Metallic vs.

Non-metallic
 Metallic
• Metallic – materials that exhibit electrical
and thermal conductivity and luster are
considered metallic
– Ferrous – iron (Fe) and steel, cast iron ---- as
the term implies, iron-base materials
• Non-ferrous – coppers(Cu), aluminum (Al),
lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), tin (Sn) ------- all other
non-iron and non-steel
 Non-metallic
- non-conductors, insulators
– Wood
– Stone, Brick, Cement, Concrete
– Plastics (Resins)
– Elastomers (rubber)
– Leather
– Ceramics
– Composites
Properties of Materials
 Chemical Property
• characteristics of a material that relate to
its behaviour in chemical reactions.
Corrosion, alloying, compound
formation.
– Corrosion – destruction on the material due
to contaminating media – acids, salts, water
that causes rust
 Chemical Property
– Alloying – a combination of elements which
possess metallic properties and at least one of
the elements is a metal. Ex. Steel is an alloy
of iron, in which the carbon content does not
exceed 1.7%. Steel = Fe + C + Impurities
(Sulfur S, Phosphorous P, Magnesium Mn)
– Polymers – (Plastics, Elastomers) –
compounds C, H, N, D – different types of
plastics
 Physical Properties
• Physical Properties – distinguishing
qualities or characteristics that are used to
describe a substance in the absence of
external forces are referred to as physical
properties.
– Density = mass / volume
– Weight = mass
Dense
• Most metals have high
density.
• This is why they feel
heavy and sink when
placed in water.
 Physical Property
– Thermal Properties
• Specific Heat = amount of heat to raise temperature
of one gram of substance per degree = joules per kg
per kelvin
• Melting Point/Boiling Point = temp at which solid
melts; temp at which liquid boils
• Thermal/Electrical Conductivity = measure of heat
flow i.e. copper, aluminum for wire
High Melting and Boiling Points
• Most metals have very
high melting and
boiling points.
• They need to be
heated to very high
temperatures before
they melt to become
liquids.
Conductors
• They are very good
conductors of heat and
electricity.
• This is why they are
used for pots and pans
and in electrical
circuits to carry the
current.
 Physical Property
• Coefficient of Thermal Expansion = measure of
expansion due to heat
• Electrical Resistivity = restraint
• Magnetic Properties = able to attract iron or steel
– Optical (Transparency, opaqueness, color)
Shiny and Silvery
• Most metals are
silvery in colour,
except copper and
gold.
• Some go dull over
time.
• All metals are shiny
when freshly cut.
Solids
• All metals are solids at
room temperature.
• The only exception is
mercury.
• Mercury is the only
liquid under normal
conditions.
 Mechanical Property
• Mechanical Property – behaviour of a
material when subjected to a force or
load
– Strength - Hardness
– Hardness - Machinability
– Ductility - Malleability
– Sonorous
– Elasticity - Plasticity
Strong and Hard
• Most metals are
generally strong and
hard.
• They are difficult to
break down into
smaller pieces and
changing their shape
usually involves a lot
of effort.
Malleable
• This property means
that metals can be hit
without shattering.
• They can be
hammered into shape,
even when cold and
not break into lots of
small pieces.
Ductile
• This property means
that metals can
stretched very thinly
without them
breaking.
• This is why they can
be drawn out into
wires.
Sonorous
• This property refers to
the sound that metals
make when they are
hit.
• Metals make a ringing
sound when they are
struck.
 Strain
– Strain – a unit of deformation to a material when
subjected to a force ε= ΔL/L
--- when a material is said to be under strain,
the material has undergone some
deformation as a result of the application of
an external force.
 Stress
• Stress – internal reactive forces that
resist deformation σ= W/A = F/n= psi
• When a material is placed in a state of strain resulting
from the application of an external load, the atoms
making up the structure of the material are displaced
somewhat from their equilibrium positions. These
internally distributed forces which then to resist
deformation may defined qualitatively as stress.
 3 types of loading

• Tensile – weight tends to stretch or

lengthen the bar
• Compression – tend to shorten the
material and produce compressive
stress
• Shear – two forces acting on a body are
offset with respect to each other
 Elasticity
• Elasticity – the property of a material not to
be deformed permanently when applied by
a force ( no permanent deformation, upto a
certain stress) ; completeness of recovery
when the force is removed; the maximum
stress to which a material may be subjected
without the occurrence of any permanent
strain remaining upon complete release of
the stress is called the elastic limit.
 Modulus of Elasticity
• Modulus of elasticity – the degree of
stiffness of a material – resistant to
permanent deformation
 Plasticity
• Plasticity – the more plastic the material is,
the more it can be deformed without
rupture. The property of the material to be
deformed without permanent fracture.
– Ductility – a material can have permanent
deformation when subjected to a tensile force
– Malleability – a material can have a permanent
deformation when subjected to compressive
force
 Ductility/Malleability
• In pure state,
• Order of Ductility Order of
Malleability
1. Copper 1. Copper
2. Iron 2. Aluminum
3. Aluminum 3. Tin
4. Zinc 4. Lead
5. Tin 5. Iron
6. Lead 6. Zinc
 BRITTLE
• Brittle – when materials fail with little or
no ductility – they are brittle. Brittleness, is
therefore, is the opposite of ductility and
should not be confused with a lack of
strength. A brittle material is simply one
that lacks significant ductility.
 TOUGHNESS
• Toughness or the modulus of toughness, is
defined as the work per unit volume
required to fracture a material. Toughness
is commonly associated with impact or
shock loadings.
 Hardness
• Mohs’ Scale of Hardness

1 Talc 6.5 – Hardened Steel

2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Feldspar
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Ruby or Corundum
10 Diamond
 Hardness
• A shop man may consider hardness on the
basis of resistance to filing. Frequently, a
shop man will test the relative hardness of
materials by determining the ease or
difficulty with which a file will mark the
material. This method again is qualitative
measure of hardness and is not usually
suitable for purposes of specification
 Hardness
• In engineering, hardness, is usually
defined as resistance to penetration.
There are several methods by which
penetration hardness may be designated
depending upon the method by which
test is performed.
 Hardness
• Most Commonly Used Tests to Determine
the Hardness of Metal in Engineering
1. Brinell
2. Rockwell
3. Vickers Hardness Test
4. Scleroscope
5. Monotron – but the equipment is no longer
available for purchase
 Hardness
• Brinell Test
• One of the earliest accepted methods of measuring
hardness.
• A tungsten carbide or hardened steel ball 1 cm in
diameter, is pressed into a flat surface of the
material by standard load of 500 (for soft
materials), 1500 or 3000 kg (for hard materials)
 Hardness
• Load is maintained for 5 to 10 seconds.
• Load is then removed
• The diameter of the resulting spherical indentation (usually
2 to 5 cm) is measured using a special grid or travelling
microscope.
• A BHN (Brinell hardness number) = load/surface area of
indentation
• Good for relatively large area
• Simple and easy
• Used extensively on irons and steels
 Hardness
• Rockwell Hardness Test
• Similar to Brinell since the hardness value is also
determined through an indentation produced under a
static load. (constant force)
• A small indenter, either a small-diameter steel ball (for
soft materials) or a diamond-tipped cone (for hard
materials) called a brale.
• Minor load 10kg
• Major load 150kg
 Hardness
Some Common Rockwell Hardness Tests
Scale Symbol Penetrator Load (kg) Typical Materials
A Brale 60 Cemented carbides, thin steel
B 1/16-in ball 100 Copper alloys, soft steels
C Brale 150 Steel, hard cast irons
D Brale 100 Thin steel
 Hardness
• Vickers Hardness Test – similar to Brinell
but a square-based diamond pyramid is
used as an indenter. Superior for very hard
materials.
 Hardness
• Scleroscope measures the resilience of the
material rather than the resistance to
penetration. Hardness is measured by the
rebound of a small diamond-tipped
“hammer” that is dropped from a fixed
height onto the surface of the material to be
tested.
 Dynamic Properties
• Materials are subjected to various types of
dynamic loading.
– Sudden load (impacts) or loads that vary
rapidly in magnitude
– Repeated cycles of loading and unloading
– Frequent changes in the mode of loading such
as tension to compression.
 Metal Fatigue & Endurance
Limit
• Endurance limit – maximum stress to
which the material can be alternately be
subjected without causing failure.

• Higher tensile strength , higher endurance

limit.
 Relationship between tensile
strength and endurance limit
• Approximate ratio of the endurance limit to
ultimate tensile strength
• Material Strength (lb/in3) Ratio Endurance

• Steel 75,000 .46 34,500

• Wrought Iron 55,000 .63 34,650
 Factors that will affect the
endurance limit of a material
• Marked change in cross-sectional area
• Sharp V-thread
• Tool marks
• Surface imperfections
• Impurities or inclusions in the material
 Temperature
• In general terms, increase in temperature will
induce a decrease in strength and hardness and
increase in elongation.
• Metals – strength & hardness of a material varies
inversely with temperature at elevated temp. –
material loses its strength and hardness. In terms
of ductility, it varies directly with temperature at
elevated temp, material becomes more
ductile
 Temperature
• For forming operations, heating is
extremely attractive because the
material is both weaker and more
ductile.
 Temperature
• Creep – long-term effect of temperature on
materials
• Continued plastic deformation at constant
load, with increasing temp
 Temperature
• Importance – even if rate of elongation is
small
– Design of equipment of steam or gas turbines
– Power plant
– High-temp pressure vessels.
 Temperature
• Creep limit – the stress required to produce
an elongation of 1 per cent in 100,000 hours
(11 ½ yrs) is the creep limit of a material.
 Temperature
• What happens to the material when
subjected to elevated temp?
– Change in properties
– Loss of metals due to oxidation
– Formation of surface cracks
 Static vs Dynamic
• Static – elastic limit
• Dynamic – endurance limit
 Processing Behavior
• Refers to the way a given material
responds to specific processing technique
• Also difficult to define
 Processing Behavior
• Machinability – materials removal
– Tool life data
– How easy or fast a metal can be cut,
irrespective of the tool life or the resulting
surface finish
 Processing Behavior
• Weldability – ability to be joined and
assembled
– Steel – electrode + high heat
– Lead or tin – low melting, used for soldering
 Processing Behavior
• Workability, Formability – suitability for
plastic deformation processing at different
temperatures
– Casting – easy to cast – low melting – non
ferrous
– Hot forming
 Factors of Safety
• Factor of Safety = allowable stress/working
stress
– Where: allowable stress = stress below which
failure will not occur
– Working stress = the actual stress to which the
marterial is subjected in operating condition
– Factor of safety of say, 2
 Selection of Materials
• The materials must satisfy the strength
requirements
• The material must be capable of being
fabricated into the desired form
• Cost of material (at the least cost)
• Material must be available at the required
time.
 Concrete Road
• Concrete = water, sand, gravel
• Corrugated Steel bars
• 1 km road = PhP15M
 Machine Shop Visit
• Identify all the machines and layout