Networking Theory Revision - Day 05

OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model)

Protocol
Data
Layer Function Protocols
Unit
(PDU)
Interface between the user and the HTTP, FTP, SMTP, IMAP, POP3,
Application Data
application. Telnet, DNS, DHCP, SSH
Prepares data to be used by the
Presentation application. Data -
Translation, encryption, compression
Starting and stopping the communication
Session Data NetBIOS, AppleTalk, Winsock
between two nodes.
Breaks data into chunks (segments) and
Transport reassembles them in the other end. Segment TCP, UDP
Flow control and error control.
Facilitating data transfer between two
Network different networks. Packet IP, ICMP, ARP
Routing and IP addressing
Keeping a connection between hardware
and software. PPP, ALOHA, Ethernet, Token
Data Link Frame
Physical addressing and error checking Ring
(Parity).
Sending data through the physical
Physical Bits -
channel.

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OSI vs TCP/IP model

OSI Reference Model - A logical and conceptual model that defines network communication used by
systems open to interconnection and communication with other systems.

TCP/IP Model - a model to offer highly reliable and end-to-end byte stream over an unreliable
internetwork.

Application Layer Protocols

• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) (port 80)
– Establish a connection with the server and send HTML pages back to the user's browser.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) (port 21)
– Download, upload, and transfer files from one location to another on the internet.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) (port 25)
– Transmit e-mail between e-mail servers and from e-mail clients to e-mail servers.
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) (port 143)
– Retrieve emails from a remote mail server to local email software clients.
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol) (port 110)
– Retrieve emails from a remote mail server to local email software clients.
• Telnet (port 23)
– Allows to connect to remote computers over a TCP/IP network.
• DNS (Domain Name System)
– Translates domain names to IP addresses.
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration)
– Automatically provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address and other related
configuration information such as the subnet mask and default gateway.
• SSH (Secure Shell)
– A secure way to access a computer over an unsecured network.

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Encryption
1. Symmetric Key Encryption – Use a single key (secret key) for both encryption and decryption.
2. Asymmetric Key Encryption – Use two separate keys for encryption and decryption.

Public Key Encryption (Asymmetric Key Encryption)

A method of encrypting data with two different keys and making one of the keys, the public key, available
for anyone to use. The other key is known as the private key.

Data encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted with the private key, and data encrypted with
the private key can only be decrypted with the public key.

Alice Bob

Digital Signature

Transport Layer Protocols

TCP (Transport Control Protocol) UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Connection-oriented Connectionless
Guarantee delivery of data (Reliable) Cannot guarantee delivery of data (Unreliable)
Retransmission of lost packets No retransmission of lost packets
Extensive error-checking mechanisms Basic error checking mechanism using checksums
Slower than UDP Faster than TCP
Does not support broadcasting Support broadcasting
HTTPS, HTTP, SMTP, POP3, IMAP, FTP Video conferencing, streaming, DNS, VoIP

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Network Troubleshooting Commands
• ipconfig - To assign an IP address to a network interface and to configure or display the current
network interface configuration information.
• ping - To test the ability of the source computer to reach a specified destination computer.
• tracert - To show several details (router details) about the path that a packet takes from the
computer or device you're on to whatever destination you specify.

Packet Switching (Connectionless) -To transfer a file fast and efficiently manner over the network
and minimize the transmission latency, the data is broken into small pieces of variable length, called
Packet. At the destination, all these small parts (packets) must be reassembled, belonging to the same
file.

Circuit Switching (Connection-oriented) - Establishing a dedicated communication path between

the sender and the receiver. The link which is established between the sender and the receiver is in the
physical form. Analog telephone network is a well-known example of circuit switching.

Media Access Protocols

• Pure ALOHA – Whenever a station has an available frame, it sends the frame. If there is collision,
the sender waits for a random amount of time before retransmitting it.

• Slotted ALOHA – The communicating stations agree upon the slot boundaries. Any station can
send only one frame at each slot. Also, the stations cannot transmit at any time whenever a
frame is available. They should wait for the beginning of the next slot.

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 • CSMA/CD (Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection) – Each station senses the
collision by broadcast sensing. In case of collision, the transmission is stopped, and they send a
jam signal and then wait for a random time context before retransmission.
• CSMA/CA (Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance) – Prevents collisions prior to
their occurrence.
• Token Ring – A machine can only use the network when it has control of the Token, this ensures
that there are no collisions. Can be used only in ring topology.

Even Parity Check

An extra bit, called a parity bit, is set to zero if there is an even number of one-bits in a one-byte data item.
If the number of one-bits adds up to an odd number, the parity bit is set to one.

Data -> 1000001 Data with parity -> 01000101

Data -> 1000101 Data with parity -> 11000101
The receiving end checks whether the number of one-bits of every block (one-byte) of data is even. Hence,
if a single bit is switched during transmission, parity checks can detect that the data is corrupted.

Services in Communication
• PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)
- PSTN uses an old technology whereby circuit-switched copper phone lines are used to transmit
analogue voice data. A PSTN line cannot be used for any other purpose while a call is being made.
• ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
- ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system that transmits both data and voice over a
digital line. It is a dial-up connection carried over specially installed lines.
• DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
- DSL is a modem technology that uses existing telephone lines to transport high-bandwidth data,
such as multimedia and video, to service subscribers. It is an always-on connection that does not
need to dial over the lines that it uses.
▪ SDSL (Symmetric DSL) – Same upload and download speed
▪ ADSL (Asymmetric DSL) – Download speed is higher than the upload speed

Modulation/Demodulation by Modem
Data available in a computer should be modulated to transmit into a transmission media. Data received
from a transmission media (analog) should again be converted into digital data (Demodulation). Both
modulation and demodulation can be done by the device called Modem.

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Analog Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Changes the amplitude of the

carrier signal according to the
amplitude of the message signal.

Both frequency and phase of the

carrier signal remain unchanged.

Frequency Modulation (FM)

Changes the frequency of the carrier

signal according to the amplitude of
the message signal.

Both amplitude and phase of the

carrier signal remain unchanged.

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Phase Modulation (PM)

Changes the phase of the carrier

signal according to the amplitude
of the message signal.

Amplitude of the carrier signal

remain unchanged.

Digital Modulation

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Analog to Digital Conversion – Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse code modulation is a method that is used to convert an analog signal into a digital signal so that a
modified analog signal can be transmitted through the digital communication network.

The Pulse Code Modulation process is done in three steps Sampling, Quantization, and Coding.

Multiplexing – A technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single medium.
Demultiplexing – Delivering received segments at the receiver side to the correct app layer processes.

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Data Transmission Media
Guided Media Unguided Media
Need a physical path Broadcasted through air
Wired communication Wireless communication
Transmits data in the form of an electrical or Transmits data in the form of electromagnetic
optical signal. signals.
Faster than unguided media Slower than guided media
By adding more wires, the transmission capacity
It is not possible to obtain additional capacity.
can be increased.
Provides better security Security is weak
Low effect on human health More effect on human health
Low-cost media High-cost media
e.g.: Coaxial cables, twisted pair, fiber optics e.g.: Radio waves, microwaves, infrared

Transmission Impairment and Types

• Attenuation - The loss of signal strength in networking cables or connections.

Repeaters can regenerate the

strength of an attenuated signal.

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 • Distortion – Changes the shape of the signal
• Noise – Any unwanted signal that is mixed or combined with the original signal.

Transmission Modes
• Simplex – One way - Television
• Half-duplex – Both ways, one at a time -> Walkie-talkie
• Full duplex – Both ways, at the same time -> Telephone

Transmission Methods
• Serial transmission – Sending one bit after another.
• Parallel transmission – Multiple data bits transmit at the same time.

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