Principles of nutrition

Introduction

√ Principles of nutrition has to do with the mechanism by which we obtain nutrients from food

√ In principles of nutrition, we discussed about how the absence or inadequacy of one classes of food
contributes to diseased states

√ Nutrition is the science that studies relationships between food, nutrients, health and diseases

√ Metabolism consisting of anabolism(synthesis complex) and catabolism (breakdown of complex)

Definition of terms

Food: is an edible,digestible and absorbable substance utilized by the body in maintaining quality health
and promoting growth.

FUNCTIONS OF FOOD.

1. The primary function of food is to give energy to the body so as to carry out its various activities.

2. Food also helps in the building, maintenance and repair of body cells,tissues and organs.

3. It helps to regulate body processes such as coagulation of blood, heart rate,body temperature,and
blood pressure.

4. Food provides essential nutrients that help to protect the body against diseases and infections.

5. It helps to detoxify and eliminate waste production.

Calories: The energy content of food materials is measured in calories.

• The large calorie also known as "kilogram calorie" or "dietary calorie" is the amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of one litre of water by one degree Celsius (or Kelvin) while the small calorie also
known as "gram calorie" estimates the amount of energy required to cause the same increase in one
milliliter of water.In medical practice, the big calorie, which is equivalent to 1000 small calories, is often
used to express the energy content of food.

Nutrition: is the science that studies the relationship between food, nutrients, health and diseases.
Nutrients: provide nourishment. Proteins, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water are all
nutrients.

nutrients are divided into 2 categories: macronutrients and micronutrients

√ MACRONUTRIENTS : Macronutrients are nutrients that people need in relatively large quantities.

• Carbohydrates : These are quantitatively the most important dietary energy source for most
populations.Examples are sugar, starch, fibers etc.

•Proteins : They are vital structural and functional components within every cell of the body and are
essential for growth and repair and maintenance of health. Examples are fish, Milk,Eggs etc

• Fats : They are the most energy-dense macronutrient e.g egg yolk,butter,cheese etc.

• Water : It contains no calories neither does it provide energy but consumption of 2 litres of water per
day is advised.

√ MICRONUTRIENTS : These are the nutrients that are needed in minute quantities in the body. They are
:

Minerals : E.g oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, iron and potassium etc.

Vitamins : They may be water soluble e.g Vitamins B complex and C or fat soluble e.g vitamins A,D,E and
K.

Both vitamins and minerals are found in small amounts in most foods, and are essential for normal
metabolic function.

Overnutrition: also known as hyperalimentation is a condition where the intake of needed nutrients is
oversupplied in a particular form of diet.

Undernutrition: is a deficiency of calories or one or more essential nutrients. Deficiencies of vitamins

and minerals are usually considered as separate disorders.

It must be noted that undernutrition is different from malnutrition.While undernutrition is deficiency of

nutrients,malnutrition deals with imbalance in nutrients. Malnutrition can be overnutrition or
undernutrition

Metabolism: is the intricate network of biochemical reactions within cells, is vital for sustaining life.
Metabolic pathways consist of catabolism, breaking down complex molecules to release energy, and
anabolism, synthesizing complex molecules from simpler components, requiring energy.

Diet: refers to the total amount of food consumed by individuals.

Food value: It's the heat equivalent or energy equivalent of proteins, carbohydrates or fats, or their
mixtures in food materials

Important of nutrition

• maintenance of optimal health and prevention of chronic disease

• energy level increments

• improves our well being

• reduce high blood pressure

• calcium, vitamin D and other nutrients are important for bone formation

Clinical correlate

• It is crucial to understand the effect of over nutrition nutrient deficiency, balanced diet, and nutrient-
drug interactions on our health and well-being.

• Obesity which is caused by excessive intake of food to the body

• Diabetes which is caused by excessive intake of sugar

• Some conditions like kwashiokor occurs due to lack of protein in the body or severe decrease in
protein intake.

• Proper nutrition plays an important role in maintaining good health and preventing various health
conditions.

Classes of food

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients in the human diet, along with protein and fat. These
molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.

Carbohydrates play an important role in the human body.

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

-They act as an energy source

-They help control blood glucose and insulin metabolism

-They Participate in cholesterol and triglyceride metabolism and

-They help with fermentation.

DIGESTION

IN THE MOUTH: Enzymes involved in the digestion of carbohydrates are know as amylolytic enzymes.
The only amylolytic enzyme present in saliva is the salivary amylase or ptyalin.

IN THE STOMACH: Gastric juice contains a weak amylase which plays a minor role in digestion of
carbohydrates.

IN THE INTESTINE: Amylolytic enzyme present in the small intestine are derived from the pancreatic
juice and succus entericus.

FINAL PRODUCT OF CARBOHYDRATES DIGESTION: Final product of carbohydrates digestion are

monosaccharides which are;-

-Glucose

-Fructose and

-Galactose.

Glucose represent 80%of carbohydrates digestion.

Galactose and fructose represent the remaining 20%

Protein

-Proteins are vital macronutrients essential for various physiological functions, including tissue repair,
enzyme synthesis, and immune system support.

-They consist of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

-Adequate protein intake is crucial for maintaining overall health and preventing deficiencies.

-Proteins play a significant role in sustaining life by contributing to cellular structure and function, as
well as serving as a source of energy when necessary.

Functions:

Proteins serve crucial roles in human biochemistry. The major role is to provide the body's building
blocks. They are the precursors of several biologically relevant molecules. Therefore, either the excess or
deficiency of protein can lead to disease result in nervous system defects, metabolic problems, organ
failure, and even death.

√ Biochemical Functions:

• Proteins function as enzymes, accelerating biochemical reactions as catalysts.

- These enzymes are subject to regulation by competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors and
allosteric molecules.

√ Structural Functions:

• Proteins also serve as structural elements in cells and tissues.

• Proteins like actin and tubulin form filaments and microtubules, providing structural support. In
muscles, actin acts as scaffolding for myosin, facilitating muscle contraction.

√ Kinetic Functions:

• Motor proteins facilitate movement within cells, transport molecules, and enable larger-scale
movements such as blood circulation and food digestion.

• Myosin, a motor protein, utilizes its hydrophobic tail and head group to attach and detach from
actin filaments, generating movement through skeletal muscles.

Food Sources: Protein-rich foods are abundant and diverse, including both animal and plant sources.

√ Animal-based sources: Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy products are complete proteins, providing
all essential amino acids.

√ Plant-based sources: Beans, lentils, tofu, nuts, seeds, and certain grains are also rich in protein,
although they may lack one or more essential amino acids.

Clinical correlates:
1. Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM): PEM encompasses conditions like Kwashiorkor and Marasmus,
resulting from inadequate protein and calorie intake, leading to severe nutritional deficiencies and
impaired growth.

2. Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): In CKD, protein restriction may be necessary to manage kidney function
and prevent further renal damage.

3. Proteinuria: Proteinuria, the presence of excess protein in urine, can indicate kidney disease or other
underlying health issues and is often assessed as part of routine urinalysis.

LIPIDS( FATS AND OIL)

•INTRODUCTION

√ Lipids are fatty, waxy or oily organic compounds that are soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in
water.

√ One of the types of lipid is fats and oil also known as triglycerides which consists of long chains of
carbon atoms.

√ Fats are esters of three fatty acid chain bonded to an alcohol known as glycerol. Fats in liquid state is
called an oil.

Fats can be classified into two:

1. saturated fats

2. unsaturated fats.

√ Saturated fats are the ones with only single bonds and mostly found in animal fats such as high fat
dairy foods like butter,margarine,cheese. Saturated fats are known as bad fats because they are
dangerous to the body.

√ Unsaturated fats are fats with one or more double bonds commonly found in plants.

Unsaturated fats are divided into two

1. mono unsaturated fats

2. Poly unsaturated fats.

Examples of unsaturated fats include; Almond, hazelnut, peanuts, cashew nuts

FUNCTIONS OF FATS
1.Fats serves as storage form of energy that provides the body with energy.

2. Fats support cell growth in the body.

3. Fats keeps cholesterol and blood pressure under control .

4. They also helps the body absorb vital nutrients like vitamin A,D ,E and K.

DIGESTION OF LIPIDS

√ In the stomach, fat is digested separately from other food substances by gastric lipase which breaks
them down into diglycerides and fatty acid .The stomach's churning and contraction helps to disperse fat
molecules. Very little fat digestion occur in the stomach.

√ In the small intestine, bile emulsifies fats by increasing the surface area for enzymes to digest them.
When energy supplies are low in the body, the stored fats are utilized to form energy by a process
called beta oxidation.

FOOD SOURCES

√ Fats and oils are commonly obtained from oil producing plants like peanuts, soyabeans, vegetable
seeds, olives, palm kernels. They are gotten from animals for example beef( tallow), pork( lard),
milk( butter).

√ Fats and oil are also gotten from marine sources in fishes like mackerel, salmon, herrings(sardines) and
so on

CLINICAL CORRELATE

√ The best cooking oil for proper functioning of the heart are the lipids with more unsaturated fatty
acids

√ Cooking oil supplies the body with Omega 3 and Omega 6 which are examples of polyunsaturated fats
fundamental for healthy heart and lowers the risk of coronary heart diseases. Olive oil, a
monounsaturated fat reduces systemic inflammation, lowers cholesterol levels and may help reduce
risk of stroke, heart diseases and some cancers.

√ Abnormal levels of fats and oil in the blood are often due to unusual assembly, breakdown or
transport of lipoprotein particles. Too much consumption of fats like saturated or trans fats in
processed, baked and fried foods can lead to high blood pressure, hardening of the arteries
(atherosclerosis), heart attack and stroke.
√Deficiency of fats in the body can lead to large bowel resection (Colectomy), inflammatory bowel
disease, cystic fibrosis, pancreatic insufficiency.

WATER

√ Water is defined as tasteless, colourless and odorless.

√ Water makes up about 70% of the body weight in men and about 60% in women.

CLASSIFICATION AND SOURCES OF WATER.

Water is classified to be hard or soft depending on the the source. The two main sources of drinking
water are;

(1) Surface water

(2) Ground water.

Surface water consist primarily of water from the Earth's surface such as lakes,streams,rivers,etc.

Ground water consist of water from underneath the Earth's surface e.g, subterranean aquifer,etc.

FUNCTIONS OF WATER.

1. Water supports life as it aids survival.

2. The major part of food is water.

3. Water serves as an intracellular fluid.

RECOMMENDED DAILY WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR THE BODY.

√ Almost two-thirds of the body is made up of water,hence there is a need to take enough water daily.
On a daily basis, an average of about two litres of water is required by an individual.Foods with
abundant water content such as fruits and leafy green vegetables should also be included in our diet.

CLINICAL CORRELATES.

1. EDEMA: This refers to the presence of excess fluid in the body tissues.

2. HYPERNATREMIA: This occurs due to excessive sodium as a result of excess loss of water in the
extracellular fluid. This also leads to dehydration.

3. HYPONATREMIA: This occurs when there is low sodium as a result of accumulation of water in the
extracellular fluid.
DIETARY FIBERS

- Dietary fibers are essential for a healthy diet

- Resists digestion by human secretions

- Two types: soluble (pectins, gums, mucilages) and insoluble (lignin)

- Soluble fibers delay stomach emptying and lower blood cholesterol

- Insoluble fibers speed up intestinal movement and prevent constipation

Clinical correlate

- Adequate fiber intake prevents gastrointestinal disorders

- Inadequate fiber intake leads to constipation and blood sugar control issues

- Diverticulitis occurs when feces accumulate in diverticula

- Dietary fibers stimulate bowel movement and soften feces

- Regular bowel movement and softening of stool prevent constipation

MINERALS

√ Minerals are those elements on earth and in foods that our bodies needs to develop and function
normally.

√ Those essential for health include Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, Magnesium,
Iron, Zinc, Iodine, chromium, copper, fluoride, molybdenum, manganese, and selenium.

SOURCES AND FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS

√ Sodium:

Source: Table salt, soy sauce, large amounts in processed foods, small amounts in milk, breads,
vegetables, and unprocessed meats.

Function: Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle contractions.

√ Calcium:
Source: Milk and milk products, canned fish with bones(salmon sardines), fortified tofu and fortified soy
beverage; greens(broccoli, mustard greens), legumes.

Function: Important for healthy bones and teeth, helps muscles relax and contract, important for nerve
functioning, blood clotting, blood pressure.

√ Chloride:

Source: Table salt, soy sauce, bread, meat; large amounts in processed foods; small amounts in milk, and
vegetables

Function: Needed for proper fluid balance, stomach acid.

√ Magnesium:

Source: Nuts and seeds, legumes, leafy green vegetables, seafood, chocolate, artichokes, “hard” drinking
water.

Function: Found in bones, needed for making protein, muscle contraction, nerve transmission, immune
system health.

√ Phosphorus:

Source: Meat, fish, poultry eggs, milk

Function: Important for healthy bones and teeth, found in every cell, part of the system that maintains
acid-base balance.

√Potassium:

Source: Meats, milk, fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts.

Function: Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction.

DIGESTION

√ Most minerals are absorbed into the bloodstream in the upper part of the small intestine. They then
pass to the liver and are (like other nutrients) distributed throughout the body.

√ Our intestine is composed of a large number of villi and microvilli, which significantly increase the
intestinal absorption surface.

MINERAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES

√ Calcium: Brittle bones, excessive bleeding.

√ Phosphorus: Bad teeth and bones.

√ Iron: Anemia

√ Iodine: Goitre, enlarged thyroid gland.

√ Copper: Low appetite, retarded growth.

VITAMINS

√ A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities for normal metabolism that cannot be
manufactured in the cells of the body.

√ Lack of vitamins in the diet can cause important metabolic deficit.

√ It is a vital micronutrient that cannot be synthesized endogenously or in insufficient amounts, and the
principal means by which we get vitamins through our diet.

√ It can be classified as water-soluble or Fat -Soluble.

√ The Fat -Soluble vitamin include vitamin A,D,E and K while water-soluble vitamins include
B1,B2,B3,B6,B12,C

SOURCES OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

√ Sources of vitamin A:

•In animals, the body stores vitamin A as a molecule called retinol. Egg yolk, milk, liver, cheese, and
butter are all rich in vitamin A.

• In plants, vitamin A is derived from carotenoids, which convert to retinol during digestion. Plant
abundant in vitamin A include dark green leafy vegetables (spinach, among other), carrots, yellow
maize, mangoes and papayas

√ Sources of vitamin D

•Vitamin D is found primarily in two forms, D2 and D3.

-Vitamin D2(ergocalciferol) is present in certain foods such as salmon, tuna and mackerel. Smaller
quantities are present in beef, liver, cheese and egg yolks. Many countries fortify natural milk with
vitamin D.

-Vitamin D3(cholecalciferol) is synthesized in the skin after exposure to sunlight, hence it's
nickname the "Sunshine vitamin"

√ Sources of vitamin E
 •The predominant form of vitamin E is a tocopherol. However, other tocopherols and tocotrienols
are also present in circulation, such as the alpha, gamma, beta and delta forms

•Naturally occuring sources of vitamin E include vegetable oils, seeds, nuts, and whole grains

√Sources of vitamin K

•Vitamin K has two primary forms, K1 and K2.

• Vitamin K1(Phylloquinone) is present in green leafy vegetables, cabbage, and cauliflower. Lesser
quantities are in Fish, meat and some fruits.

• The gut microflora synthesizes vitamin K2(Menaquinone)

WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMIN

√Sources of vitamin B1

•Thiamine operates in the metabolic systems of the body principally as thiamine pyrophosphate.

•It can be found in nutritious foods in moderate amounts: pork, whole grains or enriched breads and
cereals, nuts and seeds.

√ Sources of vitamin B2

• Riboflavin normally combines in the tissues with phosphoric acid to form two coenzyme, Flavin
mononucleotide (FMN) and Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).

• IT can be found in milk and milk products, leafy greens vegetables, whole grain or enriched bread and
cereals.

√ Sources of vitamin B12

•Several cobalamin compounds that possess a common prosthetic group exhibit so-called vitamin
B12 activities.

• It is found in meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, milk and milk products.

√ Sources of vitamin C

• It's also known as Ascorbic acid.

• It's essential for the growth and strength of the fibres in subcutaneous tissues, cartilage, bone
and teeth.

•It can be in citrus fruit, vegetables in the cabbage family, strawberry, pepper, tomatoes, potatoes,
lettuce, papayas, mangoes, and kiwi fruit.
FUNCTION

-Vitamin A plays an integral role in the diffentiation and proliferation of epithelial cells in the eyes,
salivary glands and genitourinary tract. In stimulates T-lymphocyte differentiation and B-lymphocyte
activation in response to immune stimuli.

-Vitamin B1 (Thiamine), it's a part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for nerve
function.

-Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin), It's a part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for normal
vision and skin health.

-Vitamin B12 (cobalamin), it's a part of an enzyme needed for making new cells; Important for nerve
function

-Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid), antioxidants is a part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism;
important for immune system health; aids in iron absorption.

-Vitamin D, it maintains equilibrium with bone formation and resorption. It effectively mineralize bones,
some level of bone resorption is necessary.

-Vitamin E, it's best known for its antioxidant activity. It protects polyunsaturated fatty acids in cell
membranes from oxidative destruction. Thereby maintaining membrane fluidity and stability.

-VITAMIN K, it serves as a cofactor for gamma. -glutamyl carboxylate and catalyzes the post-translational
synthesis of gamma-carboxy-glutamyl residues