Math

Handbook

glencoe.com
Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without prior
written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, network storage or transmission,
or broadcast for distance learning.

Glencoe/McGraw-Hill is independent from Microsoft Corporation, and not affiliated with Microsoft in any manner.
This publication may be used in assisting students to prepare for a Microsoft Business Certification exam. While this
publication may be used in assisting individuals to prepare for a Microsoft Business Certification exam, Microsoft, its
designated program administrator and Glencoe/McGraw-Hill do not warrant that use of this publication will ensure
passing a Microsoft Business Certification exam.

Between the time that Web site information is gathered and published, it is not unusual for some sites to have
changed URLs or closed. URLs will be updated in reprints or on the Online Resource Center when possible.

Printed in the United States of America

Send all inquiries to:

Glencoe/McGraw-Hill
21600 Oxnard Street, Suite 500
Woodland Hills, CA 91367

MHID 0-07-880263-6 (Student Edition)

ISBN 978-0-07-880263-8 (Student Edition)
Number and Operations
Understand numbers, ways Percents Greater Than 100 and
of representing numbers, Less Than 1
relationships among numbers, Percents greater than 100% represent
and number systems values greater than 1. For example, if the
weight of an object is 250% of another, it
Fraction, Decimal, and Percent is 2.5, or 2  , times the weight.
A percent is a ratio that compares a num- Percents less than 1 represent values
ber to 100. To write a percent as a frac- 
less than  . In other words, 0.1% is one
tion, drop the percent sign, and use the tenth of one percent, which can also be
number as the numerator in a fraction represented in decimal form as 0.001, or
with a denominator of 100. Simplify, if in fraction form as  
. Similarly, 0.01%
possible. For example, 76% = 
, or 
 . is one hundredth of one percent or
To write a fraction as a percent, convert it 0.0001 or  .
to an equivalent fraction with a denomi-
nator of 100. For example,  = 
, or Ratio, Rate, and Proportion
75%. A fraction can be expressed as a A ratio is a comparison of two numbers
percent by first converting the fraction to using division. If a basketball player
a decimal (divide the numerator by the makes 8 out of 10 free throws, the ratio
denominator) and then converting the is written as 8 to 10, 8:10, or  
. Ratios
decimal to a percent by moving the deci- are usually written in simplest form. In
mal point two places to the right. simplest form, the ratio “8 out of 10” is
4 to 5, 4:5, or  . A rate is a ratio of two
Comparing Numbers on a measurements having different kinds of
Number Line units—cups per gallon, or miles per hour,
In order to compare and understand the for example. When a rate is simplified so
relationship between real numbers in that it has a denominator of 1, it is called
various forms, it is helpful to use a num- a unit rate. An example of a unit rate is
ber line. The zero point on a number line 9 miles per hour. A proportion is an
is called the origin; the points to the left equation stating that two ratios are equal.
of the origin are negative, and those to
 =  is an example of a proportion.
 

the right are positive. The number line The cross products of a proportion are
below shows how numbers in percent, =   and 3 × 78 = 18 × 13.

also equal. 
decimal, fraction, and integer form can
be compared. Representing Large and Small
Numbers
Ź    In order to represent large and small

numbers, it is important to understand
Ź Ź Ź     the number system. Our number system
is based on 10, and the value of each
place is 10 times the value of the place to
its right.

2 Math Appendix
The value of a digit is the product of a For example, 8 is a multiple of 4
digit and its place value. For instance, in because 4 × 2 = 8. A prime number is a
the number 6,400, the 6 has a value of whole number that has exactly two fac-
six thousands and the 4 has a value of tors: 1 and itself. A composite number is
four hundreds. A place value chart can a whole number that has more than two
help you read numbers. In the chart, factors. Zero and 1 are neither prime nor
each group of three digits is called a composite. A composite number can be
period. Commas separate the periods: the expressed as the product of its prime
ones period, the thousands period, the factors. The prime factorization of 40 is
millions period, and so on. Values to the 2 × 2 × 2 × 5, or 23 × 5. The numbers
right of the ones period are decimals. By 2 and 5 are prime numbers.
understanding place value you can write
very large numbers like 5 billion and Integers
more, and very small numbers that are A negative number is a number less than
less than 1. zero. Negative numbers like –8, positive
numbers like +6, and zero are members
Scientific Notation of the set of integers. Integers can be
When dealing with very large numbers represented as points on a number
like 1,500,000, or very small numbers line. A set of integers can be written
like 0.000015, it is helpful to keep track {…, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …} where …
of their value by writing the numbers means “continues indefinitely.”
in scientific notation. Powers of 10 with
positive exponents are used with a deci- Real, Rational, and Irrational
mal between 1 and 10 to express large Numbers
numbers. The exponent represents the The real number system is made up of
number of places the decimal point is the sets of rational and irrational num-
moved to the right. So, 528,000 is writ- bers. Rational numbers are numbers that
ten in scientific notation as 5.28 × 105. can be written in the form a/b where a
Powers of 10 with negative exponents are and b are integers and b ≠ 0. Examples
used with a decimal between 1 and 10 are 0.45,  , and √36. Irrational num-
to express small numbers. The exponent bers are non-repeating, non-terminat-
represents the number of places the deci- ing decimals. Examples are √71, π, and
mal point is moved to the left. The num- 0.020020002….
ber 0.00047 is expressed as 4.7 × 10 –4.
Complex and Imaginary Numbers
Factor, Multiple, and Prime A complex number is a mathematical
Factorization expression with a real number element
Two or more numbers that are multi- and an imaginary number element.
plied to form a product are called factors. Imaginary numbers are multiples of
Divisibility rules can be used to deter- i, the “imaginary” square root of –1.
mine whether 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, or 10 are Complex numbers are represented by
factors of a given number. Multiples are a + bi, where a and b are real numbers
the products of a given number and vari- and i represents the imaginary element.
ous integers. When a quadratic equation does not

Math Appendix 3
have a real number solution, the solu- Understand meanings of
tion can be represented by a complex
operations and how they
number. Like real numbers, complex
relate to one another
numbers can be added, subtracted, mul-
tiplied, and divided. Properties of Addition and
Multiplication
Vectors and Matrices Properties are statements that are true
A matrix is a set of numbers or elements for any numbers. For example, 3 + 8
arranged in rows and columns to form a is the same as 8 + 3 because each
rectangle. The number of rows is repre- expression equals 11. This illustrates
sented by m and the number of columns the Commutative Property of Addition.
is represented by n. To describe the num- Likewise, 3 × 8 = 8 × 3 illustrates the
ber of rows and columns in a matrix, list Commutative Property of Multiplication.
the number of rows first using the format When evaluating expressions, it is
m × n. Matrix A below is a 3 × 3 matrix often helpful to group or associate the
because it has 3 rows and 3 columns. To numbers. The Associative Property says
name an element of a matrix, the letter i that the way in which numbers are
is used to denote the row and j is used to grouped when added or multiplied does
denote the column, and the element is not change the sum or product. The fol-
labeled in the form ai,j. In matrix A below, lowing properties are also true:
a3,2 is 4.
• Additive Identity Property: When 0
¦





µ
is added to any number, the sum is the
Matrix A = §





¶ number.
¨





·
• Multiplicative Identity Property:
A vector is a matrix with only one col- When any number is multiplied by 1,
umn or row of elements. A transposed the product is the number.
column vector, or a column vector
• Multiplicative Property of Zero:
turned on its side, is a row vector. In
When any number is multiplied by 0,
the example below, row vector b' is the
the product is 0.
transpose of column vector b.

¦µ
Rational Numbers

 A number that can be written as a
b= § ¶
§¶ fraction is called a rational number.
¨· Terminating and repeating decimals are
rational numbers because both can be
written as fractions.
b' = 










4 Math Appendix
Decimals that are neither terminating for adding. The numerators can be sub-
nor repeating are called irrational num- tracted and the difference written over
bers because they cannot be written as the denominator. Mixed numbers are
fractions. Terminating decimals can be written as improper fractions before sub-
converted to fractions by placing the tracting. These same rules apply to add-
number (without the decimal point) in ing or subtracting like algebraic fractions.
the numerator. Count the number of
places to the right of the decimal point, Adding and Subtracting Unlike
and in the denominator, place a 1 fol- Fractions
lowed by a number of zeros equal to the Fractions with different denominators
number of places that you counted. The are called unlike fractions. The least
fraction can then be reduced to its sim- common multiple of the denominators
plest form. is used to rename the fractions with a
common denominator. After a common
Writing a Fraction as a Decimal denominator is found, the numerators
Any fraction BC , where b ≠ 0, can be can then be added or subtracted. To add
written as a decimal by dividing the mixed numbers with unlike fractions,
numerator by the denominator. So, rename the mixed numbers as improper
C = a ÷ b. If the division ends, or termi-
B
fractions. Then find a common denomi-
nates, when the remainder is zero, the nator, add the numerators, and simplify
decimal is a terminating decimal. Not all the answer.
fractions can be written as terminating
decimals. Some have a repeating deci- Multiplying Rational Numbers
mal. A bar indicates that the decimal To multiply fractions, multiply the
repeats forever. For example, the frac- numerators and multiply the denomi-
tion  can be converted to a repeating nators. If the numerators and denomi-
decimal, 0.4 nators have common factors, they can
be simplified before multiplication. If
Adding and Subtracting Like the fractions have different signs, then
Fractions the product will be negative. Mixed
Fractions with the same denominator numbers can be multiplied in the same
are called like fractions. To add like frac- manner, after first renaming them as
tions, add the numerators and write improper fractions. A fraction that
the sum over the denominator. To add contains one or more variables in the
mixed numbers with like fractions, add numerator or denominator is called
the whole numbers and fractions sepa- an algebraic fraction. Algebraic frac-
rately, adding the numerators of the tions may be multiplied using the same
fractions, then simplifying if necessary. method described above.
The rule for subtracting fractions with
like denominators is similar to the rule

Math Appendix 5
Dividing Rational Numbers Additive Inverse Property says that
To divide a number by a rational number the sum of any number and its addi-
(a fraction, for example), multiply the tive inverse is zero. The Commutative,
first number by the multiplicative inverse Associative, and Identity Properties also
of the second. Two numbers whose prod- apply to integers. These properties help
uct is 1 are called multiplicative inverses, when adding more than two integers.
or reciprocals.  ×  = 1. When dividing
by a mixed number, first rename it as an Absolute Value
improper fraction, and then multiply by In mathematics, when two integers on
its multiplicative inverse. This process a number line are on opposite sides of
of multiplying by a number’s reciprocal zero, and they are the same distance
can also be used when dividing algebraic from zero, they have the same absolute
fractions. value. The symbol for absolute value is
two vertical bars on either side of the
Adding Integers number. For example, |–5| = 5.
To add integers with the same sign, add
their absolute values. The sum then takes Multiplying Integers
the same sign as the addends. The equa- Since multiplication is repeated addition,
tion –5 + (–2) = –7 is an example of add- 3(–7) means that –7 is used as an addend
ing two integers with the same sign. To 3 times. By the Commutative Property
add integers with different signs, subtract of Multiplication, 3(–7) = –7(3). The
their absolute values. The sum takes the product of two integers with different
same sign as the addend with the greater signs is always negative. The product of
absolute value. two integers with the same sign is always
positive.
Subtracting Integers
The rules for adding integers are Dividing Integers
extended to the subtraction of integers. The quotient of two integers can be
To subtract an integer, add its additive found by dividing the numbers using
inverse. For example, to find the differ- their absolute values. The quotient of
ence 2 – 5, add the additive inverse of two integers with the same sign is posi-
5 to 2: 2 + (–5) = –3. The rule for sub- tive, and the quotient of two integers
tracting integers can be used to solve with a different sign is negative.
real-world problems and to evaluate –12 ÷ (–4) = 3 and 12 ÷ (–4) = –3.
algebraic expressions. The division of integers is used in statis-
tics to find the average, or mean, of a set
Additive Inverse Property of data. When finding the mean of a set
Two numbers with the same absolute of numbers, find the sum of the num-
value but different signs are called bers, and then divide by the number in
opposites. For example, –4 and 4 are the set.
opposites. An integer and its opposite
are also called additive inverses. The

6 Math Appendix
Adding and Multiplying Vectors and time. For P(6, 3), there are 6 × 5 × 4 or
Matrices 120 possible outcomes. An arrangement
In order to add two matrices together, or listing where order is not important
they must have the same number of rows is called a combination. The symbol
and columns. In matrix addition, the cor- C(10, 5) represents the number of com-
responding elements are added to each binations of 10 things taken 5 at a time.
other. In other words (a + b)ij = aij + bij. For C(10, 5), there are (10 × 9 × 8 × 7 ×
For example, 6) ÷ (5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1) or 252 possible
outcomes.
¦


µ

¦


µ

¦






 µ 
¦


µ
¨


·

¨


·

¨






·
¨


·
Powers and Exponents
Matrix multiplication requires that An expression such as 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
the number of elements in each row in can be written as a power. A power has
the first matrix is equal to the number of two parts, a base and an exponent.
elements in each column in the second. 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 34. The base is the num-
The elements of the first row of the first ber that is multiplied (3). The exponent
matrix are multiplied by the correspond- tells how many times the base is used as a
ing elements of the first column of the factor (4 times). Numbers and variables
second matrix and then added together can be written using exponents. For exam-
to get the first element of the product ple, 8 × 8 × 8 × m × m × m × m × m can
matrix. To get the second element, the be expressed 83m5. Exponents also can be
elements in the first row of the first used with place value to express numbers
matrix are multiplied by the correspond- in expanded form. Using this method,
ing elements in the second column of 1,462 can be written as (1 × 103) +
the second matrix then added, and so (4 × 102) + (6 × 101) + (2 × 100).
on, until every row of the first matrix is
multiplied by every column of the sec- Squares and Square Roots
ond. See the example below. The square root of a number is one of
two equal factors of a number. Every
¦


µ
t
¦


µ

¦ 
t



t




t



t
 µ
¦


 µ
 positive number has both a positive and
¨


·

¨


·

¨ 
t



t




t



t
 ·
¨

·
a negative square root. For example,
since 8 × 8 = 64, 8 is a square root of 64.
Vector addition and multiplication are
Since (–8) × (–8) = 64, –8 is also a square
performed in the same way, but there is
root of 64. The notation √‾ indicates the
only one column and one row.
positive square root, –√‾ indicates the
negative square root, and ±√‾ indicates
Permutations and Combinations both square roots. For example, √81 = 9,
Permutations and combinations are used –√49 = –7, and ±√4 = ±2. The square
to determine the number of possible out- root of a negative number is an imagi-
comes in different situations. An arrange- nary number because any two factors of
ment, listing, or pattern in which order a negative number must have different
is important is called a permutation. The signs, and are therefore not equivalent.
symbol P(6, 3) represents the number
of permutations of 6 things taken 3 at a

Math Appendix 7
Logarithm sides of the ratio 6:8 to get 42:56. Instead,
A logarithm is the inverse of exponentia- you can also divide both sides of the
tion. The logarithm of a number x in same ratio by 2 to get 3:4. Find the sim-
base b is equal to the number n. plest form of a ratio by dividing to find
Therefore, bn = x and logbx = n. For exam- equivalent ratios until you can’t go any
ple, log4(64) = 3 because 43 = 64. The further without going into decimals. So,
most commonly used bases for logarithms 160:240 in simplest form is 2:3. To write a
are 10, the common logarithm; 2, the ratio in the form 1:n, divide both sides by
binary logarithm; and the constant e, the the left-hand number. In other words, to
natural logarithm (also called ln(x) instead change 8:20 to 1:n, divide both sides by 8
of loge(x)). Below is a list of some of the to get 1:2.5.
rules of logarithms that are important to
understand if you are going to use them. Front-End Estimation
logb(xy) = logb(x) + logb(y) Front-end estimation can be used to
quickly estimate sums and differences
logb(x/y) = logb(x) – logb(y)
before adding or subtracting. To use
logb(1/x) = –logb(x) this technique, add or subtract just the
logb(x)y = ylogb(x) digits of the two highest place values,
and replace the other place values with
zero. This will give you an estimation of
Compute fluently and make the solution of a problem. For example,
reasonable estimates 93,471 – 22,825 can be changed to
Estimation by Rounding 93,000 – 22,000 or 71,000. This estimate
When rounding numbers, look at the can be compared to your final answer to
digit to the right of the place to which judge its correctness.
you are rounding. If the digit is 5 or
greater, round up. If it is less than 5, Judging Reasonableness
round down. For example, to round When solving an equation, it is important
65,137 to the nearest hundred, look at to check your work by considering how
the number in the tens place. Since 3 reasonable your answer is. For example,
is less than 5, round down to 65,100. consider the equation 9  × 4  . Since 9 
To round the same number to the near- is between 9 and 10 and 4  is between 4
est ten thousandth, look at the number and 5, only values that are between 9 × 4
in the thousandths place. Since it is 5, or 36 and 10 × 5 or 50 will be reasonable.
round up to 70,000. You can also use front-end estimation, or
you can round and estimate a reasonable
Finding Equivalent Ratios answer. In the equation 73 × 25, you can
Equivalent ratios have the same mean- round and solve to estimate a reasonable
ing. Just like finding equivalent fractions, answer to be near 70 × 30 or 2,100.
to find an equivalent ratio, multiply or
divide both sides by the same number.
For example, you can multiply 7 by both

8 Math Appendix
Algebra
Understand patterns, relations, the slope. Therefore, you can determine
whether a function is linear by looking
and functions
at the equation. For example, the equa-
Relation tion y = Y is nonlinear because x is in the
A relation is a generalization comparing denominator and the equation cannot be
sets of ordered pairs for an equation or written in the form y = mx + b. A nonlin-
inequality such as x = y + 1 or x > y. The ear function does not increase or decrease
first element in each pair, the x values, at a constant rate. You can check this by
form the domain. The second values in using a table and finding the increase or
each pair, the y values, form the range. decrease in y for each regular increase in
x. For example, if for each increase in x
Function by 2, y does not increase or decrease the
A function is a special relation in which same amount each time, the function is
each member of the domain is paired nonlinear.
with exactly one member in the range.
Functions may be represented using Linear Equations in Two Variables
ordered pairs, tables, or graphs. One In a linear equation with two variables,
way to determine whether a relation is such as y = x – 3, the variables appear
a function is to use the vertical line test. in separate terms and neither variable
Using an object to represent a vertical contains an exponent other than 1. The
line, move the object from left to right graphs of all linear equations are straight
across the graph. If, for each value of x lines. All points on a line are solutions of
in the domain, the object passes through the equation that is graphed.
no more than one point on the graph,
then the graph represents a function. Quadratic and Cubic Functions
A quadratic function is a polynomial
Linear and Nonlinear Functions equation of the second degree, generally
Linear functions have graphs that are expressed as ax2 + bx + c = 0, where
straight lines. These graphs represent a, b, and c are real numbers and a is not
constant rates of change. In other words, equal to zero. Similarly, a cubic function is
the slope between any two pairs of points a polynomial equation of the third degree,
on the graph is the same. Nonlinear usually expressed as ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
functions do not have constant rates of = 0. Quadratic functions can be graphed
change. The slope changes along these using an equation or a table of values. For
graphs. Therefore, the graphs of nonlin- example, to graph y = 3x2 + 1, substitute
ear functions are not straight lines. Graphs the values –1, –0.5, 0, 0.5, and 1 for x to
of curves represent nonlinear functions. yield the point coordinates (–1, 4), (–0.5,
The equation for a linear function can be 1.75), (0, 1), (0.5, 1.75), and (1, 4). Plot
written in the form y = mx + b, where m these points on a coordinate grid and con-
represents the constant rate of change, or nect the points in the form of a parabola.

Math Appendix 9
Cubic functions also can be graphed by Represent and analyze
making a table of values. The points of
mathematical situations
a cubic function from a curve. There is
and structures using
one point at which the curve changes
from opening upward to opening down-
algebraic symbols
ward, or vice versa, called the point of Variables and Expressions
inflection. Algebra is a language of symbols. A vari-
able is a placeholder for a changing
Slope value. Any letter, such as x, can be used
Slope is the ratio of the rise, or vertical as a variable. Expressions such as x + 2
change, to the run, or horizontal change and 4x are algebraic expressions because
of a line: slope = rise/run. Slope (m) is they represent sums and/or products of
the same for any two points on a straight variables and numbers. Usually, math-
line and can be found by using the coor- ematicians avoid the use of i and e for
dinates of any two points on the line: variables because they have other math-
Z
ʼn
Z ematical meanings (i = √–1 and e is used
m= Y
ʼn
Y , where x2 ≠ x1. with natural logarithms). To evaluate an
algebraic expression, replace the variable
Asymptotes or variables with known values, and then
An asymptote is a straight line that solve using order of operations. Translate
a curve approaches but never actu- verbal phrases into algebraic expres-
ally meets or crosses. Theoretically, the sions by first defining a variable: Choose
asymptote meets the curve at infinity. a variable and a quantity for the vari-
For example, in the function f(x) = Y able to represent. In this way, algebraic
, two asymptotes are being approached: expressions can be used to represent real-
the line y = 0 and x = 0. See the graph of world situations.
the function below.
Constant and Coefficient
Z A constant is a fixed value unlike a vari-
able, which can change. Constants are
 usually represented by numbers, but they
can also be represented by symbols. For
example, π is a symbolic representation of
› the value 3.1415…. A coefficient is a con-
stant by which a variable or other object
ž is multiplied. For example, in the expres-
 c

Y
sion 7x2 + 5x + 9, the coefficient of x2 is 7
 and the coefficient of x is 5. The number 9
       
is a constant and not a coefficient.

Monomial and Polynomial

A monomial is a number, a variable, or a
product of numbers and/or variables such
as 3 × 4. An algebraic expression that

10 Math Appendix
contains one or more monomials is called Solving Equations with Grouping
a polynomial. In a polynomial, there are Symbols
no terms with variables in the denomina- Equations often contain grouping sym-
tor and no terms with variables under a bols such as parentheses or brackets.
radical sign. Polynomials can be classi- The first step in solving these equa-
fied by the number of terms contained tions is to use the Distributive Property
in the expression. Therefore, a polyno- to remove the grouping symbols. For
mial with two terms is called a binomial example 5(x + 2) = 25 can be changed
(z2 – 1), and a polynomial with three to 5x + 10 = 25, and then solved to find
terms is called a trinomial (2y3 + 4y2 – y). that x = 3.
Polynomials also can be classified by their Some equations have no solution.
degrees. The degree of a monomial is the That is, there is no value of the variable
sum of the exponents of its variables. The that results in a true sentence. For such
degree of a nonzero constant such as 6 an equation, the solution set is called the
or 10 is 0. The constant 0 has no degree. null or empty set, and is represented by
For example, the monomial 4b5c2 had a the symbol ∅ or {}. Other equations may
degree of 7. The degree of a polynomial have every number as the solution. An
is the same as that of the term with the equation that is true for every value of
greatest degree. For example, the polyno- the variable is called the identity.
mial 3x4 – 2y3 + 4y2 – y has a degree of 4.
Inequality
Equation A mathematical sentence that contains
An equation is a mathematical sentence the symbols < (less than), > (greater
that states that two expressions are than), ≤ (less than or equal to), or
equal. The two expressions in an equa- ≥ (greater than or equal to) is called
tion are always separated by an equal an inequality. For example, the state-
sign. When solving for a variable in an ment that it is legal to drive 55 miles
equation, you must perform the same per hour or slower on a stretch of the
operations on both sides of the equation highway can be shown by the sentence
in order for the mathematical sentence s ≤ 55. Inequalities with variables are
to remain true. called open sentences. When a variable
is replaced with a number, the inequality
Solving Equations with Variables may be true or false.
To solve equations with variables
on both sides, use the Addition or Solving Inequalities
Subtraction Property of Equality to write Solving an inequality means finding val-
an equivalent equation with the vari- ues for the variable that make the inequal-
ables on the same side. For example, to ity true. Just as with equations, when you
solve 5x – 8 = 3x, subtract 3x from each add or subtract the same number from
side to get 2x – 8 = 0. Then add 8 to each each side of an inequality, the inequal-
side to get 2x = 8. Finally, divide each ity remains true. For example, if you add
side by 2 to find that x = 4. 5 to each side of the inequality 3x < 6,
the resulting inequality 3x + 5 < 11 is
also true. Adding or subtracting the same

Math Appendix 11
number from each side of an inequality Parametric Equations
does not affect the inequality sign. When Given an equation with more than one
multiplying or dividing each side of an unknown, a statistician can draw conclu-
inequality by the same positive number, sions about those unknown quantities
the inequality remains true. In such cases, through the use of parameters, inde-
the inequality symbol does not change. pendent variables that the statistician
When multiplying or dividing each side already knows something about. For
of an inequality by a negative number, the example, you can find the velocity of an
inequality symbol must be reversed. For object if you make some assumptions
example, when dividing each side of the about distance and time parameters.
inequality –4x ≥ –8 by –2, the inequality
sign must be changed to ≤ for the result- Recursive Equations
ing inequality, 2x ≤ 4, to be true. Since In recursive equations, every value is
the solutions to an inequality include all determined by the previous value. You
rational numbers satisfying it, inequalities must first plug an initial value into the
have an infinite number of solutions. equation to get the first value, and then
you can use the first value to determine
Representing Inequalities on a the next one, and so on. For example,
Number Line in order to determine what the popula-
The solutions of inequalities can be tion of pigeons will be in New York City
graphed on a number line. For example, in three years, you can use an equation
if the solution of an inequality is x < 5, with the birth, death, immigration, and
start an arrow at 5 on the number line, emigration rates of the birds. Input the
and continue the arrow to the left to current population size into the equation
show all values less than 5 as the solu- to determine next year’s population size,
tion. Put an open circle at 5 to show that then repeat until you have calculated the
the point 5 is not included in the graph. value for which you are looking.
Use a closed circle when graphing solu-
tions that are greater than or equal to, or
less than or equal to, a number.
Use mathematical models to
represent and understand
Order of Operations quantitative relationships
Solving a problem may involve using Solving Systems of Equations
more than one operation. The answer Two or more equations together are
can depend on the order in which you called a system of equations. A system
do the operations. To make sure that of equations can have one solution, no
there is just one answer to a series of solution, or infinitely many solutions.
computations, mathematicians have One method for solving a system of
agreed upon an order in which to do equations is to graph the equations on
the operations. First simplify within the same coordinate plane. The coor-
the parentheses, and then evaluate any dinates of the point where the graphs
exponents. Then multiply and divide intersect is the solution. In other words,
from left to right, and finally add and the solution of a system is the ordered
subtract from left to right. pair that is a solution of all equations.

12 Math Appendix
A more accurate way to solve a system rate of change is called a direct variation.
of two equations is by using a method The graph of a direct variation always
called substitution. Write both equations passes through the origin and represents
in terms of y. Replace y in the first equa- a proportional situation. In the equation
tion with the right side of the second y = kx, k is called the constant of varia-
equation. Check the solution by graph- tion. It is the slope, or rate of change.
ing. You can solve a system of three As x increases in value, y increases or
equations using matrix algebra. decreases at a constant rate k, or y varies
directly with x. Another way to say this
Graphing Inequalities is that y is directly proportional to x. The
To graph an inequality, first graph the direct variation y = kx also can be writ-
related equation, which is the boundary. ten as k = ZY . In this form, you can see
All points in the shaded region are solu- that the ratio of y to x is the same for any
tions of the inequality. If an inequality corresponding values of y and x.
contains the symbol ≤ or ≥, then use a
solid line to indicate that the boundary Slope-Intercept Form
is included in the graph. If an inequality Equations written as y = mx + b, where
contains the symbol < or >, then use a m is the slope and b is the y-intercept, are
dashed line to indicate that the bound- linear equations in slope-intercept form.
ary is not included in the graph. For example, the graph of y = 5x – 6 is a
line that has a slope of 5 and crosses the
y-axis at (0, –6). Sometimes you must first
Analyze change in
write an equation in slope-intercept form
various contexts before finding the slope and y-intercept.
Rate of Change For example, the equation 2x + 3y = 15
A change in one quantity with respect can be expressed in slope-intercept form
to another quantity is called the rate of by subtracting 2x from each side and
change. Rates of change can be described then dividing by 3: y = –  x + 5, reveal-
using slope: ing a slope of –  and a y-intercept of 5.
You can use the slope-intercept form of
change in y
slope = . an equation to graph a line easily. Graph
change in x
the y-intercept and use the slope to find
You can find rates of change from an another point on the line, then connect
equation, a table, or a graph. A special the two points with a line.
type of linear equation that describes

Math Appendix 13
Geometry
Analyze characteristics and Quadrilaterals
properties of two- and three- A quadrilateral is a closed figure with
four sides and four vertices. The seg-
dimensional geometric shapes
ments of a quadrilateral intersect only
and develop mathematical at their endpoints. Quadrilaterals can be
arguments about geometric separated into two triangles. Since the
relationships sum of the interior angles of all triangles
Angles totals 180°, the measures of the inte-
Two rays that have the same endpoint rior angles of a quadrilateral equal 360°.
form an angle. The common endpoint Quadrilaterals are classified according to
is called the vertex, and the two rays their characteristics, and include trape-
that make up the angle are called the zoids, parallelograms, rectangles, squares,
sides of the angle. The most common and rhombuses.
unit of measure for angles is the degree.
Protractors can be used to measure Two-Dimensional Figures
angles or to draw an angle of a given A two-dimensional figure exists within
measure. Angles can be classified by a plane and has only the dimensions
their degree measure. Acute angles have of length and width. Examples of two-
measures less than 90° but greater than dimensional figures include circles and
0°. Obtuse angles have measures greater polygons. Polygons are figures that
than 90° but less than 180°. Right angles have three or more angles, including
have measures of 90°. triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons,
hexagons, and many more. The sum of
Triangles the angles of any polygon totals at least
A triangle is a figure formed by three 180° (triangle), and each additional side
line segments that intersect only at their adds 180° to the measure of the first
endpoints. The sum of the measures of three angles. The sum of the angles of a
the angles of a triangle is 180°. Triangles quadrilateral, for example, is 360°. The
can be classified by their angles. An acute sum of the angles of a pentagon is 540°.
triangle contains all acute angles. An
obtuse triangle has one obtuse angle. Three-Dimensional Figures
A right triangle has one right angle. A plane is a two-dimensional flat sur-
Triangles can also be classified by their face that extends in all directions.
sides. A scalene triangle has no congru- Intersecting planes can form the edges
ent sides. An isosceles triangle has at and vertices of three-dimensional fig-
least two congruent sides. In an equilat- ures or solids. A polyhedron is a solid
eral triangle all sides are congruent. with flat surfaces that are polygons.

14 Math Appendix
Polyhedrons are composed of faces, Solid figures are considered to be
edges, and vertices and are differentiated similar if they have the same shape and
by their shape and by their number of their corresponding linear measures are
bases. Skew lines are lines that lie in dif- proportional. As with two-dimensional
ferent planes. They are neither intersect- figures, they can be tested for similarity
ing nor parallel. by comparing corresponding measures.
If the compared ratios are proportional,
Congruence then the figures are similar solids.
Figures that have the same size and Missing measures of similar solids can
shape are congruent. The parts of con- also be determined by using proportions.
gruent triangles that match are called
corresponding parts. Congruence state- The Pythagorean Theorem
ments are used to identify correspond- The sides that are adjacent to a right
ing parts of congruent triangles. When angle are called legs. The side opposite
writing a congruence statement, the let- the right angle is the hypotenuse.
ters must be written so that correspond-
ing vertices appear in the same order.
IZQPUFOVTF
Corresponding parts can be used to find
the measures of angles and sides in a D
figure that is congruent to a figure with B
known measures.
MFHT C
Similarity
If two figures have the same shape but
not the same size they are called similar The Pythagorean Theorem describes
figures. For example, the triangles below the relationship between the lengths of
are similar, so angles A, B, and C have the legs a and b and the hypotenuse c.
the same measurements as angles D, E, It states that if a triangle is a right tri-
and F, respectively. However, segments angle, then the square of the length of
AB, BC, and CA do not have the same the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of
measurements as segments DE, EF, and the squares of the lengths of the legs. In
FD , but the measures of the sides are symbols, c2 = a2 + b2.
proportional.
Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Ratios
For example, "# â #$ â $" . Trigonometry is the study of the proper-
%& &' '%
ties of triangles. A trigonometric ratio is a
ratio of the lengths of two sides of a right
# triangle. The most common trigonomet-
&
ric ratios are the sine, cosine, and tangent
 
 
"  $ %  '

Math Appendix 15
ratios. These ratios are abbreviated as sin, sides, then (n – 2) 180 gives the sum of the
cos, and tan, respectively. measures of the polygon’s interior angles.

" Cartesian Coordinates

IZQPUFOVTF In the Cartesian coordinate system, the
MFH
BEKBDFOU
y-axis extends above and below the origin
UP " and the x-axis extends to the right and left
of the origin, which is the point at which
$ # the x- and y-axes intersect. Numbers
below and to the left of the origin are
MFH
PQQPTJUF
"
negative. A point graphed on the coordi-
nate grid is said to have an x-coordinate
and a y-coordinate. For example, the point
If L A is an acute angle of a right
(1,–2) has as its x-coordinate the number
triangle, then
1, and has as its y-coordinate the number
measure of leg opposite L A
sin L A = , –2. This point is graphed by locating the
measure of hypotenuse position on the grid that is 1 unit to the
measure of leg adjacent to L A right of the origin and 2 units below the
cos L A = , and origin.
measure of hypotenuse
The x-axis and the y-axis separate the
measure of leg opposite L A coordinate plane into four regions, called
tan L A = .
measure of leg adjacent to L A quadrants. The axes and points located
on the axes themselves are not located in
any of the quadrants. The quadrants are
labeled I to IV, starting in the upper right
Specify locations and describe
and proceeding counterclockwise. In
spatial relationships using quadrant I, both coordinates are positive.
coordinate geometry and other In quadrant II, the x-coordinate is nega-
representational systems tive and the y-coordinate is positive. In
Polygons quadrant III, both coordinates are nega-
A polygon is a simple, closed figure tive. In quadrant IV, the x-coordinate is
formed by three or more line segments. positive and the y-coordinate is negative.
The line segments meet only at their A coordinate graph can be used to show
endpoints. The points of intersection are algebraic relationships among numbers.
called vertices, and the line segments are
called sides. Polygons are classified by the Apply transformations and
number if sides they have. The diagonals use symmetry to analyze
of a polygon divide the polygon into tri- mathematical situations
angles. The number of triangles formed
is two less than the number of sides. To Similar Triangles and Indirect
find the sum of the measures of the inte- Measurement
rior angles of any polygon, multiply the Triangles that have the same shape but
number of triangles within the polygon not necessarily the same dimensions are
by 180. That is, if n equals the number of called similar triangles. Similar triangles

16 Math Appendix
have corresponding angles and corre- dimensions, length, width, and height.
sponding sides. Arcs are used to show Using the drawing and the formulas for
congruent angles. If two triangles are sim- surface area and volume, you can easily
ilar, then the corresponding angles have calculate these properties.
the same measure, and the correspond-
ing sides are proportional. Therefore, to
determine the measures of the sides of
similar triangles when some measures are
known, proportions can be used.

h
Transformations
A transformation is a movement of a w l
geometric figure. There are several types
of transformations. In a translation,
also called a slide, a figure is slid from Another way to represent a three-dimen-
one position to another without turn- sional object in a two-dimensional plane
ing it. Every point of the original figure is by using a net, which is the unfolded
is moved the same distance and in the representation. Imagine cutting the ver-
same direction. In a reflection, also called tices of a box until it is flat then drawing
a flip, a figure is flipped over a line to an outline of it. That’s a net. Most objects
form a mirror image. Every point of the have more than one net, but any one can
original figure has a corresponding point be measured to determine surface area.
on the other side of the line of symmetry. Below is a cube and one of its nets.
In a rotation, also called a turn, a figure
is turned around a fixed point. A figure
may be rotated 90° clockwise, 90° coun-
terclockwise, or 180°. A dilation trans-
forms each line to a parallel line whose
length is a fixed multiple of the length of
the original line to create a similar figure
that will be either larger or smaller.

Use visualizations, spatial

reasoning, and geometric
modeling to solve problems
Two-Dimensional Representations of
Three-Dimensional Objects
Three-dimensional objects can be repre-
sented in a two-dimensional drawing in
order to more easily determine properties
such as surface area and volume. When
you look at the triangular prism below,
you can see the orientation of its three

Math Appendix 17
Measurement
Understand measurable States it would be appropriate when
describing someone’s height to use feet
attributes of objects and the
and inches. These units of height or
units, systems, and processes
length are good to use because they are
of measurement in the customary system, and they are
Customary System of appropriate size. In the customary
The customary system is the system of system, use inches, feet, and miles for
weights and measures used in the United lengths and perimeters; square inches,
States. The main units of weight are feet, and miles for area and surface area;
ounces, pounds (1 equal to 16 ounces), and cups, pints, quarts, gallons or cubic
and tons (1 equal to 2,000 pounds). inches and feet (and less commonly
Length is typically measured in inches, miles) for volume. In the metric system
feet (1 equal to 12 inches), yards (1 equal use millimeters, centimeters, meters, and
to 3 feet), and miles (1 equal to 5,280 kilometers for lengths and perimeters;
feet), while area is measured in square square units millimeters, centimeters,
feet and acres (1 equal to 43,560 square meters, and kilometers for area and sur-
feet). Liquid is measured in cups, pints face area; and milliliters and liters for
(1 equal to 2 cups), quarts (1 equal to 2 volume. Finally, always use degrees to
pints), and gallons (1 equal to 4 quarts). measure angles.
Finally, temperature is measured in
degrees Fahrenheit. Apply appropriate techniques,
tools, and formulas to determine
Metric System measurements
The metric system is a decimal system
of weights and measurements in which Precision and Significant Digits
the prefixes of the words for the units The precision of measurement is the
of measure indicate the relationships exactness to which a measurement is
between the different measurements. In made. Precision depends on the smallest
this system, the main units of weight, or unit of measure being used, or the preci-
mass, are grams and kilograms. Length sion unit. One way to record a measure is
is measured in millimeters, centimeters, to estimate to the nearest precision unit.
meters, and kilometers, and the units of A more precise method is to include all of
area are square millimeters, centimeters, the digits that are actually measured, plus
meters, and kilometers. Liquid is typi- one estimated digit. The digits recorded,
cally measured in milliliters and liters, called significant digits, indicate the pre-
while temperature is in degrees Celsius. cision of the measurement. There are
special rules for determining significant
Selecting Units of Measure digits. If a number contains a decimal
When measuring something, it is impor- point, the number of significant digits
tant to select the appropriate type and is found by counting from left to right,
size of unit. For example, in the United starting with the first nonzero digit.

18 Math Appendix
If the number does not contain a decimal by the measure of the height, V = Bh.
point, the number of significant digits A solid containing several prisms can be
is found by counting the digits from left broken down into its component prisms.
to right, starting with the first digit and Then the volume of each component can
ending with the last nonzero digit. be found and the volumes added. The
volume of a cylinder can be determined
Surface Area by finding the area of its circular base,
The amount of material needed to cover πr2, and then multiplying by the height
the surface of a figure is called the sur- of the cylinder. A pyramid has one-third
face area. It can be calculated by find- the volume of a prism with the same
ing the area of each face and adding base and height. To find the volume of a
them together. To find the surface area pyramid, multiply the area of the base by
of a rectangular prism, for example, the the pyramid’s height, and then divide by
formula S = 2lw + 2lh + 2wh applies. 3. Simply stated, the formula for the vol-
A cylinder, on the other hand, may ume of a pyramid is V =  bh. A cone is a
be unrolled to reveal two circles and a three-dimensional figure with one circu-
rectangle. Its surface area can be deter- lar base and a curved surface connecting
mined by finding the area of the two the base and the vertex. The volume of a
circles, 2πr2, and adding it to the area cone is one-third the volume of a cylin-
of the rectangle, 2πrh (the length of the der with the same base area and height.
rectangle is the circumference of one of Like a pyramid, the formula for the vol-
the circles), or S = 2πr2 + 2πrh. The sur- ume of a cone is V =  bh. More specifi-
face area of a pyramid is measured in a cally, the formula is V =  πr2h.
slightly different way because the sides
of a pyramid are triangles that intersect Upper and Lower Bounds
at the vertex. These sides are called lat- Upper and lower bounds have to do with
eral faces and the height of each is called the accuracy of a measurement. When
the slant height. The sum of their areas is a measurement is given, the degree of
the lateral area of a pyramid. The surface accuracy is also stated to tell you what
area of a square pyramid is the lateral the upper and lower bounds of the
area  bh (area of a lateral face) times 4 measurement are. The upper bound is
(number of lateral faces), plus the area of the largest possible value that a mea-
the base. The surface area of a cone is the surement could have had before being
area of its circular base (πr2) plus its lat- rounded down, and the lower bound is
eral area (πrl, where l is the slant height). the lowest possible value it could have
had before being rounded up.
Volume
Volume is the measure of space occupied
by a solid region. To find the volume of
a prism, the area of the base is multiplied

Math Appendix 19
Data Analysis and Probability
Formulate questions that can be Scatter Plots
addressed with data and collect, A scatter plot is a graph that shows the
relationship between two sets of data. In
organize, and display relevant
a scatter plot, two sets of data are graphed
data to answer them as ordered pairs on a coordinate system.
Histograms Two sets of data can have a positive cor-
A histogram displays numerical data that relation (as x increases, y increases), a
have been organized into equal intervals negative correlation (as x increases, y
using bars that have the same width and decreases), or no correlation (no obvious
no space between them. While a histo- pattern is shown). Scatter plots can be
gram does not give exact data points, its used to spot trends, draw conclusions,
shape shows the distribution of the data. and make predictions about data.
Histograms also can be used to compare
1FSGFDU
1PTJUJWF
$PSSFMBUJPO
data. 


 
UP


UP
 


UP

 

UP

 

Box-and-Whisker Plot 
     
A box-and-whisker plot displays the
measures of central tendency and varia-
tion. A box is drawn around the quartile Randomization
values, and whiskers extend from each The idea of randomization is a very
quartile to the extreme data points. To important principle of statistics and the
make a box plot for a set of data, draw design of experiments. Data must be
a number line that covers the range of selected randomly to prevent bias from
data. Find the median, the extremes, influencing the results. For example, you
and the upper and lower quartiles. Mark want to know the average income of peo-
these points on the number line with ple in your town but you can only use a
bullets, then draw a box and the whis- sample of 100 individuals to make deter-
kers. The length of a whisker or box minations about everyone. If you select
shows whether the values of the data in 100 individuals who are all doctors, you
that part are concentrated or spread out. will have a biased sample. However, if you
chose a random sample of 100 people out
of the phone book, you are much more
       
likely to accurately represent average
income in the town.

20 Math Appendix
Statistics and Parameters Univariate and Bivariate Data
Statistics is a science that involves col- In data analysis, a researcher can ana-
lecting, analyzing, and presenting data. lyze one variable at a time or look at
The data can be collected in various how multiple variables behave together.
ways—for example through a census or Univariate data involves only one vari-
by making physical measurements. The able, for example height in humans. You
data can then be analyzed by creating can measure the height in a population
summary statistics, which have to do of people then plot the results in a histo-
with the distribution of the data sample, gram to look at how height is distributed
including the mean, range, and stan- in humans. To summarize univariate
dard error. They can also be illustrated in data, you can use statistics like the mean,
tables and graphs, like box-plots, scatter mode, median, range, and standard devi-
plots, and histograms. The presentation ation, which is a measure of variation.
of the data typically involves describing When looking at more than one vari-
the strength or validity of the data and able at once, you use multivariate data.
what they show. For example, an analy- Bivariate data involves two variables.
sis of ancestry of people in a city might For example, you can look at height
tell you something about immigration and age in humans together by gather-
patterns, unless the data set is very small ing information on both variables from
or biased in some way, in which case it is individuals in a population. You can
not likely to be very accurate or useful. then plot both variables in a scatter plot,
look at how the variables behave in rela-
Categorical and Measurement Data tion to each other, and create an equa-
When analyzing data, it is important to tion that represents the relationship,
understand if the data is qualitative or also called a regression. These equations
quantitative. Categorical data is qualita- could help answer questions such as, for
tive and measurement, or numerical, data example, does height increase with age
is quantitative. Categorical data describes in humans?
a quality of something and can be placed
into different categories. For example, if
Select and use appropriate statis-
you are analyzing the number of students
tical methods to analyze data
in different grades in a school, each grade
is a category. On the other hand, mea- Measures of Central Tendency
surement data is continuous, like height, When you have a list of numerical data,
weight, or any other measurable variable. it is often helpful to use one or more
Measurement data can be converted into numbers to represent the whole set. These
categorical data if you decide to group numbers are called measures of central
the data. Using height as an example, tendency. Three measures of central
you can group the continuous data set tendency are mean, median, and mode.
into categories like under 5 feet, 5 feet to The mean is the sum of the data divided
5 feet 5 inches, over 5 feet five inches to by the number of items in the data set.
6 feet, and so on. The median is the middle number of the
ordered data (or the mean of the two mid-
dle numbers). The mode is the number

Math Appendix 21
or numbers that occur most often. These For example, if the least number in a
measures of central tendency allow data set of data is 8 and the greatest number
to be analyzed and better understood. is 95, draw a vertical line and write the
stems from 0 to 9 to the left of the line.
Measures of Spread Write the leaves from to the right of the
In statistics, measures of spread or varia- line, with the corresponding stem. Next,
tion are used to describe how data are rearrange the leaves so they are ordered
distributed. The range of a set of data is from least to greatest. Then include a key
the difference between the greatest and or explanation, such as 1|3 = 13. Notice
the least values of the data set. The quar- that the stem-and-leaf plot below is like a
tiles are the values that divide the data histogram turned on its side.
into four equal parts. The median of data
0|8
separates the set in half. Similarly, the
1|3 6
median of the lower half of a set of data
2|5 6 9
is the lower quartile. The median of the
3|0 2 7 8
upper half of a set of data is the upper
4|0 1 4 7 9
quartile. The interquartile range is the
5|1 4 5 8
difference between the upper quartile
6|1 3 7
and the lower quartile.
7|5 8
8|2 6
Line of Best Fit 9|5
When real-life data are collected, the
Key: 1|3 = 13
points graphed usually do not form a
straight line, but they may approximate
a linear relationship. A line of best fit is Develop and evaluate inferences
a line that lies very close to most of the and predictions that are based
data points. It can be used to predict on data
data. You also can use the equation of
the best-fit line to make predictions. Sampling Distribution
The sampling distribution of a popula-
 tion is the distribution that would result
 if you could take an infinite number of
 samples from the population, average
 each, and then average the averages. The
 more normal the distribution of the pop-

ulation, that is, how closely the distribu-
    tion follows a bell curve, the more likely
the sampling distribution will also follow
a normal distribution. Furthermore, the
Stem and Leaf Plots larger the sample, the more likely it will
In a stem and leaf plot, numerical data accurately represent the entire popula-
are listed in ascending or descending tion. For instance, you are more likely to
order. The greatest place value of the gain more representative results from a
data is used for the stems. The next population of 1,000 with a sample of 100
greatest place value forms the leaves. than with a sample of 2.
22 Math Appendix
Validity will be a girl are also  because the two
In statistics, validity refers to acquiring events are independent of each other.
results that accurately reflect that which However, if there are 7 red marbles in a
is being measured. In other words, it is bag of 15 marbles, the chances that the
important when performing statistical 
first marble you pick will be red are 
analyses, to ensure that the data are valid and if you indeed pick a red marble and
in that the sample being analyzed repre- remove it, you have reduced the chances
sents the population to the best extent 
of picking another red marble to  .
possible. Randomization of data and
using appropriate sample sizes are two Sample Space
important aspects of making valid infer- The sample space is the group of all pos-
ences about a population. sible outcomes for an event. For example,
if you are tossing a single six-sided die,
Understand and apply basic the sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
concepts of probability Similarly, you can determine the sample
space for the possible outcomes of two
Complementary, Mutually events. If you are going to toss a coin
Exclusive Events twice, the sample space is {(heads, heads),
To understand probability theory, it is (heads, tails), (tails, heads), (tails, tails)}.
important to know if two events are
mutually exclusive, or complementary: Computing the Probability of a
the occurrence of one event automatically Compound Event
implies the non-occurrence of the other. If two events are independent, the out-
That is, two complementary events can- come of one event does not influence the
not both occur. If you roll a pair of dice, outcome of the second. For example, if
the event of rolling 6 and rolling doubles a bag contains 2 blue and 3 red marbles,
have an outcome in common (3, 3), so then the probability of selecting a blue
they are not mutually exclusive. If you marble, replacing it, and then selecting a
roll (3, 3), you also roll doubles. However, red marble is P(A) × P(B) =  ×  or 

.
the events of rolling a 9 and rolling dou- If two events are dependent, the out-
bles are mutually exclusive because they come of one event affects the outcome
have no outcomes in common. If you roll of the second. For example, if a bag con-
a 9, you will not also roll doubles. tains 2 blue and 3 red marbles, then the
probability of selecting a blue and then
Independent and Dependent Events a red marble without replacing the first
Determining the probability of a series of marble is P(A) × P(B following A) =  ×
 
events requires that you know whether  or  . Two events that cannot happen
the events are independent or dependent. at the same time are mutually exclusive.
An independent event has no influence For example, when you roll two number
on the occurrence of subsequent events, cubes, you cannot roll a sum that is both

whereas, a dependent event does influ- 5 and even. So, P(A or B) =  +  
 or  .
ence subsequent events. The chances that
a woman’s first child will be a girl are  ,
and the chances that her second child

Math Appendix 23