Practical Manual

M. Sc. (Agri.) Agronomy

Principles and Practices of Water Management
Course Code - AGRO 0504
Course Credit - 3(2+1)
Semester: 2nd

Department of Agronomy and Agroforestry

M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture
Centurion University of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi
www.cutm.ac.in

August, 2022
 Practical Manual
M. Sc. (Agri.) Agronomy
Principles and Practices of Water Management
Course Code - AGRO 0504
Course Credit - 3(2+1)
Semester: 2nd

Department of Agronomy and Agroforestry

M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture
Centurion University of Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi
www.cutm.ac.in

August, 2022
 Department of Agronomy and Agroforestry
M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture
Centurion University of Technology and
ManagementParalakhemundi

Certificate

Certified that this is a bonafide record of practical work done

by Mr./ Ms.

Regd. No. in M. Sc. (Agri.) programme, Course No.

AGRO 0504 entitled “principle and practices of water management” during 2nd
semester of the academicyear 2022-24.

Date: Faculty In charge

 Evaluation System
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF WATER
MANAGEMENTCOURSE CODE – AGRO 0504

Sl. No. Marks distribution* Total marks (25) Marks obtained

1 Record 5

2 Attendance 5

3 Lab work 15

Total (25 marks)

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 List of Experiments
Exp. Date Page Signature Remark
No. of Exp. Title No.

1
Determination of Field capacity by field method

2
Determination of infiltration rate by double ring
infiltrometer
3
Determination of Permanent Wilting Point by
sunflower pot culture technique
4 Determination of Field capacity and Permanent
Wilting Point by Pressure Plate Apparatus and
Hygroscopic Coefficient
5
Determination of maximum water holding capacity
of soil
6
Measurement of matric potential using gauge and
mercury type tensiometer
7 Determination of soil-moisture characteristics
curves
8
Determination of saturated hydraulic conductivity
by constant and falling head method
9 Determination of hydraulic conductivity of
saturated soil below the water table by auger
hole method
10
Determination of effective rainfall (calculations)

11
Determination of irrigation requirement of crops
(calculations)
12 Determination of ET of crops by soil moisture
depletion method and Determination of water
requirements of crops (calculations)
13
Measurement of irrigation water by volume and
velocity-area method and measurement
14
Calculation of irrigation efficiency
 Experiment No. 1 Date----------

Determination of Field capacity by field method

Field capacity is the moisture content in percentage of a soil on oven dry basis when it has been
completely saturated and downward movement of excess water has practically ceased. Such a
stage is reached generally in 48 to 72 hours after saturation. Sandy soils reach field capacity
earlier than clayey soils. The downward movement of water continues even after this period for
several days but the amount of water lost afterwards can be considered as negligible. Organic
matter and fine texture increase the field capacity.

The field capacity is the upper most limit of available moisture range in soil water and plant
relations. The force with which moisture is held a this point varies from -1/10 to 1/3 of an
atmosphere. However, -1/3 atm is taken as a general value for field capacity.

Materials:
1. Straw mulch or a black polythene sheet

2. Spade

3. Water

4. Soil auger Moisture boxes

5. Physical balance, and Drying oven

Procedure:
Select a representative spot in the field. Ensure that water table is not within two meters from the
layer of which field capacity is to be determined. Bund an area of about 2.5 sq. metres on all four
sides and remove all weeds to avoid transpiration.

Pour water till the desired layers gets sufficiently wet. Spread straw mulch of at least 40 cm
thickness on the surface to prevent evaporation. A polythene sheet can be conveniently used
instead of a mulch.

Take soil samples from different layers up to the root zone depth with auger and determine the
soil moisture content at every 12 to 24 hours interval till the values of two successive samples
are nearly equal. Plot the moisture content versus time curve on a graph paper. The lowest influx
value can be taken to represent the field capacity of the value for field capacity is less than that
for maximum water holding capacity, since the later measures the moisture present in a fully
saturated soil resting on a water table, so that the soil pores are completely filled with water.

Formula

Percentage of soil moisture

The moisture percentage of a loam soil at 24 hours interval after saturation were observed as
given below:

24 hours after 48 hours after 72 hours after 96 hours after

saturation saturation saturation saturation

37.5% 28.7% 24.8% 24.7%

As in the above observation the moisture content after 72 hours is almost same as recorded at 96
hours. Therefore, the field capacity of the above soil is 24.8 per cent. It means that in this type of
soil the field capacity reaches after 72 hours of saturation.

Practical significance

Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No. 2 Date-----------

Determination of infiltration rate by double ring infiltrometer

method

Aim
To determine the infiltration rate

Materials required
1. Two Rings of 30 cm & 60 cm diameters
2. Hammer & Wooden board
3. Stop watch or timer
4. Hook or point guaze, spade, bucket, water

Introduction
Infiltration is the entry of fluid from one medium to another. In irrigation practice it is the term
applied to the process of downward entry of water into the soil.
Infiltration rate is defined as the amount of water flowing into the soil profile per unit of soil
surface per unit time. At the initial stage, when the soil is dry then the infiltration rate tends to
be high but slowly it tends to decrease and becomes constant which can be called as basic intake
rate or steady state infiltration rate.
The decrease in infiltration rate can be due to non – preventable decrease in matric solution
gradients. The infiltration rate depends on the time of irrigation or rainfall initial soil wetness
soil surface conditions hydraulic conductivity and soil profile. this method is used because of
its accuracy and simplicity in measurement.
A double ring infiltrometer consists of 2 concentric metal rings. The rings are driven into ground
and filled with water. The outer ring prevents the divergent flow of water. The drop in water
level in the ring is useful in measuring the infiltration level.
Working principle

A double ring infiltrometer requires two rings: an inner and outer ring. The purpose is to create a
one-dimensional flow of water from the inner ring, as the analysis of data is simplified.
If water is flowing in one-dimension at steady state condition, and a unit gradient is present in
the underlying soil, the infiltration rate is approximately equal to the saturated hydraulic
conductivity.
An inner ring is driven into the ground, and a second bigger ring around that to help control the
flow of water through the first ring.
Water is supplied either with a constant or falling head condition, and the operator records how
much water infiltrates from the inner ring into the soil over a given time period.
The ASTM standard method specifies inner and outer rings of 30 and 60 cm diameters,
respectively.

Diagram sketch of double ring infiltrometer

Procedure
1. Characterize soil condition in terms of texture, surface condition, structure, initial
moisture status etc.

2. Prepare a level testing area.

3. Place outer ring in place; place flat board on ring and drive ring into soil to a minimum
depth of 10 cm.

4. Place inner ring in the center of outer ring; place flat board on ring and drive ring into the
soil to a minimum of 10 cm. the bottom rim of both ring s should be at the same level.

5. Seal any large gaps along edges of the ring with ‘putty’ made from moist, reworked soil
rolled out to the thickness of a pencil (subsoil is best). Take care not to disturb the surface
of the soil inside the ring.

6. Pour the water in the outer as well as inner ring until water level indicator mark. Remove
the splash guard after pouring water. Avoid any soil disturbance while pouring water by
placing a splash guard. Maintain the same water head in both the rings. Do not fill excess
water beyond the point gauge.

7. Record the fall (recession) in water level in the inner cylinder as a function of time at
fixed intervals. For instance, at 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120 and thereafter on
hourly basis till the water intake is constant.

8. Measurement of the water level in the inner ring should be made from a fixed reference
point and should continue at the interval determined under a minimum of eight readings
are completed or until a stabilized rate of drop is obtained, whichever occurs first. A
stabilized rate of drop means a difference of 5mm or less of drop between the highest and
lowest readings of four consecutive readings.

9. Enter the infiltration data in the given format and calculate the infiltration rate.

10. Plot the infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration curve as a function of time. The drop
occurs in the inner ring during the final period or the average stabilized rate, expressed as
mm or hour, should represent the infiltration rate for the test location.

11. The drop that occurs in the inner ring during the final period or the average stabilized rate
is expressed in mm/hour.
 Observation:
Location - Test date –
Soil texture - Time elapsed from previous rain –
Watch Time Cumulative Water Water Infiltration Infiltartion Infiltartion Cumulative
reading interval time (min) level level (mm) rate rate infiltration
(hrs:min) (min) before after (mm/min) (mm/hr) (mm)
2:05 0 (0+0) =0 100 0 0 100/0=0 0×60=0 (0+0) =0

2:07 2 (0+2) =2 100 93 (100-93) =7 7/2=3.5 3.5×60=210 (0+7) =7

2:10 3 (2+3) =5 94 89 (94-89 )=5 5/3=1.6 1.6×60=96 (7+5) =12

2:15 5 (5+5) =10 88 80 (88-80) =8 8/5=1.6 1.6×60=96 (12+8) =20

2:25 10 (10+10) =20 79 70 (79-70) =9 9/10=0.90 0.90×60=54 (20+90) =29

2:35 10 (20+10) =30 69 60 (69-50) =9 9/10=0.90 0.90×60=54 (29+9) =38

2:45 10 (30+10) =40 59 48 (50-44) =6 6/10=0.60 0.60×60=36 (38+11) =49

3:05 20 (40+20) =60 47 38 (47-38) =9 9/20=0.45 0.45×60=27 (49+9) =58

3:25 20 (60+20) =80 37 30 (37-30) =7 7/20=0.35 0.35×60=21 (58+7) =65

 Classification Infiltration Rate
Very slow <1
slow 1–5
Moderately slow 5 – 20
moderate 20 - 63
Moderately rapid 63 – 127
Rapid 127 – 254
Very rapid >254

Infiltration graph

Precautions
 Do not disturb the soil inside the rings
 Ensure that both the rings are placed at the same height.
 Do not let the rings get dry, pour water if needed.

Practical significance
Soll can be excellent temporary storage medium for water, depending on the type and condition
of the soil. Proper management of the soil can help maximize infiltration and capture as much
water as allowed by a specific soil type. If water infiltration is restricted or blocked, water does
not enter the soil and il either ponds on the surface or runs off the

land. Thus, less water is stored in the soil profile for use by plants, Runoff can carry soil particles
and surface applied fertilizers and pesticides off the field. These materials can end up in streams
and lakes or in other places where they are not wanted. Soils that have reduced infiltration have
an increase in the overall amount of runoff water. This excess water can contribute to local and
regional looding of streams and rivers or results in accelerated soil erosion of fields.
Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No. 3 Date ------------
Determination of Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) by Sunflower
Method
Permanent Wilting Point (P.W.P.) is the moisture content in percentage of a oven dried soil at
which nearly all plants wilt and do not recover in a humid dark chamber unless water is added
from an outside source. This is the lower limit of available moisture range for plant growth.
Below the wilting point, extraction of moisture continue for some time but growth ceases
completely. The force with which moisture is held by the soil at this point corresponds to about -
15 atmospheres.

(i) Determination of Wilting Point by Sunflower Method

Materials:
1. Five 600 g capacity cans with lids
2. Sunflower seeds
3. Glass tubing (5 cm x 0.5 cm)
4. Sealing wax
5. Moisture cans
6. Physical balance
7. Drying oven
8. Bell jars or cabinet 25 cm x 50 cm with polythene cover
9. Water trays and
10. Soil sampler

Procedure:
Even though nearly all plants wilt at the same moisture content, some of them show clear signs
of wilting while others do not. Dwarf sunflower is selected as an indicator plant in this method as
it exhibits symptoms of moisture stress clearly and has a root system which penetrates
throughout the soil mass uniformly and rapidly.
Fill uniformly five cans having a drain hole at the bottom with about 500 g of air-dry soil in
each. It is necessary to have many replications in this trial as the permanent wilting point is a
range of moisture. Sow about four seeds of sunflower in each and allow them to germinate.

After emergence, thin the plants to two, allow them to pass through the two holes in the lid and
place the lid. Avoid heating of the cans due to insulation, by placing them in moist sawdust.
Grow them for about six weeks, watering them as an when necessary. By this stage, the plants
would have developed at least about three pairs of leaves.

Insert a glass tubing in the soil for aeration and plug it with cotton wool. Seal the soil surface
with wax Also close the drainage hole and seal it.

At this stage, water the plants for the last time and plug all the space between the soil surface and
the holes in the lid of the can, be plugged with cotton wool to control evaporation. Allow the
plants to wilt.

As soon as both the plants show signs of loss of turgor, transfer them to a dark humid chamber.
The cans with plants can be kept in a small water tray and covered with a bell jar or a wire
cabinet to create a high humidity chamber. The bell jar or the cabinet should be covered with a
black polythene piece. The aim is to close the stomata and reduce transpiration.

Leave the plants overnight to gain a favorable water balance by allowing them to Extract
moisture from the soil. If they gain turgidity, expose them to the atmosphere for a couple of
hours and transfer them back to the humid chamber. Repeat the process till me plants do not
recover in the dark humid chamber.

At this stage, remove the lid and cut the plants. Take a duplicate soil sample. Remove the roots.
Determine the moisture content of the soil samples which will present the value of the wilting
point of the soil.

Practical significance
Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No. 4 Date------------

Determination of Field capacity and Permanent Wilting Point by

Pressure Plate Apparatus and Hygroscopic Coefficient

In our agricultural operations, mainly in scheduling irrigation we are interested to know the
lower and the upper limit of available soil water (ASW). Lower limit of available sol water is
known as permanent wilting point (PWP) or soil water potential, T'w of- 15 bars; upper limit
field capacity (F.C.) at which Pw is -1/3 bar. If we get soil moisture values from -1/3 to -15 bars,
we can prepare the curve.

For irrigation we are interested in -1/3 and -15 bars. Though the water potential at field capacity
may range from -0.1 to -0.5 bar in different types of soils, but the water content at -1/3 bar is
generally taken as field capacity of the soil. Similarly, water content at -15 bar is considered as
permanent wilting percentage. By determining the moisture content at -1/3 and -15 bar we get
the values of field capacity and permanent wilting percentage in the laboratory. Besides the
values of field capacity and permanent wilting point, pressure plate apparatus is a device to find
moisture retention relationship of soil in laboratory.

Apparatus and Accessories:

1. Pressure Plate Apparatus
2. Compressed air source
3. Rings to hold soil: should be of 1 cm height and 4-6 cm diameter
4. Physical balance
5. 105 °C oven
6. Moisture boxes
7. 50 ml burette

Procedure:
1. Arrange the soil sample retaining rings evenly on the porous ceramic plate and fill them
uniformly with processed air-dry soil. One sample retaining ring takes about 20 gm of dry
soil. Segregation of particles of various sizes can be avoided by dumping of whole soil in a
 ring rather than slow pouring. The capacity of a sample retaining ring should, therefore, be
checked beforehand for the purpose.

2. Fill the plate with distilled water and leave it for few hours for complete saturation of the
plate and soil samples.

3. Drain off excess free water with pipette from around the soil samples.

4. Place triangular support on bottom of pressure chamber.

5. Place the porous plate with saturated samples on triangular support in the chamber and
connect it to the lowest outlet port. The second plate is set on three plastic spacers which are
placed on the first plate near the outer edge and located at about 120° from each other.
Connection to this plate is made through middle outflow port. The third plate is similarly
mounted and connection is made through the out let port on upper edge.

6. Connect the outflow tube to the burette and cover the pressure chamber with lid.

7. Tighten the clamping screws diagonally with 10-foot pound torque. Use torque wrench for
uniform tightening.

8. Turn on about 2 psi air pressure in the pressure chamber. (Make sure that burette is also
turned on before pressure is turned on). Immediately lot of air and water will rush out into
the burette. Wait till air bubbles cease.

9. Gradually raise the pressure to desired level (1 atm = 14.7 psi one bar approximately). Now
air bubbles will come very slowly at the rate of about 1 ml/minute. Faster air escape
indicates leak and that must be corrected by resetting the apparatus.

10. Record water level in burette every morning and evening till the outflow of water stops
completely. (Water level in burette should be noted immediately after escape of air bubble,
which slowly forms at its surface).

11. Disconnect the burette and slowly release the pressure.

12. Open the lid of pressure vessel by unscrewing the clamping bolts.

13. Transfer the sample from one ring to weighed moisture box and record the wet weight of
soil quickly without appreciable loss of moisture.
14. Dry the soil sample at 105 °C, find out dry weight of soil and calculate moisture in soil on
dry weight basis.

15. Repeat the steps 6 to 14 seven times, applying the pressure of 4.9, 9.8, 14.7, 29.4, 73.5,
220.5 psi one after another at step 9.

16. Plot a desorption curve from the pressures and corresponding moisture data.

Important Note: For determination of Field Capacity by Pressure Plate Membrane Method,
Pours Ceramic plate should be selected of -1/3 bars.

Hygroscopic coefficient:
Diagram sketch of Pressure plate
Ob
ser
vati
ons
:
A) P
a
r
t
i
c
u
lars of soil sample

B) Description equilibrium

Pressure Burette Total out

Sr. No. Date Time Plate No
(psi) reading flow(ml)

Practical significance:
Conclusion:

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No. 5 Date------------

Determination of maximum water holding capacity of soil

The maximum amount of water retained by soil per unit of its dry weight after the gravitational
flow has ceased is called water holding capacity or field capacity of the soil. The water holding
capacity varies in different type of soils and depends upon the types of soil particles and porosity
of the soil. Sandy soils have poor water holding capacity then the loam and clay soils.

Aim: To study the water holding capacity of different soil.

Requirements:
1. Garden soil
2. roadside soil
3. measuring cylinders
4. funnels, filter papers
5. beakers
6. balance

Procedure:
Take two funnels and line them with filter paper. Label them A and B. Place them on measuring
cylinders. Take 100 gm dried sample each of the garden soil and roadside soil. Put the garden
soil in funnel A and roadside soil in funnel B. Pour 100 ml of water in each funnel. Record the
volume of filtered out water in the measuring cylinder when the dripping of water stops from the
funnel.
 Figure: Water holding capacity of different soil
Observation:
Record the observation in the table as follows:

Volume of Volume of Water holding

Volume of water water capacity of

Weight of
S. No. Soil Types water collected in retained by the soil in
soil (X)
poured (Y) measuring the soil (Y- percentage

cylinder (Z) Z) ( )

Garden
1.
soil
Roadside
2.
soil

Inference:
Garden soil has a high-water holding capacity than the roadside soil, because roadside soil has
larger quantities of sand and silt.

Precautions:
 Weighing of soil samples should be done accurately.
 Pour water slowly and gently on the soil in the funnel
 Record the volume of collected water in the measuring cylinders carefully.

Practical significance:
Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No. 6 Date------------
Measurement of matric potential using gauge and mercury type
tensiometer
Aim:
To Install and know the working principle of tensiometer in crop field.

Materials required
1. Tensiometer
2. Water
3. Screw auger or coring tool
4. Aluminum moisture box
5. Spade
6. Bucket

Introduction
The tensiometer is an instrument designed to provide a continuous indication of the soil moisture
tension. As the water potential in tensiometer comes in equilibrium with the soil water, the
tensiometer represents the matric potential of the soil. The available soil moisture range is upto
15 atm. This device typically consists of a glass or plastic tube with a porous ceramic cup, and is
filled with water. This device typically consists of a glass or plastic tube with a porous ceramic
cup, and is filled with water. The top of the tube has either a built-in vacuum gauge or a rubber
cap used with a portable puncture tensiometer instrument, which uses a hypodermic needle
(sharp and hollow needle) to measure the pressure inside the tensiometer.

Working principle
When buried in the soil the ceramic tip of the tensiometer allows water to move freely in or out
of the tube. As the soil dries out, water is sucked out through the porous ceramic tip, creating a
partial vacuum inside the tensiometer which is read on the vacuum gauge. When the soil is
wetted by sufficient rainfall or irrigation, water flows back into the tensiometer, the vacuum
decreases and the gauge reading is lowered.

Tensiometer measures how tightly water is held to the soil particles and not how much water is
left in the soil. A sandy soil will reach a high tension sooner than a clay loam because sandy soils
cannot supply as much water to the plant and it is used up more quickly. As soil moisture is
depleted by plant uptake, or as it is replenished by rainfall or irrigation, corresponding readings
on the tensiometer vaccum guaze occurs.

Tensiometers do not operate in dry soil because the pores in the ceramic tip drain and air is
sucked in through them breaking the vacuum seal between the soil and the gauge on top of the
tensiometer. Such tensiometers are used in irrigation scheduling to help farmers and other
irrigation managers to determine when to water. In conjunction with a water retention curve,
tensiometers can be used to determine how much to water. Soil tensiometers can also be used in
the scientific study of soils and plants.

Procedure
1. Select a representative spot in the cropped field, usually between plants within a row for
convenience during Intercultural operations.
2. Make a vertical hole equal to the cup diameter to the desired depth using a screw auger or a
coring tool.
3. Carefully remove the auger, making sure no rocks fall back in to the hole. Sometime pouring
water along the driving shaft helps in easy coring of the hole,
4. Collect the soil in an aluminum box. Prepare thick slurry of the collected soil and pourit in to
the hole.
5. Prepare the tensiometer for installation. Fill the tensiometer with distilled water. Observe for
any air gaps/air bubbles in the tube.
6. Hitting the top of the tensiometer with an open palm will also dislodge any air bubbles from
the side of the tensiometer.
7. Replace the cap, twisting until the stopper reaches hie bottom of the reservoir. You do not
need to tum it too hard.
8. Place the cup of the tensiometer in the mouth of the cored hole. Fotce the cup into the hole
by pushing directly down on the cap. Do not wobble or rotate the tensiometer shaft and do
not push on the gauge. After properly positioning the cup of the tensiometer maintain at least
3 cm between the bottom of the gauge and the soil surface.
9. Alter positioning the cup properly, place a small amount of water into the bottom of the hole
 and allow it to soak in. This ensures proper contact of ceramic cup with the soil.
10. Build a mound around the tensiometer to prevent water from running directly down the side
of the tensiometer
11. Allow the tensiometer to attain equilibrium and start monitoring the soil water tension
reading in the vacuum gauge.
12. Record the soil water tension readings in the vacuum gauge at the same time each day, in the
early morning.
13. From the soil moisture characteristic curve estimate the soil water content with respect to the
soil moisture tension measured by tensiometer.

Draw a neat sketch showing the working principle of tensiometer

Tensiometer Observations
Vaccum guaze
Soil moisture content
Depth of soil (cm) reading Remark
(%)
(centibar)

30 cm

45 cm

60 cm
 Calibration of Tensiometer

The relation between tensiometer and soil moisture percentage is given by the
following equation: Y=c+blog X
Where, Y, is the moisture percentage,
b & c are constants and
X, is the tensiometer reading.
The best way of tensiometer calibration against moisture percentage is by installing in field then
recording tension readings and soil moisture content by Gravimetric method. Data are plotted of
graph paper and their corresponding soil moisture readings on oven dry basis and thus, a curve
prepared for guidance.

Draw soil moisture content graph

Precautions
Before tensiometers are buried in the soil, the ceramic tip and tube must be placed in a container
of water for 24 hours or atleast 12 hours to ensure that the tip is fully wet. Tensiometers must
remain in the container of water until installed.
The tensiometer tube must be filled with water to the top before installation and at each reading
the water level in the tensiometer must be checked.

Practical significance
Tensiometer provides soil moisture tension readings rapidly in-situ. The instrument is relatively
simple and robust. The soil moisture tension is a measure of the tenacity with which water is
retained in the soil and is related to the amount of water in the soil that is available to plants. It
reflects the force per unit area that must be exerted by plant roots to extract water from the soil.
Further scheduling irrigations based on tensiometric readings maximizes irrigation efficiency by
minimizing runoff and percolation losses. This often results in lower energy and water use and
optimum crop yields.

Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No. 07 Date------------

Soil Moisture Characteristic Curve

Aim: To determine Soil Moisture Characteristic Curve

Soil Moisture Characteristic Curve

Soil moisture characteristic curve is the relationship between the water content and the soil water
potential (Ψ). It describes the functional relationship between soil water content and its energy
status in terms of its matric potential under equilibrium conditions. This curve is characteristic
for different types of soil. It is also called the Water retention curve. A soil water characteristic
(SWC) curve describes the amount of water retained in a soil (expressed as mass or volume
water content, Ɵm or Ɵv) under equilibrium at a given matric potential. A SWC is an important
hydraulic property related to size and connectedness of pore spaces. It is strongly affected by soil
texture and structure, and by other constituents including organic matter. Modeling water
distribution and flow in partially-saturated soils requires knowledge of the SWC. It plays a
critical role in water management and in prediction of solute and contaminant transport in the
environment. The SWC function is highly nonlinear and relatively difficult to obtain accurately.
The matric potential extends over several orders of magnitude for the range of water contents
commonly encountered in practical applications, it is often plotted on a logarithmic scale. The
SWC is a primary hydraulic property required for modelling water flow in porous materials. It is
used to predict the soil water storage, water supply to the plants (field capacity) and soil
aggregate stability. Due to the hysteretic effect of water filling and draining the pores, different
wetting and drying curves may be distinguished. At potentials close to zero, a soil is close to
saturation, and water is held in the soil primarily by capillary forces. As Ɵ decreases, binding of
the water becomes stronger, and at small potentials (more negative, approaching wilting point)
water is strongly bound in the smallest of pores, at contact points between grains and as films
bound by adsorptive forces around particles. Early conceptual models for SWC curve were based
on the "bundle of cylindrical capillaries" (BCC) representation of pore space geometry
(Millington and Quirk, 1961). The BCC representation postulates that at a given matric potential
a portion of interconnected cylindrical pores is completely liquid filled, whereas larger pores are
completely empty.
Factors influencing soil water retention
1. Soil structure (pb, aggregate size distribution)
a) Important at low suctions, 0 to 50 kPa
b) Capillary effects
2. Clay content
a) Positively related to surface area of soil particles
b) Positively related to water adsorption
c) Dominant factors at high suctions
Practical Significance

Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No. 8 Date------------
Determination of saturated hydraulic conductivity by constant and
falling head method
Aim:
Determine the coefficient of permeability of a re-moulded coarse grained soil sample with a
constant head permeameter.

Materials required
1. Permeameter mould with or without collar

3. Tot cap with water inlet nozzle, air release valve

4. Perforated top and bottom plates

5. Constant head tank

6. Bottom tank

7. Tamping rod

8. Stop watch, scale, measuring cylinder, spanner, grease, thermometer, etc.

Introduction
The coefficient of permeability (k) of a soil is defined as the rate of discharge of water through a
unit cross sectional area of a soil under unit hydraulic gradient for a laminar flow condition. This
can be determined in the laboratory by constant head permeability test for coarse grained soil
with k value greater than 10-3cm/sec.

Working principle
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is a measure of the soil's ability to transmit water when
submitted to a hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic conductivity is defined by Darcy's law, which, for
one-dimensional vertical flow, can be written as follows:

Field method with falling head permeameter

Where, Q = volume of water flow per unit time (cm3/s)
V = Darcy's velocity (cm/s)
ΔH= h1 and h2 are hydraulic heads, and L is the vertical distance in the soil through
which
flow takes place.
K= The coefficient of proportionality, in the equation is called the hydraulic conductivity
L= length of flow

Field method with variable head permeameter

2.3aL h1
K= ------------------ log10 --------
A h2

Where, L = flow length (cm)

A = cross-sectional area of glass tube (cm2)
A = cross-sectional area of soil core (cm2)
t = time interval (s)
ΔH = h1 and h2 are hydraulic heads,
K = The coefficient of proportionality, in the equation is called the hydraulic
conductivity

Figure: Soil hydraulic conductivity

Diagram sketch of hydraulic conductivity

Procedure
1. Remove the oversize a particle by sieving the soil specimen through IS 20 mm sieve and
determine its percentage (%).
2. Note the dimensions of the permeameter and calculate its volume.
3. For testing re-moulded soil sample, first calculate the amount of dry soil and water
required to achieve a particular density and moisture content.
4. Mark the height of mould into three equal parts and also divide the soil into three equal
parts.
5. Compact the soil into the mould in layers after fixing the mould to its base plate
containing porous stone and placing the collar on top.
6. Put the porous stone on the top of the soil and fix the top plate which is provided with an
inlet valve and air cock. Secure both the base plate and the top plate to mould with
suitable clamps and rubber gasket to make the entire assembly water tight.
7. Place the assembly in a shallow metal tray with an out-let .Fill the tray with water
submerge the base plate completely. All the heads of water must be measured with
respect to the tail water level corresponding to the centre of the out-let pipe or crest of the
outlet in tray.
8. Attach the constant head water tank with the sliding bracket to a vertical stand. This tank
has three opening connect one of them to water supply source, the second to the overflow
 tube and the third to the inlet valve provided on the cap of the permeameter. Remove all
the air bubbles with the help of the air cock, provided on the top plate. Allow the soil
sample to saturate. Check this by obtaining constant valves of discharge collected over a
given time under a given head.
9. When steady state flow is attained, collect sufficient quantity of water (about 250cc ) and
note the time interval. Take two to three observations.
10. Note the total head loss and the length of specimen and note the temperature of water.
11. Repeat the test for three different hydraulic heads covering the full range of hood in the
apparatus.

Tabulation Variable Head or Fall Head Permeability Test

Observations
flow length Head (h1) Head (h2) cm cross-sectional area of Time (sec)
(cm) cm glass tube (cm2) (T)
(L) (a)

Calculation
The permeability at the test temperature can be found at by the following formula
Precautions
 This apparatus is for research applications only and needs to be operated by qualified
operators.
 Other use then intended purposes should be avoided.
 Take care for personal hygiene and environmental precautions in case of operating
contaminated samples.
 Apparatus is rated for indoor lab locations only.
Practical significance
The reports of permeability test shall include the following information:

(a) Grain size analysis, maximum particle size, and percentage of any over-size material not used

(b) Dry unit weight, void ratio,

(c) Average value of permeability obtained.

Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No. 9 Date------------
Determination of hydraulic conductivity of saturated soil below the water
table by auger hole method
The inversed auger hole method is used to measure hydraulic conductivity in situ above the
water table. A hole is bored using an auger to a certain depth. Before the test is undertaken, the
bore is filled with water to create near saturated conditions around the bore. Water is again filled
in the hole to a certain level and the fall in water level at different times and its rate is recorded
(Fig. 10.1).

( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
k = 1.15 r

= 1.15 r tan α

Where, r = radius of auger hole; cm:

h(l) = Water level in the hole at time t1 cm

Requirements
1. Auger

2. Steel tape for measurement of water level

3. Float

4. Water

Procedure
1. Drill a bore hole with an auger up to a certain depth;

2. Fill water in the hole 2-3 times and leave it for 2-3 hours to create near saturated conditions
in and around the hole;

3. After obtaining saturated conditions, record the falling water levels in bore hole at different
time intervals;

4. Plot [het) +r/2] against time 'j on semi-log paper and read the value of tangent a (Fig.I 0.2);
and using equation 10.1, compute the value of hydraulic conductivity.
Observations and Calculations
Example

Compute hydraulic conductivity of a soil using inversed auger hole. The diameter of hole was 5
cm and depth of hole from reference level was 100 cm (Fig.lO.1). r = 2.5 cm D =100 cm

i t i , sec h' (t.), cm h (t.), cm h (t.) + r12, cm

1 0 80 20 21.25

2 30 82 18 19.25

3 60 84 16 17.25

4 120 86 14 15.25

5 220 88 12 13.25

6 400 90 10 11.25

7 520 92 8 9.25

8 720 94 6 7.25

9 920 96 4 5.25

Solution: tanα =

= = 0.00112

K = 1.15×r×tan α

= 1.15×2.5×0.00112

= 0.00322cm/sec

= = 2.78m/day
Results:

Hydraulic conductivity = ___________________m day

Precautions:

 Bore hole should be staright to facilitate the movement of float and tape
 In order to measure fairly accurate value of hydraulic conductivity near saturated
conditions need to be obtained.

Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No.10 Date---------
Determination of effective rainfall

Aim
To study about measurement of rainfall

Materials required
1. Ordinary rain gauge

2. Pen

3. Note book

Introduction
Water in any form falling on the earth is called precipitation. The main forms of precipitation
falling to the ground are drizzle, rain, snow and hail. Rain is the liquid form of precipitation,
while snow and hails consist of solid ice crystals. Dew and frost are ground precipitation,
which do not fall but form near and ground on the vegetation. Rain is an import form of
precipitation and is the main source of soil moisture for crop production.

Rainfall measurement
The principle of rainfall measurement is to measure the depth of the layer of the water that has
fallen. Five millimeter of rain means if that rainfall is collected on flat surface, the height of
water would have been 5 mm.

Ordinary rain gauge

This rain gauge consists of a funnel, provided with a rim, which is circular and exactly 127 mm
in diameter. The rim of the rain gauge is 30 cm above the ground level and 25.4 cm above the
cemented plat form. The rain water collected in receiver is measured with the help of a standard
measuring cylinder provided with the instrument. The capacity of the receiver is 4 litres. A
measuring cylinder calibrated in mm is used to measure the rainfall. The measurement is taken
daily at 8.30 hrs IST and 14.00 hrs LMT as and when there is rain. The rainfall of last 24 hrs is
recorded in the column of observation day.
Measurement of rainfall:

The rainwater from the receiver is carefully poured in to the measuring glass kept on the
horizontal surface. The observer maintains his eye at the level of water in the measuring glass.
Reading is noted from the lower meniscus avoiding parallax.

Ordinary rain gauge

Ramdas Method

Ramdas (1960) suggested a direct field method using a small portable device containing soil of
the field, so eliminating the necessity of sampling.

Ramdas Apparatus for Measuring Effective Rainfall

The apparatus as shown, consists of a cylinder (CD) of about 30 cm in diameter, with a
perforated base (BO) and a funnel (F) leading into a receiver bottle (H). All these parts are
enclosed in an outer cylinder (MN). The cylinder (CD) is filled with a representative soil with
the same density as that of the field. The height is equal to the depth of the effective root zone of
the crop.

The apparatus is installed in the field crop where the effective rainfall is to be measured. The
crop in the container is irrigated along with the field crop. Excess rain or irrigation water drains
in the receiver bottle H and is measured from time to time. The total rainfall minus the
ineffective rainfall gives the value of effective rainfall. It is assumed that there is no surface run-
off. Cylinders of different lengths are used consistent with the rooting depth of the different
crops. With a suitable number of replications, the method is very useful. It is simple and practical
and furnishes direct readings.

Determination of the Effective Rainfall

The amount, the intensity and the distribution of rainfall is important.

1. When rain water falls on the soil surface, some of it infiltrates into the soil, some
stagnates on the surface, while some flows over the surface as runoff.
2. When the rainfall stops, some of the water stagnating on the surface evaporates to the
atmosphere, while the rest slowly infiltrates into the soil.
3. From all the water that infiltrates into the soil, some percolates below the root zone, while
the rest remains stored in the root zone.

In other words, the effective rainfall is the total rainfall minus runoff minus evaporation and
minus deep percolation.

EF = Total rainfall – runoff – evaporation – deep percolation

Only the water retained in the root zone can be used by the plants, and represents what is called
the effective part of the rainwater.

The term effective rainfall is used to define this fraction of the total amount of rainwater useful
for meeting the water need of the crops.

Only 2 simple formulae are provided to estimate the fraction of the total rainfall which is used
effectively. These formulae can be applied in areas with a maximum slope of 4-5%:

Pe = 0.8 P if P > 75 mm/month

Pe = 0.6 P if P < 75 mm/month

With, P = rainfall or precipitation (mm/month)

Pe = effective rainfall or effective precipitation (mm/month)

NOTE: Pe is always equal to or larger than zero; never negative

Observations
Problems

1. Calculate the effective rainfall for the following months in mm

Rainfall Surplus Cum.ER
Sl. No. Date ET (mm) Balance (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)

8
9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28
 29

30

31

Total

Precautions
 The funnel should not get chocked with dirt.
 The receiver should be always kept clean.
 The measuring glass should be kept spotless clean.
 All the parts should be examined regularly for choking and leakage.
 While replacing the funnel, see that it is pressed down evenly from all sides.

Practical significance
This method was devised assessing crop evapotranspiration, percolation, effective and
ineffective rainfall of a rice crop simultaneously under the field conditions.

Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No.11 Date-----------
Determination of irrigation requirement of crops (calculations)

Scheduling of Irrigation by different Methods

Irrigation scheduling is the process of determining when, how and how much water to be
irrigated. Proper irrigation scheduling indicates the correct time (when to irrigate) and amount of
irrigation water at each irrigation. It saves water and energy, boots up yield, and reduces the
production cost. Time of irrigation is usually governed by major conditions namely (1) Water
need of crops and (2) Availability of irrigation water. Water need of crops is, however, the prime
consideration to decide the time of irrigation. There are several approaches for determining when
to irrigate the crop. The approaches can be broadly classified into three groups:

(1) Soil moisture regime approaches

(2) Climatologic approaches

(3) Plant indices

(1) Soil moisture regime approaches:

These approaches involve determination of water content of the soil and finding the deficit in
available moisture at which it is proposed to irrigate based on pre- determined minimum water
content and irrigating to bring the soil to field capacity. The soil moisture content can be known
from the following methods:

a) Gravimetric methods:
This is a direct and reliable method, where samples are collected, weighed and dried at 105-110
°C for about 24 hours until constant weight is obtained and reweighed after drying. Details of
this method are illustrated in Experiment No. 1.

b) Feel and Appearance:

Soil moisture content can be judged by feel and appearance of the soil, with experience. Soil
samples from root zone depth are formed into balls, tossed gently into air and caught in hand.
The accruing of judgement improves with experience.
Tensiometers:
Use of tensiometers to determine soil moisture tension and relating to water content of the soil by
the characteristic curve was already discussed in Experiment No.1 Electrical resistance

Tensiometers and electrical resistance, methods actually indicate the energy status of soil of
water. These are not so popular because of some limitations. Tensiometers have narrow working
range 1.0 to 0.8 bar tension whereas gypsum blocks do not work satisfactorily at low tensions.

It is computed by posting everyday ET, effective rainfall, soil water content etc and determining
the balance of moisture in the soil. This method is cumbersome and lot of data is required.

Table: Guide for judging the amount of available soil moisture range by Feel and Appearance
Method:

Available soil Coarse texture Moderately Medium

SI. No. Fine texture
moisture range soils moderately coarse texture
Free water

Field capacity appears on soil, Similar Similar Similar

(100%) but wet outline is symptoms symptoms symptoms
1
left on hand

Tends to stick Forms a ball Easily

Forms weak
Together slightly is very ribbon out
ball breaks
2 75 sometimes forms pliable between
easy to not
a very weak ball slickes fingers has
stick
under pressure readily slick feeling

Tends to Forms a ball Forms a ball

Appears to be dry
form ball on somewhat but ribbon
3 50 don’t form a ball
pressure but plastic out between
on pressure
seldom hold sometimes thumb and
 together slides with fore finger
slight
pressure
Appears to Somewhat
Somewhat
As above but ball be dry don’t crumbly but
pliable
is formed by format ball holds
4 25 forms a ball
squeezing very unless together
under
firmly squeezed with
pressure
very firmly pressure
Powedered Hard
dry but breaked
Dry, loose,
Dry, loose. single sometimes cracked
flows
5 grained, flows break down sometimes
through
through fingers into has loose
fingers
powdery crumbs on
condition surface

Climatologic approach:
The atmospheric dryness or evaporative demand of a place actually determines the amount of
water transpired from a cropped field. Atmospheric evaporative demand can be estimated using
various methods (Penmann's formula, Blanney and Criddle) and correlated with the actual crop
water use. Prihar et al. (1974), suggested the use of ratio (s) between irrigation water (IW) and
the cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) to schedule irrigation to crops under specific soil and
climatic conditions. The quantity of water to be applied at each irrigation will depend on soil and
crop characteristics. Dew corrections are to be made for effective rainfall received during the
irrigation interval.
Example: Irrigation is schedule at í W/CPE ratio 0.8 and the crop is irrigated to a depth of 6.0
cm. CPE at which irrigation to be scheduled can be calculated as follows: 6.0 m

Depth of irrigation (IW)= 6.0m

CPE = Xcm

IW/CPE = 0.8

So, = 0.8

So, x= = 7.5

This crop is to be irrigated when CPE is 7.5 cm

Plant indices:
Monitoring plants is the most direct method of determining when to irrigate. Plant parameters
have to be related to soil water content to determine the quantity of irrigation requirement.

Appearance and Growth:

These are not effective parameters to decide the time; of irrigation because the plants exhibit
visible symptoms of deficiency long after they experience moisture stress. Deficiency of water
stress causes leaf and shoots wilting leaf colour, drooping of leaves and rolling of leaves.

Leaf Temperature:
An infrared thermometer measures the difference between canopy and ambient temperature. The
number of degrees by which canopy temperature exceeds air temperature each day is
accumulated until a certain level (predetermined) is reached. When the level reaches, it is to be
irrigated.

Leaf water potential:

Leaf water potential indicates the plants need for water. Leaf water potential is measured by
removing a leaf and placing it in a pressure chamber. The pressure in the chamber is slowly
increased until fluid is forced from the leaf. The pressure used is a measure of the leafs moisture
potential. Lower potential indicates a greater need for water. The leaf age, leaf exposure to solar
radiation and time of day when leaf is sampled all significantly influence the results. This
method is not extensively used since considerable time, care and training are required to obtain
reliable results.

Stomata resistance:
Leaf resistance to vapour diffusion into the atmosphere is primarily governed by the degrees of
stomata closure, which under sufficient day light is mainly regulated by leaf water deficits.
Stomata resistance is, therefore, an index to the need for water, since it is related to the degree of
stomata opening and the rate of transpiration. High resistance generally indicates significant
stomata closure, reduced transpiration rates and the need for water. Leaf diffusion parameters are
used to measure stomata resistance. The skill required to take measurements and time involved
to interpret limit the use of this method for research purposes.

Rough methods for farmers:

Soil-cum-Sand Mini plot technique:

It is also known as Profile modifications. The principle involved in this method is to reduce
artificially, the available water holding capacity of soil in root zone depth in the mini plot by
mixing sand with it. Plants on sand mixed mini plot show moisture stress symptoms earlier than
plants in rest of the area. Usually, an area of 1.0 m2 is selected in the field and a pit of 1.0 m
depth is excavated in layers of about 15 cm depths is excavated in layers of about 15 cm depths.
Each layer of soil is mixed with 5 per cent by volume of sand and the pit refilled in the same
sequence of layers as excavated by compacting each layer to bring bulk density of soil in the
mini plot as that. of the surrounding area. Symptoms of plants in the mini plot indicate time for
irrigating the crop.

Increased plant stand:

An area of about 1.0 m2, preferably in a high spot, is sown with the same crop to maintain about
four times the plant population compared with that in the surrounding area. Crop with high stand
establishment wilts earlier than the crop in the rest of the field indicating timing of irrigation.

Reduction in growth rate of sensitive plant organs may indicate irrigation need of crops. In the
case of orange plants, irrigation is given when the growth rate of fruit circumference falls below
0.2 to 0.3 mm day". Since stem elongation of crops like sugarcane, tomato and cotton is highly
correlated with water stress, it is possible to use this character as an indication of irrigation
needs. Relative leaf water content plant water potential, stomata resistance and plant
temperature, which can adequately reflect the internal water balance of the plant, may be used as
potential indicators for scheduling crop irrigation.

Problem:
1. Schedule irrigation in crop (Name) based on pan evaporation of Pantnagar metrological
laboratory on the basis of following points.

Irrigation water to be applied = 7.0 cm.

IW/ CPE ratio = 0.9

Date of sowing of (crop) wheat = 15 Nov. 2002

Ist irrigation it means we will irrigate the wheat crop when CPE reaches 77.8 mm. In the above
table CPE reaches 77.5 mm on 12" December 2002. therefore, irrigation will be given on 12th
December.

Likewise, IInd irrigation and so and so.

Note:
1-Irrigation treatments based on IW/ CPE ratio should be started after giving a common
irrigation. 2- Effective rainfall should be considered while planning irrigation treatment based on
IW/CPE ratio.

For winter R.F.x 1.66 Pan evaporation equivalent

For summer R.Fx1.25 = Pan evaporation equivalent

Pan equivalent should be subtracted from CPE and irrigation should be at same treatment CPE.
Adjustment of rainfall IW/CPE=ratio

IW=1 depth of irrigation water or irrigation water

IW/CPE =0.6 at this irrigation is scheduled

1.0

CPE=1.66 0.6
1.66x r.f. =x

Add in CPE of that treatment and delay the irrigation.

Practical significance:

Conclusion:

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No. 11 Date-----------
Determination of ET of crops by soil moisture depletion method and
Determination of water requirements of crops (calculations)

Aim
Construction of crop coefficient curves for important crops of the region and determination of
crop evapotranspiration

Crop Water Requirements:

In designing an irrigation system, the primary objective is to know the water requirement of
crops. Water requirement of crops are determined either by field cultivation or by estimation
through commonly used empirical formulae such as Blaney Criddle, radiation, Penman or pan
evaporation method.

Definitions:

Crop water requirement or evapotranspiration (ETerep):

It may be defined as the rate of evapotranspiration of a disease-free crop growing in a field of not
less than one hectare under adequate fertility and water supply so that full productive potential
can be achieved in prevailing environment. Evapotranspiration requirement of a crop refers the
ET and expressed in mm/day.

Reference crop evapotranspiration (ET):

It is the rate of evapotranspiration from an extended surface of 8-15 cm tall green grass of
uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water. ET,
may be computed by using the empirical formulae and meteorological data for the specific
period.

Crop coefficient (K):

It is the ratio of crop evapotranspiration, ETop, and the reference crop evapotranspiration. ETs.
when both apply to large field under optimum growth condition.
Ground Cover:
Drip irrigation system is mainly used to irrigate orchard or row crops. At the young stage of
crops the most of fields remain unshaded. It is more usual to wide spaced crops. During this
period there is little loss of water in the form of evaporation and transpiration from the unshaded
portion whereas it occurs considerably in surface or sprinkler irrigation. Thus, water requirement
in crops in conventional method includes the non-beneficial evaporation or transpiration from the
unshaded or uncovered areas in the field. This is taken into account in calculating the water
requirement of crop in drip irrigation and is modified by introducing the reduction factor called
ground coverage factor (K). The method of accurate estimation of K, is still to be developed.
However, the following relationships may be used for approximate estimation in which the
ground cover, GC, is the fraction of the total surface area actually covered by the foliage of the
plants when viewed from directly above (FAO, 1980).

(i) Keller and Karmeli (1974):

K= (1) or 1, whichever is the smallest

(ii) Freeman and Gazzoli:

K, GC (1-GC)

(iii) Decroix :
K=(0.10+ GC) or 1, whichever is the smallest (3)

The value of 0.10 includes the oasis effect, which is very important when the coverage is
small.

With the consideration of above terms and relationships, the water requirement of crop in drip
irrigation is:

ETcrop = K, XK, X ETo (4)

We know the pan evaporation (En) is very close to ETo, therefore ET, often estimated by a
multiplication factor called pan factor (K) to (Epan). Therefore, the equation (4) becomes,

ET crop = Kp X Kc X Kr X Epan. (5)

Problem 1: The following are the pan evaporations (Epan) reference crop evapotranspirations
(ET) and crop co-efficients (Ke) of an arbitrary location and crop

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov Dec

Epan 2.5 2.6 4.1 4.3 5.2 5.2 5.2 4.9 4.8 3.5 2.8 2.7
mm/day

Eo 1.75 1.90 3.0 3.25 4.1 4.2 3.9 3.7 3.3 2.8 1.9 1.8
mm/day

kc 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6

For the month of January

Determine the Kp values and water requirement of crop (ETop) at different months. Assume 45
% ground coverage from January to March and 60 % for the remaining months.

Solution: Using Decroix assumption,

K, = 0.1+GC

= 0.1+0.45

= 0.55, when GC is 45%

and

K, -0.1+0.6-0.7, when GC is 60 %

ETp in any month = Kp x K, XK, X ET pan

For the month of January Kp =ETo/Epan = 1.75/2.5 = 0.7

ETcrop =0.7 x 0.6 x 0.55 x 2.5 = 0.58 mm/day

Problem 2. The following information were obtained in a research of papaya cultivation under
drip irrigation at Gayeshpur, West Bengal.

The daily requirement of a plant was determined by,

V-Epan X Kp x Kex A

where, V = volume of water applied to each plant, l/day

Epan pan evaporation x 1.0, 0.8 and 0.6 at the irrigation level of 11, 12 and 13. respectively.

K Crop factor (assumed 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 at 4-6, 7-9 and 10-12 months respectively of the crop
age)

K, pan factor 0.8

A area under a plant - 2 m x 2m

Yield 36225, 40200, 38550 and 31200 kg/ha for I, 12 and conventional method of irrigation
respectively.

A. Determine the volume of water applied at each plant at different irrigation levels for a
pan evaporation of 5mm in a day at 5th month of crop age.

B. If the cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) during the period except in the rainy days for
which irrigation was required was 240 mm, find the total depth of water applied in each
irrigation level.

C. Determine the irrigation water use efficiency in different irrigation treatment and per cent
increase in yield over conventional method.

Solution:

(a) V-Epan Kp K, A

I1=,5mm x 1.0 x 0.8 x 0.8 x 4m2

5/1000 4 =0.002 m2 = 12.8 l/day

I2=5mm x 0.8 x 0.8 x 0.8 x 4m2 - 10.24 1/day

I3=5mm x 0.6 x 0.8 x 0.8 x 4m2 = 7.68 1/day

(b) Depth of water applied at any irrigated level,

I=Epan X KpX K

The crop coefficient is taken 1.0 as the average of the crop coefficients of 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 during
the period. Therefore,

I1=240 mm x 1.0 x 0.8 x 1.0

= 19.2 cm

I2=240 mm x 0.80 x 0.8 x 1.0

=15.36 cm

I3=240 mm x 0.6 x 0.8 x 1.0

=11.52 cm

(c) Irrigation water use efficiency (WUE) at irrigation level,

I1=

= 1886.72 kg/ha - cm

I2=

=2617.19 kg/ha – cm

I3= =3346.35 kg/ha - cm

WUE in conventional method=31200/24=1300kg/ha

I1=

=16.11

I2=

I3=
Irrigation Interval: Time between the start of successive field irrigation application on the same
field, in days.

Available soil moisture (ASM):

The difference in moisture content of the soil between field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
point (PWP) is termed the available moisture:

ASM=FC-PWP

Generally, fines the soil texture, greater the available moisture holding capacity. Approximate
available moisture holding capacity of different soil textural classes

Soil texture Available moisture holding capacity (per cent)

Coarse, fine and loamy sands 6-10

Coarse, fine and loamy sands 10-14

Very fine sandy and silt loam 12-19

Clay and silty clay loam 14-20

Sandy and silty clays and clays 13-20

Practical significance

Conclusion
 Signature of Faculty In-charge

Experiment No.13 Date------------

Measurement of irrigation water by volume and velocity-area

method and measurement of irrigation water by measuring devices

Aim
To study about different water measuring devices and irrigation water
Irrigation water is an expensive and limiting unit of crop production and therefore, proper
quantity should be applied to a crop as per edaphic conditions. Excess supply of irrigation water
is as harmful as water stress for crop growth. Therefore, effort should be made to apply the right
amount of water as and when required. This is only possible by application of measured amount
of irrigation water.

Objectives
1. To know the exact area that can be irrigated with a particular volume of water.

2. To avoid over and under irrigation.

3. To economize the use of irrigation water.

4. To save the crop from excess water application.

5. The excess water application leads to deep percolation losses and leaching of nutrients.

6. To save the crops and soil from the ill effects of excess water application (poor drainage
situation).

Hectometer
Hectometer is the volume of water necessary to cover an area of hectare to a depth of one meter.
Generally, two situations occur in irrigation water management:

(i) Measurement of flow through open channels (Velocity and area method).
(ii) Measurement of flow through pipes (Direct discharge method).

Velocity and area method

In this method the velocity of water flow in channel is measured and water discharge is
calculated by the formula given below:

Q = AxV

Where, Q Discharge of water,

A=Cross section of the flow area,

V=Velocity of flow of water.

This includes the following method

(a) Float method: In this method a straight section of irrigation channel (25-50 Mt. Long) is
selected and a light floating body is allowed to float along with water and the time taken to cover
the distance is recorded. An average velocity of channel often takes to be 0.8 the surface velocity
as obtained with the float. Though the factors may be reduced if the channel is narrow, irregular
and rough. It is a cheapest and simplest method of water discharge measurement but not so
accurate.

(b) Current meter

Current meters are used for measuring the velocity in channels, streams and long rivers. The
water velocity is measured by noting the time taken for certain revolutions and using the meter
calibration curve that relates the meter speed caused due to water flowing velocity. Water meters
show the discharge of water directly in gallons or liters. They are the most reliable and standard
devices for measuring discharge of water. (c) Tracer method

The principle involved in this method is that a substance which dissolve in water but does not
react with it, is introduced into the flow, and its concentration is measured at two points.
Assuming that the substance completely mixes with water and there is no loss of water between
the points of mixing and measurement. In this method common salt or dye (salt dilution method)
or radioisotopes are mixed with water and salt concentration or isotopes count is measured at
downstream.

Materials required
 Weirs
 Orifices
 Scale
 Spade

Introduction
Measurement of irrigation stream is essential for the studies on soil-water-plant relations and for
judicious management of water on the farm to obtain high efficiency in irrigation. Irrigation
water is generally measured under two conditions:
i) At rest: Measured in units of volume such as liter, cubic meter, hectare centimeter (ha cm) and
hectare meter (ha-m)
ii) In motion: Expressed in rate of flow units such as litres per second, liters per hour, cubic
meters per second, hectare centimeters per hour and hectare meters per day.

Units of volume:
i) Liter: It is a volume equal to 1/1000 cubic meter (1000 cm3)

ii) Cubic-meter: It is a volume to that of a 1 meter long, 1 meter wide and 1 meter deep
container (1 cubic meter = 1000 liters)

iii) Hectare centimeter (ha cm): It is a volume of water necessary to cover an area of 1
hectare to a depth of 1 cm (100 cubic meters = 100,000 liters)

iv) Hectare meter (ha m): A volume necessary to cover an area of 1 hectare to a depth of 1
meter (10,000 cubic meters = 10 million liters)

Units of flow:
i) Litre per second: A continuous flow amounting to 1 litre passing through a point each
second. It is generally used to denote the discharge of a pump, small stream or pipe line.

ii) Cubic- metre pre second: A flow of water equivalent to a stream 1 metre wide and 1 m
deep, flowing at a velocity of 1 metre per second.

Working principle

The velocity of water in a stream or river may be measured directly with a current meter and the
discharge estimated by multiplying the mean velocity of water by the area of cross section of the
stream. When mean velocity of a stream is determined with current meter the cross section of
flow is divided into a number of sub-areas and separate measurements are made for each sub
area. It has been found that the average of readings taken at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth below the
surface is an accurate estimate of the mean velocity in a vertical plane

Procedure

Measuring structures
In farm irrigation practice, the most commonly used devices for measuring water are weirs,
parshall flumes, orifices, siphons and water meters. In these devices the rate of flow is measured
directly by making a reading on a scale which is a part of the instrument and computing the
discharge rate from standard formula. The discharge rate can also be obtained from ready
reckoners prepared for the instrument.

A. Weirs
A weir is a notch of regular form through which water may flow. Notch may be rectangular,
trapezoidal or triangular (900-V). Rectangular and 900 V-notch weirs are commonly used on the
farm.
i) Rectangular weir

It is used to measure comparatively large discharges. The length of a rectangular weir may
be equal to the width of the channel (suppressed rectangular weir) or less (contracted
rectangular weir). The discharge through a rectangular weir may be calculated by the
following equation:
Suppressed rectangular weir:

Q = 0.0184 LH3/2

Where, Q = Discharge (litres/sec.)

L = Length of crest (cm)

H = Head over the crest (cm)

Contracted rectangular weir:

Q = 0.0184 (L-0.2H) H3/2

Where, Q = Discharge (litres/sec.)

L = Length of crest (cm)

H = Head over the crest (cm)

ii) Trapezoidal or cipolletti weir

The discharge of water through this type of weir may be computed by the formula given
below:

Q = 0.0186 LH3/2

Where, Q = Discharge (litres/sec.)

L = Length of crest (cm)

H = Head over the crest (cm)

iii) 900 V-Notch weir

It is commonly used to measure small and medium sized streams. The advantage of the V-
notch weir is its ability to measure small flow accurately. The discharge through a 900 V-
notch weir may be computed by the following formula:

Q = 0.0138 H5/2

Where, Q = Discharge (litres/sec.)

H = Head over the crest (cm)

B. Orifices
Orifice plates can be used to measure comparatively small streams like flow into border
strips, furrows or check basins. It consists of iron, steel or aluminium plate that contains
accurately circular opening usually ranging from 2.5 cm to 7.5 cm in diameter. A plastic
scale may be fixed directly on the upstream face of the orifice plate with its zero reading
coinciding with center of the orifice.

The discharge through an orifice is calculated by the formula:

Q = 0.61 x 10-3 x a √2 gH

Where, Q = Discharge through orifice, liters /sec.

a = Area of cross section of the orifice, cm2

g = Acceleration due to gravity, cm /sec2 (981 cm/sec2)

H = Depth of water over the center of the orifice, cm.

C. Parshall flume

Parshall has developed a device to measure the flow in which the discharge rate of water is
obtained by measuring the drop in head. It is a self-cleaning device. It is suitable for
measuring a wide range of stream sizes, from a few litres/sec. to several cubic metres/sec. It
can be used in relatively shallow channels like irrigation furrows. It may also be used to
measure the flow of large streams. The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete
channel structure having three principal sections:

1. Converging section at upstream end

2. Constricted section or throat.

3. Diverging or expanding section at downward.

The size of the flume is determined by the width of the throat of the flume. The flumes of
about 7.5, 15.0 and 22.5 cm sizes are used in field measurements.

Discharge through the flume can occur under the following conditions:
1. Free flow: When elevation of the water surface near the downstream end of the throat
section is not high enough to cause any retardation of the flow due to a back flow of
water is termed as free flow. Under this condition, only one measurement of the head or
 water level (Ha) in the converging section is required to estimate the rate of flow.

2. Submerged flow: When the elevation of the water surface downstream from the flume
is high enough to retard the rate of discharge, the flow is said to be submerged flow. The
important point in Parshall flumes is the ratio between the reading at Hb and Ha heads.
This ratio should not exceed 0.6 for 7.5, 15.0 and 22.5 cm size flumes. If the ratio
exceeds 0.6, it is termed as submerged flow. To determine this ratio, Ha and Hb are
provided at the upstream and downstream sections of the flume. In this case a correction
is subtracted from free flow conditions to obtain the correct rate of flow.

D. Syphons

These are generally used to irrigate the field from canals and channels. Syphons are the
pipes usually made of rubber or plastic or aluminum. Following formula can be used to
measure the discharge rate of syphons:

Q = 0.61 x 10-3 x A √2gh

Where, Q = Discharge rate of water (l /sec.)

g = Acceleration due to gravity (981 cm/ sec.2)

h = Height of water (cm)

A = Cross sectional area of the water in the syphon (cm2).

Calculation
1. Calculate the discharge rate of water of a suppressed rectangular weir 50 cm long
with a head of 15 cm.
Q = 0.0184 LH3/2

= 0.0184× 50×153/2

= 0.0184× 50×58.095

= 53.45 L/S
 2. Calculate the discharge rate of water of a contracted rectangular weir 40 cm long
with a head of 10 cm?
Q = 0.0184 (L-0.2H) H3/2

3. Calculate the discharge rate of water of a 900 V-notch with a head of 12 cm.
Q = 0.0138 H5/2

Precautions
 From rust
 Handle properly after using it

Practical significance
A weir or flumes low head dam is a barrier across the width of a river that alters the flow
characteristics of water and usually results in a change in the height of the river level. There are
many designs of weir, but commonly water flows freely over the top of the weir crest before
cascading down to a lower level.
The Parshall flume is an economical and accurate way of measuring the flow of water
in open channels and non-full pipes. The flume was originally developed to measure
surface waters, water rights apportionment, and irrigation flows, but its use has
expended to include measuring the flow of sewage (both in pipe and treatment plants),
industrial discharges, and seepage from dams.
Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge

 Experiment No. 14 Date------------

Calculation of Irrigation Efficiency

Aim
To study about different irrigation efficiencies parameter
Materials required
1. Pen
2. Pencil
3. Note book

Calculations on irrigation efficiencies

Irrigation efficiency indicates how efficiently the available water supply is being used, based on
different methods of evaluation. The objective of efficiency concept is to show where
improvements can be made, which will result in more efficient irrigation. Various efficiency
terms are:

i) Water conveyance efficiency

This term is used to measure the efficiency of water conveyance systems associated with the
canal network, water courses and field channels. It is also applicable where the water is
conveyed in channels from the well to the individual fields. It is expressed as follows:
Wd
Ec = ---------- x 100
Wf
Where, Ec = Water conveyance efficiency, per cent
Wd = Water delivered to the irrigated plot (at the field supply channel)
Wf = Water diverted from the source

ii) Water application efficiency

After the water reaches the field supply channel, it is important to apply the water as efficiently
as possible. A measure of how efficiently this is done is the water application efficiency,
expressed as follows:
 Ws
Ea = ---------- x 100
Wd

Where, Ea = Water application efficiency, per cent

Ws = Water stored in the root zone of the crop
Wd = Water diverted to the field (at the supply channel)

iii) Water storage efficiency

The water storage efficiency refers how completely the water needed prior to irrigation has been
stored in the root zone during irrigation. It is expressed as :
Ws
Es = ---------- x 100
Wn
Where, Es = Water storage efficiency, per cent
Ws = Water stored in root zone during irrigation
Wn = Water needed in root zone prior to irrigation

iv) Water distribution efficiency

Water distribution efficiency indicates the extent to which water is uniformly distributed along
the run. It is expressed as:

Ed = 100(1- )

Where, Ed = Water distribution efficiency, per cent

d = Average depth of water stored along the run during the irrigation
y = Average numerical deviation from d

v) Water use efficiency

It refers to the amount of marketable end product obtained per unit of water used by the crop.
Total economic yield (kg ha-1)
WUE (kg ha-1 mm-1) = --------------------------------------------------
Total consumptive use (mm)
(i) Crop water use efficiency: It is the ratio of crop yield (y) to the amount of water depleted
by the crop in the process of evapotranspiration (ET).
Y
Crop water use efficiency = -------------
ET

(ii) Field water use efficiency: It is the ratio of crop yield (y) to the total amount of water used
in the field (WR)
Y
Field water use efficiency = ------------
WR

vi) Project efficiency

Project efficiency indicates the effective use of the irrigation water source in crop production. It
is the percentage of irrigation water that is stored in the soil and is available for consumptive use
by crops. When the delivered water is measured at the farm head gate or well, it is called farm
irrigation efficiency, when measured in the field, it is designated as field irrigation efficiency,
and when measured at the point of diversion from the canal or the main source of supply it may
be called project efficiency.

vii) Operational efficiency

Operational efficiency is the ratio of actual project efficiency compared to the operational
efficiency of an ideally designed and managed system using the same irrigation method and
facilities. Low operational efficiency indicates management or system design problems, or both.

viii) Economic (irrigation) efficiency

Economic efficiency is the ratio of the total production (net or gross profit) attained with the
operating irrigation system, compared to the total production expected under ideal conditions.
This parameter is a measure of the overall efficiency, because it relates the final output to input.

Significance of irrigation efficiencies

A low value of any of the irrigation efficiencies in general implies that the land, water and the
crops are not being managed properly. A low conveyance efficiency implies that much of the
water released from the source is lost in transit form source to the field. A low application
efficiency means wastage of water in the form of deep percolation or runoff losses. A poor
storage efficiency means water has been applied inadequately. A poor distribution efficiency
results due to uneven land surface. There are low patches where water will penetrate more and
there are high patches where water cannot reach. A low water use efficiency also results due to
over application of water or inability of the crops to utilize the applied water due to poor
vegetative growth or adverse chemical properties of root zone soil and water. The net effects of
poor irrigation efficiencies are crop loss and wastage of water and nutrients.

Problem 1:
A stream of 135 liters/sec. was diverted from a canal and 100 litres /sec. were delivered to the
field. An area of 1.6 ha was irrigated in 8 hours. The effective depth of root zone was 1.8 m. The
run off loss in the field was 432 m3. The depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.8 m at
the head end of the field to 1.2 m at the tail end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil
is 20 cm/m depth of soil. Calculate water conveyance efficiency, water application efficiency,
water storage efficiency and water distribution efficiency, irrigation was started at a moisture
depletion level of 50 per cent of the available moisture.

Solution
Wf

(i) Water conveyance efficiency, Ec = -------- x 100

Wd
100
= ---------x 100 = 74%
135
Ws

(ii) Water application efficiency, Ea = ------- x 100

Wd

100 x 60 x 60 x 8
Water delivered to the plot = ----------------------- = 2880 cu. m
1000
Water stored in the root zone = 2880 - 432 = 2448 cu.m

2448
Water application efficiency, Es =------------ x 100 = 85%
2880

Ws

(iii) Water storage efficiency, Es = --------------x 100

Wn

Water holding capacity of root zone = 20 x 1.8 = 36 cm

36 x 50
Moisture required in the root zone = 36 - ----------------- = 18 cm
100
18 x 1.6 x 10,000
= ---------------------- = 2880 cu.m
100

2448
Water storage efficiency = ----------------x 100 = 85%
2880

v) Water distribution efficiency, Ed = ( )

1.8 + 1.2
d = ------------- = 1.5 m
2
Numerical deviation from depth of penetration:
At upper end = 1.8 – 1.5 = 0.3
At lower end = 1.2 – 1.5 = (– 0.3) = 0.3
0.3 + 0.3
Average numerical deviation = ------------------- = 0.3
2
Ed = ( ) = 80%

Question
A stream of 140 lps was diverted from a canal and 110 lps was delivered to the field. An area of
1.5 ha was irrigated in 8 hrs. The effective depth of root zone was 1.6 m and run off during
irrigation was 430 m3. The depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.6 m at head end to
1.2 m at tail end. AMHC of soil is 25 cm/m depth of soil. Irrigation was started at 50% depletion
of available moisture. Calculate water conveyance, water application, water storage and water
distribution efficiencies.
Solution:

Significance of irrigation efficiencies

A low value of any of the irrigation efficiencies in general implies that the land, water and the
crops are not being managed properly. Low conveyance efficiency implies that much of the
water released from the source is lost in transit form source to the field. Low application
efficiency means wastage of water in the form of deep percolation or runoff losses. Poor storage
efficiency means water has been applied inadequately. A poor distribution efficiency results due
to uneven land surface. There are low patches where water will penetrate more and there are high
patches where water cannot reach. Low water use efficiency also results due to over application
of water or inability of the crops to utilize the applied water due to poor vegetative growth or
adverse chemical properties of root zone soil and water. The net effects of poor irrigation
efficiencies are crop loss and wastage of water and nutrients.

Conclusion

Signature of Faculty In-charge