University of the Philippines Visayas

College of Arts and Sciences Division of Social Sciences

History and Philosophy Cluster

Ethics 1 – Ethics and Moral Reasoning in Everyday Life

Study Guide Learning Materials

Module 4.1: Asian and Indigenous Ethical Frameworks

In the preceding modules, you learned about different normative ethical

frameworks as a reference guide to approach practicl and later on applied
ethical discussions.

As such, you have also learned that different cultures are governed by
numerous value systems, and that they too have different standpoints on
the question of ethics and morality. This module endeavors to explore
different ethical frameworks that operate in Asian contexts such as
Daoism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Christian Ethics, and Islamic
Ethics. While these frameworks appear to be seemingly disparate, they
can be classified with respect to their conceptions of ethics, namely: (1)
ethics as a quest for spiritual liberation, (2) ethics as a way of life, and (3)
religious conceptions of ethics.

As you go through this module, you will soon realize how Hinduism and
Buddhism demonstrates Ethics as a quest for spiritual liberation, how
Daoism and Confucianism views Ethics as a way of life, and how Christian
and Islamic Ethics underpin and highlight the religious conceptions of
Ethics.

This opens with a discussion of the ethical frameworks in terms of religious

-metaphysical conundrum and the moral eschatology that orients and
regulates human effort to live an ethical and virtuous life. This is followed
by a discussion in terms of the fundamental concepts of the

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ethical frameworks, and then concludes with a presentation and
application of the proposed moral principle by these frameworks as a
response to the practical question on how one ought to live and act.

Objectives of the course:

The Objectives of the module:

1. Discuss the different sources of moral reasoning of the six

Asian ethical frameworks and religious conceptions;

2. Compare and contrast the ethical concepts and principles

articulated in these six frameworks;

3. Apply these frameworks in analyzing or evaluating situations

and moral dilemma; and

4. Critically reflect on the relevance of these frameworks to your

own context.

DIRECTIONS:

(1) Make sure that the your answers for the activities found in this material are
computerized and are highlighted in red.

(2) ☐ Put a check or a mark on boxes once you have finished the reading parts.
You may leave a mark such as this example: X☐

(3) Once you are done with reading and answering the activities in this module,
make sure that you save the file as PDF and attach the file to an email to be
sent to your instructor’s email using this file name: SECTION (_), SURNAME,
FIRSTNAME, MODULE _ Part _.

(4) Please note that this course pack is intended only for your use as a student
currently enrolled in Ethics 1. You are NOT ALLOWED to share, reproduce or
distribute it to anyone else. Should you need to use the course pack for any other
purpose than class, you should seek permission from the Author/Editor.

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 Asian and Indigenous Ethical Frameworks
(Continuation)
Study Schedule:
Nature of Ethics and moral reasoning
Apr 20/21 1.Asian Ethics 1. Discuss ethics as spiritual
liberation, way of life and as an
institution
Apr 27/28 2.Indigenous Ethics 2. Expand appreciation of ethics
from local knowledge systems &
disciplines
Cont.

May 04/05 3.Socio-cultural variables 3. Introduce socio-culturally

specific ethical perspectives

n 4.1 Ethics as a Quest for Spiritual Liberation

☐ 4.1.1 Hinduism (1/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world. The canonical texts of
Hinduism are the Vedas and the Upanishads, but the Indian epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata prove to be equally rich resources in
understanding the meaning of one of Hinduism’s most fundamental ethical
concepts — Dharma. For example, the Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord)
which is part of the Mahabharata is one of the most famous and oft quoted
texts in the discussion of Hindu ethics particularly in so far as the question
and meaning of ‘moral duty’ is concerned. Apart from being a religion,
Hinduism is also considered a philosophy.

Top Countries with the Largest Hindu Populations

1. India
2. Nepal
3. Bangladesh
4. Pakistan
5. Indonesia
6. Sri Lanka
7. United States
8. Malaysia

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9. United Kingdom
10. Myanmar

Activity:

Read the first two chapters of the Bhagavad Gita translated by Eknath
Eastwaran. Answer the following questions based on what you have
read:

1. How is Atman (inner self) described in Bhagavad Gita?

______________________________________________________________
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2. What is the significance of Samara (cycle of transmigration) to the question of

spiritual liberation?
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______________________________________________________________

3. Why is Hinduism recommending Niskamakarma (no-pleasure-action)?

______________________________________________________________
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4. How does one determine one’s Dharma (moral end, duty, law, nature)?
______________________________________________________________
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☐ Sat-Cit-Ananda (Absolute Being-Consciousness-Bliss) (2/4)
(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

The Hindu mythological rendering of the origin of the universe begins with
the story of the One-Self wrapped in nothingness. There was only void.
“There was then neither non-entity nor entity; there was neither atmosphere
nor sky above. Death was not then, nor immortality; there was no
distinction of day or night.” There was only darkness and “all was
undistinguishable water.”

But then Desire arose in this void. The One-Self looked and realized that it
was alone. This caused it loneliness and desire for a companion. It then
divided itself into two, and the master and the mistress came into being.
Then it wanted to be unified again. Unifying and dividing in various forms, it
brought the rest of creation into being.

Brahman is the name of this Absolute Being that poured forth all of reality.
The Alpha and Omega of reality. The corporeal self is just a sheath
covering of this true supreme self or reality, for Brahman is itself creation.
But when Hinduism refers to Brahman as the supreme self, it uses the term
Atman—inner self, inmost soul, or breath of life. Atman is Brahman— the
inner self is also the absolute being and principle of reality.

For those who realize this, life becomes simply a transitory stage in the
quest of the spirit’s realization of the divinity permeating all of reality. This
realization is possible only through the consciousness that the phenomenal
world is just an illusion (maya) and that the goal of life is to be released
from this illusory prism through the conscientious carrying out of one’s duty
(dharma). This ultimate release from ignorance and attachment to the
splintered phenomena and the fruits of action (karma) shall be a blissful
liberation.

☐ Sat-Cit-Ananda (Absolute Being-Consciousness-Bliss) (3/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Knowledge of this world is considered positive knowledge insofar as it is

actual knowledge of phenomena. But it is the wrong kind of knowledge
because it veils the true reality. It is our entrapment in this world of illusion
that tempts us to cling to it. This is what explains human beings’ obsession
with the fruits of Karma or action.

In Hinduism, there are three kinds of acts: obligatory, prohibited, and

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optional. An obligatory act is something that one must always perform
precisely because it is one’s obligation to perform it. In the same sense,
one must refrain from performing a prohibited act precisely because it is
prohibited. Finally, one is always free to perform or not to perform an
optional act precisely because it is an optional act. In neither of the three
cases does one gain a reward for one’s action. Acts are performed or not
performed according to the nature of the acts: performed if obligatory,
avoided if prohibited, and may be performed or not if it is optional.

The question of what one gains in following this ethical code is articulated
in terms not of reward but of punishment. This means that if one performs a
prohibited act, and does not perform an obligatory act, one gains ‘karmic’
particles. In Hinduism, karmic particles stand for the ‘fruits of Karma’ or the
fruits of action. These karmic particles serve as weights or chains that bind
the spirit to the world of phenomena. The more one gains karmic particles,
the longer one is to be bound to the cycle of transmigration.

The goal of life and action in Hinduism is detachment from these fruits or
consequences of actions. Acts must be performed/not performed purely for
their own sake and not for some reward. This is called Niskamakarma or no
(nis) pleasure (kama) action (karma). It is the only way one can gradually
be released from the chains of Karma.

This narrative is the Hindu explanation for the cycle of birth-rebirth referred
to as Samsara or transmigration. The process of transmigration is the
eschatological catharsis of the human spirit towards realizing its true
nature, or the overcoming of Maya (illusion) and Avidya (ignorance), and
the obsession with the fruits of Karma (action) in the world of phenomena.
Moving from one form and level of existence to another, the spirit must
learn spiritual detachment from the fruits of action, so it may give way to the
realization of the self’s divinity, which is also the obliteration of the ego.

☐ Purusharthas (The Four Ends of Life) (4/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

a. Artha (Material Wealth)

As entities entombed in a body, we naturally have material needs. This end
is called in Hinduism as Artha or material wealth.

b. Kama (Pleasure)
At the same time, we also naturally desire pleasure and happiness. This is
referred to as Kama. In its general sense, Kama points to the gratification

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of the senses. But it may also refer to general well-being or a sense of
contentment

c. Dharma (Moral End/Duty/Nature)

The third end of life is Dharma. Dharma is plurisignificative: it can be
understood as (a) a moral end, (b) duty, (c) law, as well as (d) nature, but
its underlying sense is “that which supports”. It comes from the root word
dhri which means to support, hold up, or bear. Dharma points to the idea
that every entity that exists has a role to play, a duty to perform. This role or
duty springs from one’s very nature and its conscientious carrying out is the
measure of morality. In understanding this better, the story of the Sadhu
(holy man) and the scorpion comes as a poignant example.

A sage, seated beside the Ganges, notices a scorpion that has fallen into
the water. He reaches down and rescues it, only to be stung. Some time
later he looks down and sees the scorpion thrashing about in the water
again. Once more he reaches down to rescue it, and once more he is
stung. A bystander, observing all this, exclaims, “Holy one, why do
you keep doing that? Don’t you see that the wretched creature will
only sting you in return?” “Of course,” the sage replied. “It is the
dharma of a scorpion to sting. But it is the dharma of a human being to
save.” (Eastwaran 31)

This story reminds us that our moral duty is attached to our nature. At the
same time, we must perform it irrespective of our base inclinations. For the
Sadhu, as long as the scorpion does not give up on its nature, why should
he give up his and stop trying to save it?

d. Moksha (Blissful Spiritual Liberation)

The final aim of spiritual liberation in Hinduism is Moksha. It is in part the
liberation of the soul from the cycle of transmigration of birth-death-rebirth.
But it is also the release from the power of Maya and the enlightenment of
the mind to reach true knowledge or Vidya. Moksha is also the self’s
realization of its absolute divine nature. Finally, Moksha is at the same time
the blissful end of all pain and suffering. Moksha is the ultimate end
towards which all our actions must be directed.

Deatiled case reading on Moksha

Dharma as “that which supports”

The notion of Dharma is intimately connected to the Hindu commitment to

the Chaturvarna or the four castes. The caste system consists of the

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Brahmin (priests and gurus), Kshatriya (rulers, administrators, warriors,
landowners), Vaishya (produces, farmers, merchants), and Shudra
(servants) classes. Each class has corresponding roles and tasks that are
equally fundamental in sustaining society.

The notion of Dharma is attached to one’s social appellation. But what is

striking in the Hindu conception of duty is its divine origin and divine end. In
the Laws of Manu, it is recounted how all of the castes sprang from
Brahman — i.e. from his head (Brahmin), his arms (Kshatriya), his thighs
(Vaishya), his feet (Shudra) — each with a corresponding nature and
responsibility to carry out. This wide conception of duty as anchored in the
necessity to uphold the entire socio-political fabric is supplemented by the
idea of interdependence among members of the community. In this socio-
political framework, one must be as committed as possible to one’s
responsibilities for if one component of the social structure fails to perform
its duties, all the individual Dharma of the members of the society are
affected. The disruption of the interdependent social Dharma makes it
impossible for individuals to perform their own obligations and reach the
other ends of life. Dharma in this sense is thus not just an obligation one
must perform, but also a commitment that makes possible the pursuit of the
other ends. Dharma thus means to sustain, uphold, and nourish the society
in order to nourish oneself. Understanding this meaning also creates the
sense of Dharma being the law that maintains order in things or that which
keeps them in their rightful place.

The importance of the moral end Dharma is beautifully illustrated in the

dialogue between the god of war Krishna and the warrior Arjuna in the
Bhagavad Gita. Arjuna belonging to the Kshatriya class, is tasked to protect
and fight for his people. But he was rent with grief when he learned that the
opposing camp in the war he was about to fight is composed of his kindred:

O Krishna, I see my own relations here anxious to fight, and my

limbs grow weak; my mouth is dry, my body shakes, and my hair
is standing on end. My skin burns, and the bow Gandiva has
slipped from my hand. I am unable to stand; my mind seems to
be whirling. These signs bode evil for us. I do not see that any
good can come from killing our relations in battle. O Krishna, I
have no desire for victory, or for a kingdom or pleasures. Of what
use is a kingdom or pleasure or even life, if those for whose sake
we desire these things—teachers, fathers, sons, grandfathers,
uncles, in-laws, grandsons, and others with family ties – are
engaging in this battle, renouncing their wealth and their lives?
Even if they were to kill me, I would not want to kill them, not

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 even to become ruler of the three worlds. How much less for the
earth alone? (Bhagavad Gita Ch. I: 28-35)

Arjuna adds: “It is said that those whose family dharma has been destroyed
dwell in hell. This is a great sin!” (Bhagavad Gita Ch. I: 44-45) Seeing
Arjuna in this state, Krishna remarked:

You speak sincerely, but your sorrow has no cause. Th e

wise grieve neither for the living nor for the dead. There has
never been a time when you and I and the kings gathered here
have not existed, norwill there be a time when we will cease to
exist. As the same person inhabits the body through childhood,
youth, and old age, so too at the time of death he attains another
body. The wise are not deluded by these changes. (Bhagavad
Gita Ch. II: 11-13)

O mighty Arjuna, even if you believe the Self to be

subject to birth and death, you should not grieve. Death is
inevitable for the living; birth is inevitable for the dead. Since
these are unavoidable, you should not sorrow. Every creature is
unmanifested at first and then attains manifestation. When its
end has come, it once again becomes unmanifested. What is
there to lament in this? (Bhagavad Gita Ch. II: 26-28)

Deatiled case reading on Moksha (continued)

Dharma as “that

Having explained that the Self is neither born nor is destroyed, Krishna
reiterated the Dharma of Arjuna as a warrior:

Considering your dharma, you should not vacillate. For a

warrior, nothing is higher than a war against evil. The warrior
confronted with such a war should be pleased, Arjuna, for it
comes as an open gate to heaven. But if you do not participate
in this battle against evil, you will incur sin, violating your
dharma and your honor. (Bhagavad Gita Ch. II: 31-33)

In the succeeding chapter, Krishna asserts how it is impossible to escape

one’s moral obligation for it springs from one’s own nature. “One who shirks
action does not attain freedom; no one can gain perfection by abstaining
from work. Indeed, there is no one who rests for even an instant; all

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creatures are driven to action by their own nature.” (Bhagavad Gita Ch. III:
4-5) The Laws of Manu further forewarns: “Dharma being violated,
destroys; Dharma being preserved, preserves; Dharma should not be
violated, lest violated Dharma destroy us.” (The Laws of Manu VIII: 15)

This account of Dharma highlights how the nourishment of a society is

dependent on the participation of all its members. At the same time, this
sense of interdependence is divinely inspired in that everything else flows
from and ends with the divine nature of Brahman. In the final analysis, the
self realizes that there is no ‘I’, that the ‘ego’ is a product of illusion, and it is
this illusion which the self must be liberated from in its quest for
selflessness and unification with the Absolute Being characterized as
Consciousness and Bliss. Krishna remarks: “They are forever free who
renounce all selfish desires and break away from the ego cage of “I,” “me,”
and “mine” to be united with the Lord. This is the supreme state. Attain to
this, and pass from death to immortality.” (Bhagavad Gita Ch. II: 71-72)

Activity

Consider the lessons that you have learned in this section and perform the
following tasks:

1. In no more than 700 words, create a poem that encapsulates the central
message of Hinduism as a religion. The only constraint in this output is the word
count. You are at liberty in terms of the style and the technique you will employ to
creatively express the lessons that you took to heart in this section.

2. Recall past events that transpired in your life and identify at least three (3)
specific instances where you felt compelled to follow your Dharma. Explain how
the situations that you have chosen illustrate the different senses in which you
have understood your Dharma.

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☐ 4.1.2 Buddhism
(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Buddhism is a religious and philosophical tradition that originated in India,

like Hinduism. It developed from the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, or
the Buddha — the Awakened One. Two of the main practices of Buddhism
are compassion towards others and meditation leading to enlightenment.
The canonical texts of Buddhism are the Tripitaka or Three Baskets:
Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Activity

Read “Chapter 22: Turning the Wheel of Dharma” in Old Path White
Clouds: Walking in the Footsteps of the Buddha by Thich Nhat Hanh
and translated by Mobi Ho. As you read, be guided by the following
questions:

1. What is the Middle Way? Why is it called the “middle” way?

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2. How does the Eight-Fold Path help overcome suffering?

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3. What are the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism?

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4. What is the significance of the Buddhist understanding of reality

as Dukkha (suffering) to the discussion of ethics?

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 _________________________________________________
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5. What is the meaning of Enlightenment or Awakening in

Buddhism?

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☐ Anatta-Anicca-Dukkha (Nothingness-Becoming-Suffering) (1/2)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Both Buddhism and Hinduism take off from the belief that the different
entities, life forms, and levels of existences are the products of Samsara.
But in contrast to Hinduism, Buddhism asserts that the ultimate end of life
is the realization not of one’s absolute divinity, but rather the realization of
one’s absolute nothingness.

In addition, in Buddhism it is not being or permanence that characterizes

and constitutes reality but contingency and becoming. The transience of
reality, the fact that everything eventually fades and vanishes in the end, is
what causes the noble truth of life in Buddhism: the noble truth of
suffering. From the Buddhist perspective, what motivates and drives man
to live the moral virtuous life is not the desire for bliss, but the cessation of
suffering.

☐ The Middle Way (2/2)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

The cessation of suffering is possible only through the Middle Way, which
consists of understanding the Four Noble Truths and the practice of the
Eight-fold Path. This is what the Buddha refers to as the way to
Enlightenment or the Great Awakening.

A. Four Noble Truths

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These are the following:

1. Dukkha (Noble truth of suffering) – “Birth, old age, sickness, and

death are suffering. Sadness, anger, jealousy, worry, anxiety, fear,
and despair are suffering. Separation from loved ones is suffering.
Association with those you hate is suffering. Desire, attachment, and
clinging to the five aggregates are suffering.” (Hanh Ch. 22)

2. Dukkha Samudaya (Noble truth of the origin of suffering) –

“Because of ignorance, people cannot see the truth about life, and
they become caught in the flames of desire, anger, jealousy, grief,
worry, fear, and despair.” (Hanh Ch. 22)

3. Dukkha Nirodha (Noble truth of the cessation of suffering) –

“Understanding the truth of life brings about the cessation of every
grief and sorrow and gives rise to peace and joy.” (Hanh Ch. 22)

4. Dukkha Nirodhagaminipratipat (Noble truth of the path) – “The

path which leads to the cessation of suffering is the Noble Eightfold
Path. The Noble Eightfold Path is nourished by living mindfully.
Mindfulness leads to concentration and understanding which
liberates you from every pain and sorrow and leads to peace and
joy.” (Hanh Ch. 22)

B. Eight-fold Path

This consists of the following:

1. Sammaditthi (Right view) – Buddhism reminds that we must be cautious

and discriminating about what we allow to grow in our garden of thoughts.
The Buddha refers to 15 defilements that take root in the mind and cause
suffering: greed, ill-will, hostility, degeneration, dominance, envy, jealousy,
hypocrisy, fraud, obstinacy, presumption, conceit, arrogance, vanity, and
negligence. These defilements cause suffering and they must be weeded
out by six methods: (a) restrain from what pleases the senses that may
cause attachment; (b) use all that is in our power to cultivate peace in our
heart; (c) tolerate difference without abandoning our garden of thoughts to
the wild; (d) avoid all that is impure and those that will soil the mind; (e)
destroy that which causes defilement right from the root; and (f) develop
skill and cultivating peace. One must keep in mind the four noble truths.

2. Sammasankappo (Right intention) – One must know what to seek and

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understand the path one intends to follow. This includes knowing the root
causes of suffering, and the correct methods of overcoming it as well as
how to achieve enlightenment and the need for it.

3. Sammavaca (Right speech) – Just like our actions, speech can also
cause harm to others and even ourselves. Buddhism thus nurtures the
value of being careful with our words. The Buddha proposes four methods
of speech that bring peace to ourselves and the people around us: (a)
words of honesty, for it is in truth that man finds enlightenment; (b) words of
kindness harmonizes the heart, allowing people to live together in peace;
(c) words that nurture are comforting rather than harming to the heart of
others, and they bring lasting peace; and (d) words that are worthy of
saying at the moment, as well as refraining from gossip, untruth, and
selfishness.

4. Sammakamanto (Right action) – The ultimate moral command in

Buddhism is “to do no harm”. Actions must instead be infused with
compassion. As the world is a world of suffering, the least we can do is not
to worsen or be the cause of others’ suffering.

5. Samma-Ajivo (Right livelihood) – Buddhism enjoins us to refrain from

pursuing a livelihood that could harm lives. It is important that our livelihood
is geared instead towards the preservation and improvement of life.

6. Sammavayamo (Right effort) – Buddhism recognizes that what makes

liberation from suffering so difficult is the fact that the world of Maya or the
life of Samsara is filled with attractive and desirable things that satisfy the
senses. In the midst of this therefore, the right effort to pursue liberation
from the magnetic power of the sensory world is required. This must be
anchored in the proper understanding that only by withdrawing from the
pleasures of the senses can one be freed from suffering.

7. Sammasati (Right mindfulness) – One can only fully follow the eight-fold
path if one also has a sense of mindfulness or awareness of one’s deeds,
thoughts, words, and the way one lives as a whole. It is through this that
one can keep oneself in check against indulging in the five hindrances of
(a) sensual desire; (b) ill-will; (c) laziness; (d) anxiety; and (e) doubt about
our state of mind.

8. Sammasamadhi (Right concentration) – In the path towards spiritual

liberation, one must have the right concentration in pursuing only this path
so as not to waver from it. One must always practice meditation so one
may concentrate on that which is important and true above all

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The first two paths — right view and right intention — are focused on
arriving at the wisdom needed to direct one’s life. The succeeding three —
right speech, right action, and right livelihood — are concerned with
cultivating virtue. They constitute the ethical way of life. They are the
expressions of one’s wisdom. The last three paths — right effort, right
mindfulness, and right concentration — are geared towards meditation,
the goal of which is to find one’s inner peace in order for one’s mind to be
free from distractions that will cause it to misunderstand the truths of life
and pursue the wrong things. In the eight-fold path, the aim is to achieve
wisdom, virtue, and peace.
Activity

Reflect on the following Buddhist passages and interpret their

meaning in relation to the challenges that you confront as a student.

What “All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is

founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts.” (Pali
Canon Texts)

“He who does not rouse himself when it is time to rise, who,
though young and strong, is full of sloth, whose will and thought
are weak, that laze and idle man will never find the way to
enlightenment.” (Pali Canon Texts)

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n4.2 Ethics as a Way of Life

Daoism and Confucianism are two philosophical traditions that originated in

China. In contrast to the more transcendent (other-worldly) orientation of
Indian Ethics, Chinese Ethics in the Daoist and Confucian sense are more
immanent (this-worldly) in orientation. For these two traditions, ethics is
anchored on a certain understanding of the fundamental role human beings
must play in the cosmos. In the case of Daoism, the concern is how one
ought to live with and as part of Nature. In the case of Confucianism, the
focus is on how one can be in harmony with one’s fellowmen. In both
instances, ethics is a question of the art of living.

☐ 4.2.1 Daoism
(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

The “School of the Way” or the school that teaches the Dao is rendered in
Chinese as Dao Jia. The teachings of this school, which are both
philosophical and practical, constitute what is referred to in the West as
Daoism. This is to be contrasted with Dao Jio, which refers to the religious
tradition that practices the Way.

Daoism both as a philosophical and religious tradition owes much of its

development to the interpretation of the Dao De Jing translated as the Book
(Jing) of the Way (Dao) and Virtue (De) or the Classic of the Way and
Virtue. The book composed of 81 poems — the first 37 comprise the Dao
Jing (1-37) and the succeeding poems constitute the De Jing (38-81) — is
believed to have been written by the ancient sage Lao Zi (master Lao), who
is sometimes thought to be a mythical figure due to the lack of historical
records that can prove his existence. The Dao De Jing is one of the most
translated texts next to the Bible.

Activity:

Read Poems 1-81 of The Classic of the Way and Virtue: A New Translation
of the Tao Te Ching of Lao Zi as Interpreted by Wang Bi by Richard Lynn
<https://terebess.hu/english/tao/ Lynn.html>. As you read, be guided by the
following study questions:

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1. What is the Dao? How is the Dao most fully revealed to us? What is the
significance of the Dao in living a life of inner peace and tranquility?
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2. How is De or virtue conceived in Daoism?

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3. How is the paradoxical nature of reality, represented by the principles of Yin–

Yang, significant to the question of how to live the good life in Daoism
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4. What is the meaning of Wei-Wu-Wei or action-by-non-action? How is it

practiced?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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☐ Dao (1/4)
(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

There Daoism begins with the assumption of the paradoxical nature of

reality. In every poetic erudition in the Dao De Jing, the reader is

18
confronted by the seeming absurdity of contradictory statements turning out
to be meaningful. The first poem describes the indescribable nature of the
Dao:

The Dao that can be described in language is not the constant Dao;
the name that can be given it is not its constant name.
Nameless, it is the origin of the myriad things;
named, it is the mother of the myriad things.
Therefore, always be without desire so as to see their subtlety.
And always have desire so as to see their ends.
These two emerge together but have different names.
Together, we refer to them as mystery: the mystery upon mystery
and gateway of all subtleties. (Lao Zi Ch. 1)

The central concept of ancient Chinese thought, Dao, exhibits

plurisignification in the terse yet poetic descriptions of it by Lao Zi. These
multilayers of meaning begin with the identification of the Dao as the
Absolute Dao. The Dao in this sense is a metaphysical notion. It refers to
the governing force that permeates everything that exists and does not
exist (both existence and nonexistence). It represents the Truth, the all-
pervading Reality.

As the Absolute Dao is reality itself but also the beginning and end of
reality, it also signifies that which moves and orients all things. It is in this
sense that the Dao is identified as the Way. It is the process, nature, and
movement of reality — a moving permanence. The Dao as the Way means
it is the Way of the Absolute.

If it is the Way of things, in the sense of process, movement, and nature of

the Absolute, the Dao is also the Path towards the Absolute. It is the Path
towards embodying the Way of the Dao. The Dao is the way of life a
person must take. And it consists of magnanimity, spontaneity,
effortlessness. It is the law of morality.

The central concept of ancient Chinese thought, Dao, exhibits

plurisignification in the terse yet poetic descriptions of it by Lao Zi. These
multilayers of meaning begin with the identification of the Dao as the
Absolute Dao. The Dao in this sense is a metaphysical notion. It refers to
the governing force that permeates everything that exists and does not

19
exist (both existence and nonexistence). It represents the Truth, the all-
pervading Reality.

As the Absolute Dao is reality itself but also the beginning and end of
reality, it also signifies that which moves and orients all things. It is in this
sense that the Dao is identified as the Way. It is the process, nature, and
movement of reality — a moving permanence. The Dao as the Way means
it is the Way of the Absolute.

If it is the Way of things, in the sense of process, movement, and nature of

the Absolute, the Dao is also the Path towards the Absolute. It is the Path
towards embodying the Way of the Dao. The Dao is the way of life a
person must take. And it consists of magnanimity, spontaneity,
effortlessness. It is the law of morality.

The poem below describes the different senses of the Dao:

There is something, amorphous and complete, that was born before

Heaven and Earth.
Obscure, oh, and, immaterial, oh, it stands alone, unchanged.
It operates everywhere but stays free from danger, thus we may
consider it the mother of all under Heaven.
We do not know its name
So style it "Dao" [Way].
Forced to give it a name, we call it "great."
"Great" refers to the way it goes forth.
"Goes forth" describes how it is far-reaching, and "far-reaching"
describes its reflexivity.
Thus the Dao is great, Heaven is great, Earth is great, and the king is
also great.
Within the realm of existence there are the four greats,
And the king has title to one of these.
Man takes his models from Earth;
Earth takes its models from Heaven;
Heaven takes its models from the Dao;
and the Dao takes its models from the Natural. (Lao Zi Ch. 25)

De (Virtue) (2/4)

To reach the Dao as truth and reality, arrive at knowledge of the movement

20
and nature of reality, and find the path one must follow in life, one must
cultivate one’s De. De is literally translated as virtue, moral character, inner
power, or integrity. Daoism enjoins human beings to be beings of De. This
points to the kind of virtuous persons human beings must become in living
a life of Dao. De is the manifestation of the Dao in the human individual. Its
complex ideogram is composed of three characters that literally mean:
“going-straight-to-one’s-heart.” De refers to the ethical wisdom of being
able to determine with spontaneity and effortlessness what is the natural
course of human relations and human life.

A person of superior virtue is not virtuous, and this is why he has virtue.
A person of inferior virtue never loses virtue, and this is why he lacks
virtue.
A person of superior virtue takes no conscious action and so acts out of
nothing.
A person of inferior virtue takes conscious action and so acts out of
something.
When a person of superior benevolence takes action, he acts out of
nothing.
When a person of superior righteousness takes action, he acts out of
something.
When a person of superior propriety takes action and no one responds, he
pushes up his sleeves and leads them to it.
Therefore, one resorts to virtue only after losing the Dao, resorts to
benevolence only after losing virtue, resorts to righteousness only after
losing benevolence, and resorts to propriety only after losing
righteousness.
Propriety consists of the superficial aspects of loyalty and trust and is thus
the beginning of disorder.
Foresight consists of the flower of the Dao and is thus the origin of
duplicity.
This is why the really great man involves himself with its substance and
not with its superficial aspects.
He involves himself with its fruit and not with its flower.
Therefore, he rejects the one and takes the other. (Lao Zi Ch. 38)

Yin-Yang (The Positive and Negative Aspects of Reality) (3/4)

Another fundamental metaphysical notion of Chinese thought is the

principle of Yin and Yang. Yin signifies yielding and it is considered as the
“negative” aspect of reality. It signifies something earthly, dark, feminine,
passive. On the other hand, Yang means unyielding and it is considered
the “positive” aspect of reality. It connotes something heavenly, bright,
masculine, active. Together, Yin and Yang highlights the paradoxical

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nature of reality. “The Dao begets the One; the One begets two; two beget
three; and three beget the myriad things. The myriad things, bearing yin
and embracing yang, form a unified harmony through the fusing of these
vital forces.” (Lao Zi Ch. 42)

The eternal interaction between the two aspects of reality is symbolized in

Chinese thought by the image of a circle divided equally and fluidly into
white and black (see Figure 1). Both divisions contain a smaller version of
the circle that are further equally divided into two and that both contain a
smaller version of the equally divided circle, ad infinitum. This symbolism is
meant to illustrate how the positive and negative elements of reality are
constitutive of one another in infinite dialectical relation. The S-like division
represents the fluidity and dynamism of reality as well as its perceived
dichotomies.

Reversion is the action of the Dao.

Softness is the function of the Dao.
The myriad things under Heaven achieve life in existence. Existence
arises from nothingness. (Lao Zi Ch. 40)

A palpable understanding of Dao as governed by the principle of Yin-Yang allows

one to be reconciled with the contradictions of existence. The person of De (i.e.,
the virtuous person) is thus someone who understands this principle of justice
pervading all of reality, and who at the same time embodies and practices it.

Wei-Wu-Wei (Action-by-non-action) (4/4)

If Dao is the plurisignificative Absolute-Way-Path, and Yin-Yang is the

nature of its moving-calmness, the person of De embodying the
unperturbed spontaneity of nature, practices the Wei-Wu-Wei — the Daoist
principle of action. Wei literally signifies action, and Wu literally signifies
something negative. Taken together they mean action-by-non-action. As
nature in itself is governed by paradoxical co-constitutive elements, the end

22
of action is to imitate the natural flow of nature by not overdoing one’s tasks
and finding balance in and among things. “The Dao in its constancy
engages in no conscious action, yet nothing remains undone.” (Lao Zi Ch.
37)

A life well lived in the Daoist sense is characterized by reconciliation with

the seeming contradiction that governs reality. The end is to be at one with
it. This is the ultimate goal of the Daoist project — to find peace and
tranquility by finding the Dao within oneself and being like the Dao as one
is part of the Dao. This is the point of Poem 27 of Dao De Jing.

One good at traveling leaves no tracks or prints.

One good at words says nothing flawed or blameworthy.
One good at reckoning does not use bamboo tallies.
One good at locking up has no lock yet what is locked cannot be opened.
One good at tying up has no cord yet what is tied cannot be untied.
This is how the sage is always good at saving people, so no one is
discarded,
Always good at saving things, and so nothing is discarded.
This is what is known as maintaining the light.
Thus, the good man is the teacher of men who are not good.
Men who are not good are material for the good man.
But if they do not value their teacher, and he does not cherish his material,
no matter how wise, one will become greatly lost.
This is called the "profoundly subtle." (Lao Zi Ch. 27)

The life of Dao is void of strife and is instead characterized by serenity. It is only
by going against the Dao that one loses one’s peace and tranquility. It is by
misunderstanding the nature of reality that one suffers and is thrown off balance.

The softest things under Heaven gallop through the hardest things.
That which has no physical existence can squeeze through where there is
no space, so from this I know how advantageous it is to act without
conscious purpose.
The teaching that is not expressed in words, the advantage that is had by
acting without conscious purpose, rare is it that anyone under Heaven ever
reaches them. (Poem 43)
Act by not acting;
do by not doing;
find flavor in that which has no flavor.
Deal with the small as if it were the great, and deal with the few as if it
were the many, but respond to resentment in terms of virtue.
Plan for the difficult while it is still easy;
work on the great while it is still small.
Every difficult matter under Heaven surely originates in something easy,

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 and every great matter under Heaven surely originates in something small.
Therefore, it is because the sage never tries to be great that he fulfills his
greatness.
Assent lightly given surely inspires little trust.
Regarding many things as easy is sure to result in many difficulties.
Therefore, the sage still regards them as difficulties.
Thus, he never has difficulties. (Lao Zi Ch. 63)

Reflection:

Choose one poem each from the Dao Jing (poems 1-37) and De Jing
(poems 38-81) excerpts and reflect on how it applies to an issue or
situation that you are encountering at present, in yourself, with your friends,
at home, in school, or in your immediate community. Write down your
interpretation of the Daoist excerpt you chose.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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☐ 4.2.2 Confucianism
(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

In the School of Literati (Ru Jia), known in the West as Confucianism, it is

emphasized that the goal of human life and human society is to achieve
harmony. In contrast to the more metaphysical eruditions of Daoism about
the harmony that must manifest both in nature and the human individual,
Confucianism’s emphasis on harmony is political and anthropocentric. Its
great vision is the possibility of a socially and politically harmonious life.
The name Confucianism is taken from the name of the Chinese sage
master Confucius (Kong Qiu, or sometimes referred to as master Kong or
Kong Zi). Confucianism now generally refers to the school inspired by the
teachings of Kong Zi, but during its establishment Ru Jia refers to a class of
specialists concerned with transmitting and preserving the traditional rituals
and texts of the Zhou dynasty. (Slingerland 241)

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Reflection:

Read “Books 1, 2, 4, 12, & 14” of the Confucius: Analects (with selections
from traditional commentaries) as translated by Edward Slingerland. As you
read, be guided by the following study questions:

1. How is the moral gentleman described in the Analects?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

2. What are the virtues that make one worthy of respect?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

3. How is Goodness or being Good defined in the Analects?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

4. What does Zhong and Shu stand for? What is their significance in
determining what one ought to do?
_____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Tian-Di-Ren (Heaven-Earth-Man) (1/3)

To Have you ever heard of the Chinese expression: “all under heaven”?
Heaven or Sky in the Chinese language is translated as Tian. It represents
the Supreme Ancestor but one that is impersonal. “All under heaven”
expresses the vision for an egalitarian society characterized by equality,
and democracy. Heaven as the impersonal overseer serves as a
transcendent guide for the people. But this imposes a high demand on
human individuals. Human beings must be of such moral rectitude that they
would reflect in their decisions and actions the mandate of Heaven. In fact,
the phrase “Mandate of Heaven” is used to refer to the rightful assumption

25
of a king as ruler of the people. For the Confucian scholar Meng Zi, the
voice of the people is what reflects the voice of Heaven in a benevolent
government.

The special role of Heaven in the moral cultivation of humanity is further

amplified in the challenge of another Confucian scholar, Xun Zi. For him,
human beings strive for moral perfection. Xun Zi asks: “Heaven (Tian) has
its seasons, Earth (Di) has its wealth, what about Man (ren)?” (Xun Zi Bk.
XVII) For Xun Zi, what human beings have is morality. Human beings can
equal the ways of Heaven and Earth through humaneness and
righteousness.

The scholar Yao Xinzhong remarks in his An Introduction to Confucianism:

“Heaven-Earth-Man (Tian-Di-Ren)…three modes of the same Way: the
Way of Heaven is called the yin and yang, the Way of Earth is called the
yielding and the firm, and the Way of Humans is called humaneness and
righteousness.” (Yao 139)

The Five Virtues (2/3)

There are five intimately connected core moral virtues in Confucianism. In

the Analects, the person who is the paragon of virtue is referred to as the
gentleman: “The gentleman takes rightness as his substance, puts it into
practice by means of ritual, gives it expression through modesty, and
perfects it by being trustworthy. Now that is a gentleman!” (Kong Zi Bk. 15
Pt. 8)

a. Ren (Consciousness-of-human-other)

The first core moral virtue is Ren, literally translated as consciousness-of-

human-others. Sometimes it is also referred to as benevolence,
humaneness, goodness, compassion, and virtue of virtues. Ren as
consciousness-of-human-others is a human being’s first moral awakening
(Co 107). It is this moral realization that gives us a solicitous disposition
towards others. It is based on the recognition of the fact that one is not
alone and it is with others that one is called into becoming moral and
ethical human beings. The person of virtue is referred to as the person of
Ren. In the conversation below, Kong Zi is presented to be talking about
what constitutes the man of Ren.

Zizhang asked Confucius, “What must a person be like before he can be

employed in government service?”

26
 The Master replied, “He must respect the five virtues, and get rid of the
four vices. Then he can be employed in government service.”

Zizhang asked, “What are the five virtues?”

The Master replied, “The gentleman is benevolent without being

wasteful, imposes labor upon the people without incurring their
resentment, desires without being covetous, is grand without being
arrogant, and is awe-inspiring without being severe.”

Zizhang asked, “What does it mean to be benevolent but not

wasteful?”

The Master replied, “Benefiting the people based on an understanding

of what is truly beneficial to them — is this not ‘benevolent without
being wasteful’? Imposing labor upon the people only at the rights
times and on the right projects — who will resent it? Desiring
Goodness and attaining it — what is there left to covet? Whether he is
dealing with a few or with many, with the great or with the humble, the
gentleman does not dare to be casual — is this not ‘grand without
being arrogant’? The gentleman straightens his robe and cap, adopts a
respectful gaze, and is so dignified in appearance that people look upon
him with awe — is this not ‘awe-inspiring without being severe?”

Zizhang asked, “What are the four vices?”

The Master replied, “Executing the people without having instructed

them — this is cruelty. Expecting perfection without having warned
people when they are about to make a mistake — this is oppressive.
Demanding punctuality without having yourself issued proclamations
in a timely fashion — this is to be a pest. Being consistently stingy
when it comes to disbursing funds and rewarding people — this is
officious.” (Kong Zi Bk. 20 Pt. 2)

b. Yi (Consciousness of one’s moral imperative)

Yi signifies the moral duty one must fulfill. It is best understood through
another Confucian moral code, Zheng Ming or Rectification of Names.
One’s moral obligation is attached to one’s social appellation or role in the
five-relationships — Ruler-Subject, Father-Son, Husband-Wife, Senior
Brother-Junior Brother, and Senior Friend-Junior Friend. It is stressed in
Confucian teaching that a society where names, titles, or positions are not
assumed or followed will be reduced to anarchy. Only when a ruler is a true
ruler, ministers, true ministers, fathers, true fathers, and sons, true sons
(Kong Zi Bk. 12 Pt. 11) is the harmonious society possible for it is only then

27
that all members of the society knows their proper role and place.

c. Li (Propriety)

While it might seem that Ren as moral awakening and Yi as moral

obligation are enough to determine morality and ethics, the teachings of
Kong Zi require much more. Ren and Yi must be accompanied by proper
decorum — i.e. the moral virtue Li. Li refers to propriety. It is also
sometimes translated as rites, ceremony, ritual, civility, politeness, and
good manners. It refers to the refined external expression of a morally
cultivated individual. If Yi is internal, Li is external. One’s moral character is
not only determined through the fulfillment of one’s duties or the
benevolence of one’s heart towards others, but also through one’s behavior
and comportment both in public and in private. The practice of Li is one of
the signs of a moral gentleman. The following passage refers to the need
for propriety in one’s action (Li is translated here as ritual): “If you are
respectful but lack ritual you will become exasperating; if you are careful
but lack ritual you will become timid; if you are courageous but lack ritual
you will become unruly; and if you are upright but lack ritual you will
become inflexible.” (Kong Zi Bk. 8 Pt. 2). Li consists of the use of proper
language, proper dressing, compliance to rules, observance of tradition,
and the exercise of art. The moral gentleman does all these not in
obedience to law (Fa) but rather as expressions of virtue.

d. Zhi (Spoken wisdom)

The moral virtue that results in knowing the right thing to do is Zhi. This
generally refers to the “act of knowing”. But Zhi refers specifically to spoken
wisdom or communicable wisdom or transmitted knowledge, rather than to
just any kind of knowledge. Unlike the Greeks who have two terms for
spoken wisdom, logos and sophia, Chinese thought has only one term for it
which emphasizes the constitutive relation of thought and word. Wisdom
must be transmittable, and it must be made communicable. Furthermore,
Zhi is specifically identified
with morality. It is knowledge of morals and it is the consciousness of the
moral value of actions. Part of this wisdom is the ability to be circumspect
about one’s situation, i.e.
knowing when to speak. The passage from the Analects illustrates this:

The Master said, “If someone is open to what you have to say, but you
do not speak to them, this is letting the person go to waste; if, however,
someone is not open to what you have to say, but you speak to them
anyway, this is letting your words go to waste. The wise person does

28
not let people go to waste, but he also does not waste his
words.” (Kong Zi Bk. 15 Pt. 8)

e. Xin (Faithfulness to one’s word)

The virtuous person is not only conscious of his fellow human beings
(Ren), nor is he simply carrying out his moral responsibilities (Yi) and acting
well (Li) with full knowledge of what he must do (Zhi). The person of virtue
must also strive to be someone respectable in words and deeds. The
Confucian paragon of a virtuous person must be consistent in thought,
word, and deed: as one thinks so should one speak; as one speaks, so
should one act. Xin is the Confucian virtue that signifies this sense of moral
consistency. It calls forth a commitment to one’s spoken word. It is akin to
the Spanish phrase palabra de honor. The following passage reflects this:
“People in ancient times were not eager to speak, because they would be
ashamed if their actions did not measure up to their words.” (Kong Zi Bk. 4
Pt. 22)

The Principle of Zhong and Shu (Principle of Measuring Square or Golden

Rule)

Zhong and Shu are the two aspects of the measuring square for action.
These two are referred to by Kong Zi as the summary of his teachings:

The Master said, “Master Zeng! All that I teach can be strung
together
on a single thread.”

“Yes, sir.” Master Zeng responded.

After the Master left, the disciples asked, “What did he mean by
that?”

Master Zeng said, “All that the Master teaches amounts to nothing
more than dutifulness (zhong) tempered by understanding
(shu).” (Kong Zi Bk. 4 Pt. 15)

Zhong represents the positive aspect of the practice of Ren, namely, doing
unto others what you want others do unto you: “If you really care for them,
can you then fail to put them to work? If you are really dutiful to him, can
you then fail to instruct him?” (Kong Zi Bk. 14 Pt. 7) Shu represents the
prohibitive aspect of the practice of Ren: “Do not impose upon others what
you yourself do not desire.” (Kong Zi Bk. 15 Pt. 24)

29
The twin aspects of the Golden Rule known as the principle of the
measuring square is the human guide to action. Thus, Confucianism
contains the highest articulation of an
anthropocentric ethics where goodness, virtuousness, righteousness, or
humaneness is within the immediate reach of the human individual. The
moral obligation does not come from some transcendent beyond. Instead,
one must look within oneself to know what one must do. As one of the
sayings of Kong Zi asserts: “Is Goodness really so far away? If I simply
desire Goodness, I will find that it is already here.” (Kong Zi Bk. 7 Pt. 30)

Activity:

Reflect on the questions below and write down your thoughts. You may be
required to present them in class.

1. Is the principle of Zhong and Shu selfish and egocentric? Why or

why not?

2. Do you think that it is necessary to determine the nature of human

moral character (i.e. good, evil, both good and evil, neither good nor evil) in
the study of ethics? Why or why not?

30
Human Moral Character as Good or Evil (3/3)

In deciphering the sayings of Kong Zi, the question of whether Kong Zi

problematized the question of the nature of human beings’ moral character
has been posed. The Confucian scholars Meng Zi and Xun Zi gave
different responses.

For Meng Zi, human moral character is good. We have in us seeds of

goodness that only need to be cultivated. Meng Zi stresses that the sense
of compassion (Ren), sense of right and wrong (Yi), sense of good and evil
(Li), and sense of truth and falsity (Zhi) are found in us at birth. For him,
“The feeling of commiseration belongs to all men; so does that of shame
and dislike; and that of reverence and respect; and that of approving and
disapproving.” (Meng Zi Bk. VI Pt. 1 Ch. 6.7) We are morally ‘perfectable’
because we already have the seeds of goodness in us. The full blossoming
of these seeds is the goal of moral cultivation. When one sees a child about
to fall into a well, one’s natural human response is to save the child. This
for Meng Zi proves that we are naturally good, and we only need to follow
this natural disposition to be the person of Ren. This however does not
guarantee morality. For Meng Zi, we need to consistently nurture these
seeds of goodness. It is through negligence and a bad environment that
they are lost to us.

In contrast, Xun Zi stressed that human moral character is evil. He asserts that
“The nature of man is evil; his goodness is only acquired training.” (Xun Zi Bk.
XXIII) Xun Zi describes the selfishness of human beings thus:

The original nature of man today is to seek gain. If this desire is

followed, strife and rapacity result, and courtesy dies. Man originally is
envious and naturally hates others. If these tendencies are followed,
injury and destruction follow; loyalty and faithfulness are destroyed.
Man, originally possesses the desire of the ear and eye; he likes praise
and is lustful. If these are followed, impurity and disorder result, and
the rules of Li (proper conduct) and Yi (righteousness and justice) and
etiquette are destroyed. (Xun Zi Bk. XXIII)

For Xun Zi, the existence of teachings, laws, schools, rites, and etiquette
prove that we need to tame our natural dispositions. They exist to restrain
our natural inclinations which, if left on their own, will lead to strife and the
destruction of human society as well as of oneself. Human moral character
is naturally evil, which is why we must not waver in our moral cultivation. It
is only through overcoming our nature that human beings can equal
Heaven and Earth.

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Activity:

Identify the cause-problem-solution from the point of view of Confucian

ethics, for the following cases:

1. Choosing an applicant for a position based not on the person’s

qualifications but on how the person is related to key personnel in the
organization

2. Finishing a term paper/thesis by paying a ghost-writer/researcher

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n4.3 Religious Conceptions of Ethics

Both Christian and Islamic Ethics are ethical frameworks that are derived
directly from the moral teachings of the monotheistic Christian and Islamic
religions. The kind of life endorsed in these religions is inspired by and
patterned after that of Christ (the son of God) in Christianity and
Muhammad (the last prophet and messenger of God) in Islam; their lives
and teachings are considered the paragon of virtue. In both the Christian
and Islamic religious ethical framework, the general discipline that governs
the life of an individual is faith in God, whose words are recorded in the
Bible and the Qur’an, respectively.

☐ 4.3.1 Christian Ethics

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Christian Ethics is a system of values based on Christian scriptures and the

teachings and character of the Christian prophets and Jesus Christ as they
are narrated in the Bible. In Christianity, the books comprising the Bible are
believed to be inspired by God. They are the works of Divine Revelation,
making the Bible the major source of knowledge about what is right and
wrong. Christian Ethics is derived by interpreting the moral significance of
the behaviors of individuals in the biblical stories, over and above the Bible
stating directly what counts as ethical in the form of moral codes. Overall,
Christian Ethics is concerned fundamentally with “spiritual formation”.

Activity:

Read Luke 6: 27-42 on “The love of enemies” and “On Judging Others” and
Luke 10: 25 37 about “A Lawyer’s Question” and “The Parable of the Good
Samaritan” in the New Revised Standard Version of The Bible. Based on
your reading, answer the following study questions:

1.What is love in the Christian sense? What is the significance of this kind
of love to the question of how one ought to live? Why does one need to
love one’s enemies?

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 2.Who is one’s neighbor in the Christian sense? How does one determine
who is one’s neighbor?

3.Jesus Christ said that second to the commandment to love God with all
of one’s heart, soul, mind and strength, is the commandment to love one’s
neighbor as oneself (Mark 13: 29-31; Matthew 22: 37-39; Luke 10: 27).
How does love of one’s enemies and the parable of the good Samaritan
show this commandment?

☐ Christ and the New Testament (1/2)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Christianity is derived from the name of Jesus Christ who is believed to be

the Son of God and the savior of humankind. Christ’s significance in the
Christian religion is marked by a shift in the way God is perceived. In the
Old Testament, God is perceived as a God of justice. In the New
Testament, God is perceived as a God of love. The surest sign of this love
is Christ being God’s gift to humanity. As stated in John 3:16: “For God so
loved the world, that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes
in him may not perish but may have eternal life.” Christ’s teachings are
reflected in the way he lived his life and the way he interacted with people.
He reflected on the traditions of his time and interpreted them in new and
original ways that revolved around the virtues of faith, love, and charity.

In contrast to the traditional doctrinal affirmations of God’s word in the Old

Testament, the teachings of Christ are reflected in the New Testament in
the form of parables, pithy sayings, and actions that reflect everyday
experiences but which are also designed to startle so that those who hear
and witness them might reexamine their belief systems and relationships
with others. The scholar Ronald Preston remarks that in Christ’s teachings,
“God’s rule is seen not in the punishment of wrongdoers but in bearing the
consequences of their wrongdoing.” (94-95). He describes the ethical
teachings of Christ as “radicalizing common morality”. He writes:

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 For instance, there is to be no limit to the forgiveness for injuries
(Matt. 18: 21ff), not on the grounds that it will win over the offender
but because it corresponds to God’s forgiveness of us. Similarly love of
enemies is enjoined (Matt. 6: 14ff) not because it will win over the
enemy (although of course it might) but because God loves his
enemies. There is to be no restriction on neighbor love (Luke 10: 29ff).
Anxiety is the surest sign of lack of trust in God (Matt. 6: 19-34),
especially anxiety over possessions. Jesus was a man of faith (trust).
(95)

These ethical gestures are all recorded in the synoptic Gospels of Matthew,
Mark, and Luke as part of the life and teachings of Christ.

☐ The Commandment to Love One Another (2/2)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

The core teaching of Christ is to love God and one another. In the synoptic
Gospels, one finds the repetition of Christ’s two great commandments
which serve as a summary of all his teachings: “You shall love the Lord
your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your
strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbor as yourself.” (Lk. 10:
27) This love of God and one’s neighbor is inspired by the belief that God
has loved humanity first, and this is most significantly expressed through
Jesus Christ His Son who died for the sins of the world. Thus, it is
humanity’s duty to express this same gesture of love towards God and one
another. The Christian life is therefore a response to God’s prior
graciousness. Preston notes:

Love of neighbor in the Christian sense means being responsible for

our fellow human beings, not because of their idiosyncratic qualities
but because of their humanity as made in the image of God (Gen. 1:
22). It does not depend on natural affection in the one who loves nor
natural attractiveness in the one loved. It does not imply identical
treatment, but putting oneself in the neighbor’s shoes. (98)

This ethical virtue of unconditional love towards one another is a duty that
God has imposed upon humanity through Christ. It comes from the
admonition to love one another as God has loved humanity, despite human
misgivings and wrongdoings. Being a Christian in the strict sense of the
term is thus to be a symbol and embodiment of love for all. This love in
Greek is Agape, which means loving God and your neighbor as yourself.
This is the only way to salvation in the Christian sense.

The book of Genesis narrates the story of Adam and Eve being banished

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from the Garden of Eden because of pride is narrated. Tempted by the
serpent to eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, Adam
and Eve committed what is referred to in Christianity as the original sin.
The fruit gave Adam and Eve knowledge of Good and Evil and took away
their pure innocence. Everyone inherits this original sin at birth, and it is
washed away in Baptism. However, life is filled with the temptation to sin.
The only way humanity can be saved from sin and the wages of sin is by
following the moral teachings of Christ as he lived them. This includes
showing mercy and compassion to every living creature, even to one’s
enemies. It also involves a certain level of introspection — i.e. that one
should not be quick to judge others and should focus instead on one’s own
moral cultivation.

Activity:

The Christian teaching to love one’s neighbor as oneself has other formulations
that resemble the Golden Rule of Confucianism, as follows: “Do to others as you
would have them do to you.” (Lk. 6: 31) and “Do not judge, and you will not be
judged; do not condemn, and you will not be condemned. Forgive, and you will be
forgiven; give, and it will be given to you.” (Lk. 6: 37-38)

1.Compare this teaching to the principle of Zhong and Shu in

Confucianism. Indicate what makes them similar and/or different from one
another. State your reason/s.

2.What other teachings of Kong Zi has a similar articulation in the

teachings of Christ?

☐ 4.3.2 Islamic Ethics

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Islamic Ethics comes from the youngest monotheistic religion of the world,
Islam. The term Islam means peace, security, submission. Islam asserts

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that a life of peace is made possible only through the submission of one’s
life to Allah.

The two primary sources of Islamic ethics are the Qur’an and the Sunnah
or Life of the Prophet Muhammad. The Qur’an is believed to have been
given by Allah (God) for human beings to refer to with regard to human
conduct. It is the Islamic counterpart of the Christian Bible. The Sunnah of
the Prophet Muhammad, believed to be the last messenger of Allah,
consists of the historical projection of a divinely inspired and guided human
life. The life of Muhammad serves as the model for human conduct. These
two sources ground the Islamic moral code in divine will, providing Islam
with a clearly defined sense of moral authority.

Activity:

Read “Book 2: Belief” of the Ṣaḥiḥ al-Bukhārī: The Translation of the

Meanings of Ṣaḥiḥ al- Bukhārī translated by M. M. Khan. Answer the
following study questions:

1. What are the five principles of Islam?

2. Who qualifies as a good Islam / Muslim? What counts as the best deeds
in Islam?

3. What does being an Islam stand for?

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☐ Ilm Al-Akhlaq (Science of the Human Soul) (1/4)
(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Islamic ethics is referred to as ilm al-akhlaq or the science of the human

soul. Islamic religion believes that human beings are composed of two
aspects: a material aspect or the khalq, and a spiritual aspect or the khuluq
or akhlaq. It asserts that human actions are the outward manifestation of
the inward self, and that actions are anchored in the human soul. Islamic
ethics as the science of the human soul focuses in defining the
characteristics and qualities of the soul as well as the methods for
controlling and moderating them. Ilm al-akhlaq is the way to acquire the
well-being of the soul and to guard it against vices. It is geared towards the
achievement of a good character, for akhlaq also connotes nature,
character, and disposition.

Islamic ethics deals with the relationship between human beings and Allah,
human beings and their fellow human beings, human beings and other
creatures of the universe, and human beings with their innermost selves.
This refers to the close relation between the (a) Creator (Khaliq) and
creature (Makhluq), and (b) the creature (Makhluq) with himself.

The basis for human action and decision in Islamic ethics consists of (a)
the word of Allah; (b) the human projection of a life inspired by Allah — the
life of Muhammad; and (c) human reasoning, which serves as a tool in
understanding these two. Determining and understanding the word of Allah
which is contained in the calls for the application of human reasoning. In
this sense, rational awareness serves as a response to revelation.
Rationality is the faculty used to discern God’s will.

☐ Taqwa (Consciousness of Allah) (2/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

In Islamic ethics, the key to a virtuous life is a strong relationship with Allah.
This requires the cultivation of one’s inward character by directing one’s
mind to the commandments of Allah. It is assumed in this ethical framework
that a good character begets good action, whereas its perversion begets
bad actions. In the Islamic moral code, one must always be mindful of the
different kinds of action: obligatory, recommended, permitted, discouraged,
reprehensible, and forbidden. Wrong action leads one further away from
Allah and his moral teachings.

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The human quality that encompasses the concept of the ideal ethical value
in the Qur’an is summed up in the term taqwa, which refers to the
sustained consciousness of the presence of Allah in one’s life. The word
taqwa is derived from the root word waqaya, which means ‘to safeguard’ or
‘to abstain’. In Islamic terminology, it is defined as the action of restraining
oneself from disobeying the commands of Allah.
Taqwa represents, on the one hand, the moral grounding that underlies
human action, while on the other, it signifies the ethical conscience that
makes human beings aware of their responsibilities to Allah and society.
Applied in a wider sense or in the social context, taqwa becomes the mark
of a truly moral community. In the Qur’an one reads the following verse:

O mankind! We have created you from a male and a female, and made
you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another. Verily, the
most honourable of you with Allah is that (believer) who has At-Taqwa
[i.e. one of the Muttaqun (pious - see V.2:2)]. Verily, Allah is All-
Knowing, All-Aware. (The Noble Quran 49: 13)

In Islam, it is stressed that even if we are supposed to be one community,

we are made different by Allah to test us, and it is our moral responsibility
to overcome our differences and find ways through which we can establish
forms of unity. This involves the practice of humility and piety instead of
arrogance and clamor for power and fame. At the same time, it requires
complete submission to Allah, and the abandonment of the worship of other
gods. Islam upholds that everyone will be ultimately judged by Allah, and
only a moral life with Allah at its center can lead us to deliverance.

☐ Jihad (Striving by peaceful means) (3/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

The term jihad has often erroneously been translated as ‘holy war’. But
jihad carries a far wider connotation that includes striving by peaceful
means, like preaching, education, and the purification of oneself, which is
the greater jihad. The goal of an ethical life in Islam is to achieve happiness
through taqwa but also through the attainment of balance within oneself.
Emphasizing individual equilibrium, the Islamic code of ethics promotes the
sense of balance between the two aspects of human life, the khalq or
material aspect, and the khuluq or akhlaq or spiritual aspect.

Islamic ethics recognizes that people might tend to give more importance to
material gain and external recognition. This impairs reflection and clouds
human rationality, which is supposed to assist us in deliberating upon the

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will of Allah. Thus, prophets have been sent by Allah to remind people of
what is right and just and virtuous. But if this is not enough, it is the moral
responsibility of the community to challenge those who oppose submission
to Allah and those who directly disobey his commands. This is the lesser
jihad and it is this which gave jihad the connotation of being a justly
executed war characterized by armed defense. It must be noted, however,
that the Qur’an has very specific conditions for war and peace, as well as
for the treatment of captives and the resolution of conflict. Ultimately, what
it emphasizes is that the purpose of Allah’s word is to invite and guide
people to ‘the ways of peace’. Its aim is to establish both individual and
social equilibrium. The ummah or community of Allah must be a community
of the middle way.

☐ Zakat (Giving) (4/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

One fundamental truth in the Islamic tradition is the truth of injustice in the
world. This imposes upon the members of the ummah the responsibility to
redress different kinds of injustices both in individual and social life. The
prophet Muhammad enjoins the community to practice compassion and
nurture genuine care for people who are in need. This is made possible
through the duty of zakat. Zakat is a term connoting ‘giving’, ‘virtue’,
‘increase’, and ‘purification’. Zakat is a form of alms-giving that has evolved
into a religious obligation. It serves as the outward manifestation of
communitarian concern and compassion, and it is one of the pillars of faith,
together with prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage.

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Activity:

1. In groups, interview a Muslim (a) student and (b) teacher. Bring up one
or two contemporary ethical issues and ask them about their views on how
these issues can be addressed using Islamic ethics

nConclusion of Module 4 Part 1

☐ Summary

As stated in the introduction to this module, the different Asian ethical

frameworks and religious conceptions are responses to different human
predicaments. Below is a summary of the fundamental concepts that point
to the different human predicaments they respond to (indicated in the
second row) and the core ethical virtues that they prescribe (indicated in
the third row).

Hinduism Buddhism Daoism Confucianism Islamic Christian

Ethics Ethics
Samasara Dukkha Dao Tian-Di-Ren Ilm-Al-Akhlaq
(The Cycle of (Suffering) (Absolute- (Heaven-Earth- (Science of the Sin
Transmigration) Way-Path) Man) Human Soul)
Dharma Dukkha Wei-Wu- Zhong and Shu Taqwa Agape
(End-Duty- Nirodhagamini- Wei (Principle of (Consciousness (Love of
Nature) pratipat (Acting- Measuring of Allah) God and
(Eight-fold- by-not- Square) Neighbor as
Path) acting) Oneself)

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Summative Assessment:

(1) Write a 1500-word reflection paper to summarize everything you

have learned about Asian Ethical Frameworks and Religious
Conceptions. If any, discuss how your perspective or outlook about
these religious conceptions were transformed as well as how the
lessons you have learned affected you as a human person.

Guider Criteria for evaluating activities/responses and assesments

Rating Criteria
A = Excellent • Focused, Succinct Thesis
• Organized from the beginning to end to Support Thesis
• Effective, Germane Use of Textual Support
• Originality of Ideas
• Clear, Well Formulated Sentences
• Correct Citation Form, Well Documented
• Precise and Effective Language
• Fluid Transitions
B = Good • Focused, Succinct Thesis
• Adequately Organized to Support Thesis
• Some Originality of Ideas
• Textual Support not always Effective, Germane
• Mechanical Problems that do not Interfere with Readability
• Clear, Well Formulated Sentences
• Correct Citation Form, Well Documented
C = Fair • Unfocused, Weak Thesis
• Partially Organized to Support Thesis
• Paucity of Original Ideas
• Ineffective Textual Support
• Incomplete, Poorly Formulated Sentences
• Informal, inappropriate Language
• Careless Editing, Incorrect Citation Form
• Mechanical Errors that do not Interfere with Readability
D = Poor • No Thesis
• Lack of Organization
• No Original Ideas
• Little Textual Support, Irrelevant Appeal to Text
• Mechanical Errors that Interfere with Readability
• Lack of Editing, Incorrect/Missing Citation
• Inadequate Length, Underdevelopment of Ideas
U = Unacceptable • Plagiarism
• Inappropriateness
• Unintelligibility
• No Thesis
• No Organization/Structure
• Failure to Submit

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Supplementary Readings:

Hinduism
Co, Alfredo. “A Divine Social Plan of a Chaturvarna: Traversing the life of Samsara”.
In Across the Ancient Philosophical World: Essays in Comparative Philosophy.
Manila, Philippines: UST Publishing House, 2015. 141-156.

Buddhism
Dharmasiri, G. Fundamentals of Buddhist Ethics. Antioch, CA: Golden Leaves, 1989.
Kalupahana, D. Ethics in Early Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995.
Robinson, R. H., and W. L. Johnson. The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction,
4th ed.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1997.

Daoism
Co, Alfredo. “Lao Zi”. In The Blooming of a Hundred Years: Philosophy of Ancient
China.
Manila: UST Publishing House, 2005. 128-165.
Co, Alfredo. “Hermeneutics of the Genius of the Absurd: Interpreting the Dao.” In
Across the Ancient Philosophical World. Manila, Philippines: UST Publishing
House, 2015.
168-185.
Koller, John M. and Patricia Joyve Koller. “Chapter 21: Confucianism.” In Asian
Philosophies. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998. 252-265.

Confucianism
Chan, Wing-Tsit. A Sourcebook in Chinese Philosophy Princeton. NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1963.
Co, Alfredo. “Kong Zi”, “Meng Zi”, and “Xun Zi”. In The Blooming of a Hundred
Years: Philosophy of Ancient China. Manila: UST Publishing House, 2005.
104-127; 303-325; 340-380.
Co, Alfredo. “Tian Xia Da Dong: Harmony Under Heaven.” In Across the Ancient
Philosophical World. Manila, Philippines: UST Publishing House, 2015. 168-
185.
Hall, D. L., and R. T. Ames. Thinking Through Confucius. New York: State
University of New York Press, 1987.

Christian Ethics
The Love Commandments: Essays in Christian Ethics and Moral Philosophy.
Edited by Edmund Santurri and William Werpehowski. Washington, D.C.:
Georgetown University Press, 1995.
Etienne Gilson. “What is Christian philosophy?” In A Gilson Reader: Selected Writings
of Etienne Gilson. Edited by Anton Charles Pegis. Garden City, NY: Image

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 Books, 1957.
Islamic Ethics
Al-Hasan Al-Aidaros, Faridahwati Mohd and Kamil Md. Idris. “Ethics and Ethical
Theories from an Islamic Perspective.” International Journal of Islamic Thought.
Vol. 4. (December 2013)
Al-Qaradawi, Y. The Iman (Faith) and Life. Doha: Arabia Publication, 1985.
Retrieved October 15, 2009, from www.daawa-info.net.
Al-Qaradawi, Y. The Priorities of Understanding. Beirut: Darul Al-Ressalh
Publication, 1994. Retrieved October 15, 2009, from www.fiseb.com.
Hovanniasian, R.G. Ethics in Islam. California: Undena Publications, 1983.
Rahim, Adibah Binti Abdul. “Understanding Islamic Ethics and Its Significance on the
Character Building.” International Journal of Social Science and Humanity.
Vol. 3, No. 6. (November 2013).

Works Cited
Hi(Trans.) Buhler, Georg. The Laws of Manu. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886.
Al-Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismāʿīl. Ṣaḥiḥ al-Bukhārī: The Translation of the
Meanings of Ṣaḥiḥ al-Bukhārī (Arabic and English). 9 Vols. Translated by M.
M. Khan. 3d rev. ed. Chicago, 1979. https://www.sahih-
bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_1_02.php
Co, Alfredo. The Blooming of a Hundred Years: Philosophy of Ancient China. Manila:
UST Publishing House, 2005.
(Trans.) Dubs, Homer H. The Works of Hsuntze. Taipei: Ch’eng-Wen Publishing Co.,
1973. (Trans.) Eastwaran, Eknath. The Bhagavad Gita. Canada: Nilgiri Press, 2007.
Hanh, Thich Nhat. Old Path White Clouds: Walking in the Footsteps of the Buddha.
Berkeley, California: Parallax Press, 1991. Translated by Mobi Ho.
(Trans.) Al-Hilali, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din and Muhammad Muhsin Khan. The
Noble Quran. https://www.noblequran.com/translation/
(Trans.) John, Lynn Richard. The Classic of the Way and Virtue: A New Translation of
the Tao Te Ching of Lao Zi as Interpreted by Wang Bi. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1999. https://terebess.hu/english/tao/Lynn.html
(Trans.) Legge, James. The Chinese Classics: The Works of Mencius. Vol. 2. Hong
Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960.
Preston, Ronald. “Christian Ethics”. In A Companion to Ethics. Edited by Peter Singer.
USA/ UK: Blackwell Publishers, 1991.
(Ed.) Ridling, Zaine. The Bible. New Revised Standard Version. USA: Division of
Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ, 1989.
(Trans.) Slingerland, Edward. Confucius: Analects (with selections from traditional
commentaries). Indianapolis / Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.,
2003.
Yao, Xinzhong. An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University P

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