is bounded above. Conclude that the set

A = x ∈ Q | x2 < 2


is also nonempty and is bounded above by a rational number.

Solution
The number 1 is in S, and so S is nonempty. For any x ∈ S, x2 < 2 < 4,
and hence x < 2. This shows that S is bounded above by 2. Since 1 and 2
are rational numbers, the same reasoning shows that the set A is nonempty
and is bounded above by a rational number.

Example 1.6
Consider the set
A = x ∈ Q | x2 < 2 .


By Example 1.5, A is a nonempty subset of rational numbers that is

bounded above by 2. Let UA be the set of upper bounds of A in Q. Namely,

UA = {c ∈ Q | x ≤ c for all x ∈ A} .

Show that UA does not have a smallest element.

Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 21

Solution
We use proof by contradiction. Assume that UA has a smallest element c1 ,
which is an upper bound of A that is smaller than or equal to any upper
bound of A. Then for any x ∈ A,

x 2 ≤ c1 .

Since 1 is in A, c1 is a positive rational number. Hence, there are poitive

integers p and q such that
p
c1 = .
q
Since there are no rational numbers whose square is 2, we must have either
c21 < 2 or c21 > 2.
Define the positive rational number c2 by
2p + 2q
c2 = .
p + 2q
Notice that
p(p + 2q) − q(2p + 2q) p2 − 2q 2
c1 − c2 = = ,
q(p + 2q) q(p + 2q)

p2 − 2q 2
c21 − 2 = ,
q2
and
4p2 + 8pq + 4q 2 − 2(p2 + 4pq + 4q 2 ) 2(p2 − 2q 2 )
c22 − 2 = = .
(p + 2q)2 (p + 2q)2

Case 1: c21 < 2.

In this case, p2 < 2q 2 . It follows that c1 < c2 and c22 < 2. But then c1
and c2 are both in A, and c2 is an element in A that is larger than c1 , which
contradicts to c1 is an upper bound of A. Hence, we cannot have c21 < 2.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 22

Case 2: c21 > 2.

In this case, p2 > 2q 2 . It follows that c1 > c2 and c22 > 2. Since c22 > 2, we
find that for any x ∈ A,
x2 < 2 < c22 .
Thus,
−c2 < x < c2 .
In particular, c2 is also an upper bound of A. Namely, c2 is in UA . But then
c1 and c2 are both in UA and c1 > c2 . This contradicts to c1 is the smallest
element in UA . Hence, we cannot have c21 > 2.
Since both Case 1 and Case 2 lead to contradictions, we conclude that UA
does not have a smallest element.

In the solution above, the construction of the positive rational number c2 seems
a bit adhoc. In fact, we can define c2 by
mp + 2nq
c2 =
np + mq

for any positive integers m and n with m2 > 2n2 . Then the proof still works.
Now let us see how completeness axiom is used to guarantee that there is a
real number whose square is 2.

Example 1.7
Use completeness axiom to show that there is a positive real number c such
that
c2 = 2.

Solution
Define the set of real numbers S by

S = x ∈ R | x2 < 2 .


Example 1.5 asserts that S is a nonempty subset of real numbers that is

bounded above. Completeness axiom asserts that S has a least upper bound
c.
Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 23

Since 1 is in S, c ≥ 1. We are going to prove that c2 = 2 using proof by

contradiction. If c2 ̸= 2, then c2 < 2 or c2 > 2.
Case 1: c2 < 2.
Let d = 2 − c2 . Then 0 < d ≤ 1. Define the number c1 by
d
c1 = c + .
4c
Then c1 > c, and

d d2 d d
c21 = c2 + + 2
≤ c2 + + < c2 + d = 2.
2 16c 2 16
This implies that c1 is an element of S that is larger than c, which contradicts
to c is an upper bound of S.
Case 2: c2 > 2.
Let d = c2 − 2. Then d > 0. Define the number c1 by
d
c1 = c − .
2c
Then c1 < c, and

d2
c21 = c2 − d + 2
> c2 − d = 2.
4c
This implies that c1 is an upper bound of S that is smaller than c, which
contradicts to c is the least upper bound of S.
Since we obtain a contradiction if c2 ̸= 2, we must have c2 = 2.

In fact, the completeness axiom can be used to show that for any positive real
number a, there is a positive real number c such that

c2 = a.
√
We denote this number c as a, called the positive square root of a. The number
√
b = − a is another real number such that b2 = a.
More generally, if n is a positive integer, a is a positive real number, then there
is a positive real number c such that cn = a. We denote this number c by
√
n
c= a,
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 retractor muscles; s, stomach; t, tentacles of new polypide; t.s,
tentacle-sheath: 3, the same zooecium, 191 hours later; letters as
in 2. 1 and 2 are seen from the front, 3 from the back.[506]

There is some reason to believe[507] that these remarkable

processes are connected with the removal of waste nitrogenous
matters. The Marine Polyzoa are not known to be, in most cases,
provided with definite excretory organs, although it is possible that
the intertentacular organ (Fig. 234, i) described on p. 508 may in
some cases perform excretory functions. There can, however, be
little doubt that some kind of excretion takes place in the Polyzoa;
and in considering what organs could possibly perform this work, our
attention is arrested by the alimentary canal. The digestive organs of
the young bud are perfectly colourless. As growth proceeds, certain
parts acquire a yellowish, and later a brown colour. The
degeneration of the polypide is followed by the grouping of large
numbers of the free cells of the body-cavity into a mass which
closely surrounds the incipient "brown body." Under their action, the
latter becomes considerably smaller, probably as the result of the
absorption of matters of nutritive value into other tissues. The final
result is the formation of the compact "brown body," whose colour is
principally derived from the pigment formerly present in the
alimentary canal. Experiments made by introducing into the tissues
of the Polyzoa certain artificial pigments which are known to be
excreted by the kidneys when injected into the bodies of other
animals, have given some reason for believing that the appearance
of the brown pigment in the wall of the digestive organs is, in part, a
normal process of excretion; although that process is not entirely
carried out by the organs in question.

Little is known with regard to the duration of life of a single polypide;

but some information bearing on this question may be obtained from
a set of observations made on Flustra papyrea.[508] The table gives
the number of days from the time at which the polypides were
noticed to commence their degeneration:—
Days.
2 "Brown body" partially formed, the parts of the polypide
being still easily recognisable.
5 Tentacles still just recognisable: appearance of new
polypide-bud.
8 Stage shown in Fig. 235, 2.
11 Union of apex of stomach with "brown body."
16 "Brown body" half surrounded by stomach, and preparing to
break up (Fig. 235, 3).
21 "Brown body" broken up into numerous fragments, contained
in the alimentary canal of the new polypide.
35 "Brown body" almost completely absorbed.[509]

These results did not hold good for all the zooecia in a single colony.
In some, the "brown body" was not completely got rid of at the end of
sixty-eight days, the conclusion of the experiment.

So striking are the facts relating to the "brown bodies" that it has
been believed[510] that what we have above described as the
individual really consists of two kinds of individuals: firstly, the
"polypide" or complex of tentacles and digestive organs; and
secondly, the "zooecium," or house of the zooid or polypide,
corresponding with what has been described above as the body-
wall. The one individual, the zooecium, is on this view provided with
successive generations of the second kind of individual, the
polypide; and these latter function as the digestive organs of the two-
fold organism. This view, though fascinating at first sight, is not borne
out by an examination of all the facts of the case, especially when
the Entoprocta are taken into account.

History.—The history of the Polyzoa, as far as 1856, has been fully

treated by Allman in his great work on the Fresh-water Polyzoa;[511]
but a few words may be said on this subject.
The Polyzoa attracted comparatively little attention before the
beginning of the present century. Originally passed over as
seaweeds, their real nature was established in connexion with the
discovery of the animal nature of corals. So great a revolution could
hardly be accepted without a struggle, and even Linnaeus went no
further in this direction than to place them in a kind of half-way group
of "zoophytes," whose nature was partly animal and partly vegetable.
It is hardly necessary to point out that this view has now been
abandoned by common consent; and indeed there is no more
reason for regarding an animal as showing an approach to the plants
because it grows in the external semblance of a seaweed than there
would be for supposing a bee-orchid to be allied to the animal
kingdom because of the form of its flowers.

But the claims of the Polyzoa to rank as a separate class were by no

means admitted with the discovery that they were animals. They
were still confounded with Hydroids, Alcyonarians, or Corals until
their possession of a complete alimentary canal was recognised as a
feature distinguishing them from those animals. This was principally
due to the observations of J. V. Thompson[512] in Ireland, who
introduced the term Polyzoa; and of C. G. Ehrenberg[513] in
Germany, who proposed the class-name Bryozoa, or moss-like
animals.

It is impossible to avoid all mention of the controversy which has

raged with regard to these two rival terms. The controversy is for the
present at rest, the name Polyzoa being employed by the majority of
English writers, amongst whom must be mentioned Allman, Busk,
Hincks, and Norman, admittedly authorities of the first rank; while
Bryozoa is employed by practically all the Continental writers.

The priority of Thompson's name is unquestioned. While Ehrenberg,

however, definitely introduced Bryozoa as the name of a group,
Thompson was less precise in this respect, although he states[514]
that his discovery "must be the cause of extensive alterations and
dismemberments in the class with which they [the Polyzoa] have
hitherto been associated." Thompson, in fact, clearly understood that
the Polyzoa could no longer rank with the Hydroids. The controversy
has been summarised by Hincks, in his History of the British Marine
Polyzoa,[515] where references to other papers on the same subject
are given.

The Polyzoa were associated by H. Milne-Edwards with the Tunicata

in the group Molluscoidea (Molluscoïdes[516]), to which the
Brachiopoda were afterwards added by Huxley.[517] A knowledge of
the development of the Tunicata has, however, shown that these
animals must be withdrawn from any association with the other two
groups; while there is little real evidence that even the Brachiopods
have anything to do with the Polyzoa.

Classification.—The Polyzoa are divided into two sub-classes:—I,

the Entoprocta; and II, the Ectoprocta.[518] Although the
character referred to by these terms is merely the position of the
anus with relation to the tentacles,[519] there can be no doubt that
the two groups differ widely from one another in many important
respects. I do not, however, accept the view, maintained by some
authors, that the Entoprocta and the Ectoprocta are two separate
classes which are not nearly related.

The base from which the whole set of tentacles springs is known as
the "lophophore."[520] In the Entoprocta (Fig. 236, 1) the lophophore
is circular; the mouth is situated near the margin of the area
surrounded by the tentacles; and the anus is found within the circlet,
near the end opposite to the mouth.

In (2) and (3), representing the Ectoprocta, the anus is outside the
series of tentacles. In the majority of cases, including all the marine
Ectoprocta and one or two of the fresh-water forms, the lophophore
is circular (2), the mouth occurring at the centre of the circle, and not
being provided with a lip. These forms of Ectoprocta constitute the
Order Gymnolaemata,[521] the dominant group of the Polyzoa in
respect of number of genera and species. The remaining Ectoprocta
belong to the exclusively fresh-water Order Phylactolaemata,[522]
in which the mouth is protected by an overhanging lip or "epistome";
the ground-plan of the tentacles is, except in Fredericella, horse-
shoe shaped (Fig. 236, 3), and the tentacles themselves are usually
much more numerous than in the other cases.

Fig. 236.—Ground-plan of the lophophore in (1) Entoprocta, (2)

Gymnolaemata, (3) Phylactolaemata: a, anus; ep, epistome; m,
mouth. The tentacles are represented by shaded circles.

The general characters of these divisions will be more easily

understood by referring to the figures given of living representatives
of the groups. The Entoprocta are illustrated by Figs. 243-245; the
Gymnolaemata by Figs. 238, 240; and the Phylactolaemata by Figs.
247, 248.

The Gymnolaemata include three Sub-Orders:—

1. Cyclostomata.[523]—Body-wall densely calcareous, the

zooecia being more or less tubular, usually with a circular orifice
(Fig. 237).

2. Cheilostomata.[524]—Body-wall of varying consistency. The

orifice is closed, in the retracted state of the polypide, by a
chitinous lip or "operculum," which is more or less semicircular
(Figs. 239, 241).

3. Ctenostomata.[525]—Body-wall always soft. The cavity into

which the tentacles are retracted is closed by a frill-like
 membrane, the edges of whose folds have some resemblance to
the teeth of a comb. This membrane, the "collar," is seen in
different conditions of protrusion or retraction in Figs. 234, 238.
The stomach may, in this group, be preceded by a muscular
gizzard (Fig. 238, C, g).

Occurrence.—By far the larger number of the Polyzoa are

inhabitants of the sea. A recently published catalogue[526] of marine
Polyzoa includes nearly 1700 living species; and of these, the great
majority belong to the Gymnolaemata. This group is further known to
include an enormous number of fossil forms. Not only do we find that
in living Polyzoa the members of a single Order largely outnumber
the remainder of the Polyzoa, but we may further notice that the
Cheilostomata, one of the sub-Orders of the dominant group, are at
present largely in excess of the whole of the rest of the Polyzoa
taken together.

Polyzoa may be collected with ease on almost any part of our

coasts. The fronds of the "sea-mat" (Flustra foliacea) are thrown up
by the waves in thousands in places where the bottom is shallow
and sandy. The bases of the larger seaweeds growing on rocks
between tide-marks are nearly always thickly covered with
encrustations of Flustrella hispida or of species of Alcyonidium, in
places where they are kept moist by being covered with a sufficiently
thick layer of other algae. Rocks which are protected from the sun
may be coated with calcareous Cheilostomes; and these are also
found, in company with branching Polyzoa of various kinds, on the
bases of the Laminaria thrown up by gales or exposed at spring
tides. The graceful spirals of Bugula turbinata (Fig. 233, A) may be
found hanging from the rocks at extreme low water; while colonies of
Scrupocellaria, remarkable for their vibracula (see p. 484), are
common in many places between tide-marks. Certain species affect
the mouths of estuaries.
Membranipora membranacea commonly covers many square inches
of the frond of Laminaria with its delicate lace-like encrustation.
Nitsche[527] has shown that this species has its calcareous matter
deposited in plates, separated by intervals of uncalcified ectocyst.
The effect of this arrangement is to make the colony flexible, and to
enable it to adapt its shape to the movements of the Laminaria,
which is swayed to and fro by the action of the waves. Many of the
calcareous forms growing on Laminaria have no special
arrangement of this kind, and they accordingly grow in colonies
whose area is so small that the greatest movements to which the
seaweed is liable are not sufficient to crack or break the colony.

Many species show a decided, or even exclusive, preference for

particular situations; as, for instance, species of Triticella, which are
only found on certain Crustacea. Many encrusting forms prefer the
inside of dead shells of Pecten, Cyprina, etc., to any other habitat.
Terebripora[528] excavates tubular cavities in the substance of the
shells of Molluscs. Hypophorella[529] inhabits passages which it
forms in the walls of the tubes of the Polychaets, Lanice and
Chaetopterus. Lepralia foliacea, one of the Cheilostomata, forms
masses which may reach a circumference of several feet, simulating
a small coral-reef. Its contorted plates are a regular museum of
Polyzoa, so numerous are the species which delight to find shelter in
the quiet interstices of the colony. The exquisite little colonies of
Crisia eburnea are commonly found on red seaweeds, or on the
branches of the Hydroid Sertularia.

The Polyzoa are found at all depths, certain Cheilostomes having

been recorded from 3000 fathoms. The Cyclostomes dredged by the
"Challenger" were all found in depths of 1600 fathoms or less, while
the Ctenostomes are a distinctly shallow water group, most having
been found at less than 40 fathoms, and only three at so great a
depth as 150 fathoms.[530]
A few forms (Membranipora pilosa, Scrupocellaria reptans, etc.) are
known to be phosphorescent;[531] but it is not known what is the
purpose of this phenomenon.

External Form.—The Polyzoa may be roughly divided into (1)

encrusting forms, usually calcareous, but sometimes soft; and (2)
erect forms, which are either rigid or flexible. This flexibility can
coexist with a highly calcified ectocyst, as in Crisia (Fig. 237),
Cellaria, and others in which the branches are interrupted at intervals
by chitinous joints. The coral-like forms may assume the most
exquisite shapes, pre-eminent among which are the lovely net-like
colonies of Retepora. Polyzoa of this type are seldom found between
tide-marks, where their brittle branches would be liable to be
snapped off by the waves. The erect species which occur in such
positions are flexible, although flexible species are by no means
restricted to the zone between tide-marks.

Fig. 237.—Crisia ramosa Harmer, Plymouth. A, End of a branch, × 1;

B, another branch, × 20, showing the chitinous joints, the tubular
 zooecia characteristic of Cyclostomata, and the pear-shaped
ovicell with a funnel-shaped orifice at its upper end.

Although the form of the colony is very different in different Polyzoa,

a pocket-lens will usually show whether a given specimen belongs to
the group or not. The surface is nearly always more or less distinctly
composed of zooecia, or at least shows their orifices. The entire
colony may be built up of these zooecia; and this is by far the
commonest arrangement, both in encrusting and in erect forms. In
certain genera, however, and particularly in some Ctenostomes (Fig.
238), and in most of the Entoprocta, the individuals grow out at
intervals from a cylindrical stem or "stolon" (st), which is not
composed of zooecia.

The Cyclostomata may assume an erect or encrusting habit. Their

zooecia are always more or less cylindrical; the upper ends being
often completely free, although in many cases the whole zooecium is
closely adnate to its neighbours. In the breeding season the forms
which belong to this group are provided with curious "ovicells," which
contain the embryos. These may either be pear-shaped swellings on
the branches (Crisia, Fig. 237), or they may form inflations of the
surface, between the zooecia. The mature ovicell is provided with
one or more openings, through which the larvae escape.

Fig. 238.—Bowerbankia pustulosa Ell. and Sol., Plymouth. A,

Fragment of a colony, natural size, showing the branching stem,
bearing tufts of zooecia: B, one of these tufts, with the growing
 apex of the stem (st), × 27; b, young zooecia (buds); c, the "collar"
characteristic of Ctenostomata; t, tentacles; C, a single zooecium,
with expanded tentacles, more highly magnified; a, anus; c, collar;
g, gizzard; i, intestine; o, oesophagus; s, stomach.

The Ctenostomata rarely have even the slightest trace of calcareous

matter. Alcyonidium and its allies form soft encrustations, or may
even grow into erect masses six inches or more in height (A.
gelatinosum). In this type the zooecia are often so closely united that
it may be difficult or impossible to make out their limits in the living
colony. Many of the dendritic or branching Ctenostomes (Fig. 238)
are characterised by an extreme delicacy of habit. The zooecia in
these cases are sharply marked off from the stem. They are either
cylindrical or ovoid, being commonly attached by a very narrow
base, so that in some species they readily fall off, and may thus be
completely absent in certain parts of the colony. In such forms as
Vesicularia spinosa, it requires considerable experience to recognise
a stem which has lost its zooecia as being part of a Polyzoon. In
Mimosella the zooecia possess a remarkable power of movement on
the stem, similar to that possessed by the leaflets of the Sensitive
Plant.[532] In certain forms (Bowerbankia, Amathia) the zooecia
occur in groups separated by intervals which are devoid of zooecia,
but in other cases they may have a more irregular arrangement. The
collar to which this group owes its name is by no means a
conspicuous feature. Its position when retracted has been shown in
Fig. 234, while Fig. 238 further illustrates its relations.

The Cheilostomata grow in a great variety of forms, and also show a

wide range of character in their zooecia. The orifice is commonly
surrounded by stiff spines (Fig. 257, p. 524), which perhaps have the
function of protecting the delicate polypides from the sudden impact
of foreign bodies. These spines may attain an enormous
development, as in Bicellaria ciliata, and some forms of Electra
(Membranipora) pilosa (Fig. 256, A).
The operculum is usually, though by no means always, a
conspicuous feature of the Cheilostome zooecium. It is invariably of
chitinous consistency, and is more or less semicircular in outline, the
straight edge forming a hinge on which the operculum opens. In
some cases the orifice is surrounded by a raised margin or
"peristome" (Fig. 255, B, C); the operculum is then situated at the
bottom of a depression of the surface, and may be concealed from
view. In others, in which the front wall of the zooecium is
membranous (Bugula, Fig. 233), the operculum is merely a part of
this membrane, and so is quite inconspicuous; and in cases of this
kind the membranous wall may be protected by an arched spine, the
"fornix," developed from one side of the zooecium (Fig. 254, f). The
ovicells are commonly a conspicuous feature of this group, although
they are believed to differ fundamentally from those of Cyclostomata.
They have the form of a helmet-like covering overhanging the orifice
(Figs. 240, 241), and may be either prominent or more or less
concealed by the growth of adjacent parts of the zooecia. The
presence of ovicells of this description is perfectly distinctive of the
Cheilostomata.

Avicularia and Vibracula.—Most singular of the external

appendages of the Cheilostomata are the extraordinary "avicularia"
and "vibracula" of some genera.[533] By the comparison of a carefully
selected series of genera, it has been established that the
avicularium is a special modification of a zooecium. One of its least
modified forms is found in Flustra foliacea (Fig. 232), where the
avicularia (a) are small zooecia with a conspicuously large
operculum ("mandible"). Avicularia of a similar type occur in Cellaria
(Fig. 239, A), Schizotheca, etc., the avicularium occupying the place
of an ordinary zooecium. These are the "vicarious" avicularia of Mr.
Busk.[534]
 Fig. 239.—Forms of avicularia. A, Cellaria fistulosa L., Plymouth, × 43;
a.z, avicularian zooecium, with closed mandible; o, operculum of
zooecium: B, Schizoporella unicornis Johnst., Scilly Is., × 43;
zooecium bearing two avicularia; m, opened mandible of
avicularium; s, sinus of orifice: C, zooecium of Smittia landsborovii
Johnst., Plymouth, × 43; the operculum is seen at the bottom of a
depression surrounded by a thin collar or "peristome," in an
emargination of which is seen an avicularian zooecium (a.z); m,
mandible (opened); p, pores; t, tooth.

In the next stage (Figs. 239, B, 256, B) the avicularian zooecium is

further reduced; it has in most cases lost its place in the series of
individuals, and is found instead seated on some part of an ordinary
zooecium ("adventitious" avicularia). The avicularium now consists of
a much reduced zooecium, bearing the well-developed operculum or
mandible.

Having arrived at this point, the avicularia seem to lose all sense of
the propriety of remaining in the positions once occupied by zooecia.
They have become degraded to the rank of appendages of the
zooecia, and as such they may occur in an astonishing variety of
positions. Sometimes one occurs on each zooecium in the middle
line, or asymmetrically, or even on the top of the ovicell; in other
cases the orifice is flanked by an avicularium on each side (Fig. 239,
B). Sometimes (Cellepora) the avicularia are of more than one kind,
some being large and some small, some having a pointed mandible
and others a mandible with a rounded spoon-like end.

In the cases so far considered, the body of the avicularium is fixed.

The highest differentiation acquired by these structures occurs in
cases like Bugula, where they are borne on flexible stalks, which
may even exceed the avicularia in length.[535]
 Fig. 240.—Bugula turbinata, showing avicularia (a, a'). The figure is
explained on p. 468.

In Bugula turbinata (Fig. 240) each zooecium is provided with one of

these appendages, attached to the base of the outer of the two
spines which border its orifice. The avicularia of the two edges of the
flattened branch are much larger than those of the more internal
zooecia. The upper jaw is strengthened by a kind of buttress, or
thickening of the ectocyst, which passes on each side across the
avicularium to the hinge-line of its mandible. The upper part of the
beak is strongly hooked, while the tip of the mandible bears a
prominent spike, which fits inside the upper beak when the jaw
snaps. A great part of the head is filled with a strong muscle, whose
fibres exhibit a distinct transverse striation, and converge into a
median tendon. The latter is inserted into the middle of the mandible.
The muscle serves to close the jaws, and is the representative of the
muscles by which the operculum is closed in an ordinary zooecium.
The lower jaw is opened by means of a pair of muscles which are
situated immediately under the ectocyst of the avicularium, and pass
into the mandible close to its hinge.
 Fig. 241.—Illustrating the transition from avicularia to vibracula. A,
Microporella ciliata Pall., Scilly Is., × 62; a, avicularium with short
mandible (closed); a', avicularium with vibraculoid mandible
(open); m.p, median pore; o, ovicell: B, Mastigophora dutertrei
Aud., Shetland Is., × 47; s, sinus of orifice; v, seta of vibraculum
(or vibraculoid avicularium).

Within the jaws, in the region which we may term the palate, is a
rounded knob, which bears a tuft of delicate sensory hairs, which
doubtless enable the avicularium to recognise the presence of any
foreign body. The closure of the mouth may, indeed, be
instantaneously induced by touching it with the point of a needle. It
has been suggested that a small mass of cells which bears these
hairs may represent the rudiment of the polypide.

The "vibraculum" (Fig. 242) is regarded as an avicularium in which

the mandible has become elongated, so as to form a thin, chitinous
"seta," which from time to time moves through the water. The part of
the vibraculum which represents the zooecium commonly bears a
tubular rootlet, used for attaching the colony to the substance on
which it is growing (Fig. 254, p. 517).

In Microporella ciliata (Fig. 241, A) the avicularia are very variable,

and in some cases take on a "vibraculoid" character. But in the fully-
developed vibraculum (Fig. 242) there is usually no such
compromise of characters. It may, however, be noted that
Scrupocellaria scabra (Fig. 254), which belongs to a genus
characterised by its highly differentiated vibracula, possesses
structures (v.z) which could hardly be distinguished from avicularia
were it not for the presence of the rootlet (r).
In the course of some observations which I had the opportunity of
making on Bugula calathus at Naples, a fine hair offered to a small
colony was seized with such force by the avicularia that the entire
colony was lifted out of the water by the hair. The same colony had
captured (1) a small Nereis, which it held with several of its
avicularia; (2) an Anisopod Crustacean, 2½ mm. long; and (3) a
small Amphipod, which was held by one of its antennae. The
Anisopod was held by the tip of one leg with one avicularium, and by
the penultimate joint of one of its chelae with an avicularium of
another branch. It was captured in such a way that its chela, the
"hand" of which was about half as long as the avicularium, actually
closed on to the avicularium without being able to effect its escape.
A little later the other chela was caught by another avicularium.
Curiously enough, however, an avicularium did not necessarily close
even when part of a captured animal was actually in its mouth. The
avicularia made no attempt to place themselves in an advantageous
position for catching fresh parts of the Nereis, which they might
easily have done. The avicularia which had captured prey remained
motionless. The others moved backwards and forwards (cf. the
various positions of the avicularia shown in Fig. 240) ten times in ¾
to 1 minute, snapping their jaws perhaps once in that time. The two
Crustacea were still retained by the avicularia two days later. On the
next day they had both disappeared; but the colony had again
caught the Nereis, which had previously effected its escape with the
loss of nearly all its tentacular cirri.

These observations, and others which have been recorded, do not,

unfortunately, give any information as to the purpose of the
movements of the avicularia and vibracula. It is obvious that they
may be defensive in character; and it cannot be doubted that the
avicularia can prevent inquisitive worms from straying at will over the
surface of the colony. There is no evidence to show that animals are
discouraged from interfering with a Bugula owing to the presence of
its defensive weapons.
 Fig. 242.—Caberea ellisii Flem., Norway. × 40. Back view of part of a
branch. The large vibracular zooecia (v.z) occupy nearly the
whole of the surface. s, Seta of vibraculum; z, zooecia.

It is not, indeed, certain what are the enemies against which the
Polyzoa have specially to guard. Sea-urchins and certain Molluscs
are known to browse on Polyzoa. Fresh-water Polyzoa, in which
avicularia and vibracula are absent, are attacked by the larvae of
Insects, and by Triclad Planarians. I have found the latter with their
long pharynx everted and completely buried in a Cristatella colony. It
is possible that some marine Cheilostomes may be saved from
attacks of this kind owing to the existence of their armoury of
avicularia and vibracula. It is also possible that these structures are
of service by removing foreign particles which might otherwise settle
on the colony, and tend to block up its orifices. It has further been
suggested that animals seized by the avicularia may be held until
they die, and that their disintegrating particles may then be carried to
the mouths of the polypides by the ciliary currents of the tentacles;
but proofs of this suggestion are wanting, and it must be admitted
that the subject needs further elucidation.

The vibracula ordinarily remain stationary for some little time, every
now and then giving a sweep through the water. In the majority of
cases these structures, like the avicularia, act perfectly
independently of one another, so far as can be made out; but in
Caberea (Fig. 242) the vibracula move in unison, the simultaneous
action of the whole series, after a period of quiet, being described as
"positively startling."[536]

It has been stated by Busk[537] that the entire colony in Selenaria

and Lunulites may be moved from place to place by the large
vibracula which these forms possess.

Fig. 243.—Pedicellina cernua Pall., Guernsey. Entire colony. × 27. The

colony has three growing ends, a; 1-8, individuals of colony; 1 and
8 are quite immature; and 7 (tentacles retracted) is still young; 2,
is seen in longitudinal section; g, generative organ, and below it
the ganglion; m, mouth; r, rectum; s, stomach; between g and r
are three embryos in the brood-pouch; the tentacles are retracted;
in 5 and 6 the tentacles are expanded; in 6 two embryos are seen
within the circle of the tentacles, to the left of them is the rectum,
and to the right the mouth; 3 is in the act of losing its calyx, and
has already developed the beginning of a new polypide-bud; in 4
the primary calyx has been lost, and the new calyx is clearly
marked off from the stalk.

Entoprocta.—The Entoprocta, although a very small sub-class,

deserve special consideration, if for no other reason, from the fact
that many writers regard them as the most primitive group of
Polyzoa, and consequently as the forms which show most affinity to
other classes of animals.

Their most obvious characteristic is, as we have already seen,[538]

the position of the anus within the circle of tentacles. The individuals
formed by budding always remain more separate from one another
than those of most Ectoprocta.

The commonest Entoproctous genus is Pedicellina, a graceful little

animal, which occurs on many parts of our coast. It may often be
discovered by looking carefully on the pink, jointed, calcareous alga,
Corallina, which may be found growing at the edges of deep and
cool rock-pools not too far above low-water mark. Its creeping stem
or "stolon" is firmly attached to the surface of the seaweed, and
sends off vertical stems here and there.[539] Each stem bears a
"calyx," which is practically an individual of the colony. The stolon
terminates, at one or both ends, in a growing-point (a), from which
new individuals are budded off. The stalks bend from time to time in
a curious spasmodic manner, by which means the calyces are
moved about with an irritable and angry air. A good idea of the way
in which the tentacles are folded away when the animal is disturbed
may be obtained by putting the two wrists together, with the fingers
spread out to represent the tentacles, the retraction of which would
be represented by turning the tips of the fingers down into the space,
the "vestibule," between the two palms. A delicate fold of skin
growing from the edge of the calyx closes over the retracted
tentacles, owing to the contraction of a sphincter muscle present in
its circular edge. The body-wall is not separated from the alimentary
canal by a definite body-cavity, so that there is no obvious distinction
between the polypide and the zooecium. The existence of the
Entoprocta is in fact a strong reason for refusing to admit that these
two terms correspond with two different kinds of individuals.

Let us now imagine the condition we should have if a large and

continuous cavity were developed between the alimentary canal and
the body-wall. The body-wall would clearly have the general relations
of a zooecium, while the alimentary canal and tentacles would
obviously correspond with the polypide. The existence of the body-
cavity would make it possible for the animal to retract its tentacles
instead of merely turning them in. Regarded in this way, there is but
little difficulty in comparing the Ectoprocta with the Entoprocta.
The calyces are deciduous, i.e. they are lost from time to time, the
end of the stalk then producing a polypide-bud, which forms the
vestibule and alimentary canal of a new calyx. Hence the
phenomenon which may so commonly be noticed in Pedicellina of a
"young head on old shoulders." The loss of the calyces may have
some relation to the formation of the "brown bodies" in the
Ectoprocta.

Another Entoproct, Loxosoma (Fig. 245) is remarkable for being the

only Polyzoon which is not colonial. The buds, which are formed in
two lateral series, break off as soon as they are mature, and at once
begin to lead an independent existence. Loxosoma is further
remarkable for being almost invariably found commensally with other
animals, where it may occur in enormous numbers. L.
phascolosomatum, common in the Channel Islands, is only found on
the tip of the tail of Phascolosoma (see p. 428), which inhabits the
mud of Zostera-beds. Other species are found on the external
surface of certain sponges (Tethya, Euspongia, Cacospongia); or on
the outside of a compound Ascidian, Leptoclinum, which may itself
be carried about as a detachable covering on the back of a crab
(Dromia). Another species is found on the ventral surface of the
Polychaet Aphrodite, and of its ally Hermione.

Fig. 244.—Side view of Loxosoma annelidicola Van Ben. and Hesse. ×

50. (From Prouho.)

L. annelidicola, an interesting species recently investigated by

Prouho,[540] was originally described in 1863 as a Trematode, under
the name of Cyclatella. It escaped further notice until it was again
found in the neighbourhood of Roscoff, in Brittany, on certain
Polychaets belonging to the family Maldanidae (see p. 332). The
calyx has a very flattened form, and is borne on a short stalk, which
terminates in a large attaching disc, formerly mistaken for the sucker
of a Trematode. The features in which this species differs from other
members of the genus are shown by M. Prouho to be correlated with
its mode of life. The animal has the habit of lying flat on its back, the
disc at the end of its stalk being firmly attached to the skin of the
worm, and its short stalk being bent round into a curve so as to bring
the calyx into a supine position, with its lophophore directed
upwards. This habit, together with its flattened form, prevents it from
being crushed between the worm and its tube. But without some
further provision its position might be merely a source of danger. For
supposing the calyx to be directed backwards in relation to the
worm, a sudden backward movement of the latter into its tube might
bring the Loxosoma into fatal contact with the inner surface of the
tube. There would obviously not be sufficient room to turn round in a
vertical plane, so as to bring the body into a position of safety, i.e.
into a position in which it moves stalk first. But by a beautiful
arrangement of the muscles of its stalk this movement is effected in
a horizontal plane; on touching the Loxosoma with the point of a
needle it would swing round in this way through 180° with "une
rapidité qui étonne."

Urnatella[541] is a beautiful form with a segmented stalk, the stalks

usually arising in pairs from a common base. It has at present only
been found in fresh water in the United States.

Fig. 245.—Diagram of the structure of Loxosoma, seen from the

oesophageal side. × about 70. a, Anus; b, buds; e, excretory