H1 Definition Checklist

1. Systematic error An error which causes measurements to be either, always larger

than the true value, or always smaller than the true value.
2. How to reduce Cannot be reduced by taking the average of repeated
systematic error? measurements but can be eliminated by checking the instrument
in which the error is suspected, against a known reliable
instrument.
3. Accuracy Refers to the degree of agreement between the result of a
measurement and the true value of the quantity.
4. Random error An error which causes measurements to be sometimes larger than
the true value and sometimes smaller than the true value.
5. How to reduce Can be reduced by taking the average of repeated readings.
random error?
6. Precision Refers to the degree of agreement [scatter, spread] of repeated
measurements of the same quantity.
Is a measure of the magnitude of the random errors present; high
precision implies a small random error.
7. Base units Base units are units by which all other units are expressed.

8. Derived units Derived units are expressed as a product and/or quotient of the
base units.
9. Scalar & Vectors A scalar quantity is a quantity which has only magnitude but no
direction.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
10. Distance Distance travelled is the total length covered irrespective of the
direction of motion.
11. Speed Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance travelled.

12. Explain why it is Distance is a physical quantity while second is a unit. The physical
incorrect to define quantity speed should be defined in terms of quantities, and not a
speed as distance mixture of a quantity and a unit. The correct definition for speed is
per second the distance travelled per unit time.
13. Displacement Displacement is defined as the distance moved in a specific
direction.
14. Velocity Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement.

15. Acceleration Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

16. 2 conditions for 1) motion in a straight line

equations of motion 2) magnitude of the acceleration is constant

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17. Equation of motion derived from definition of acceleration: a = (v – u) / t
(1) v = u +a t
18. Equation of motion derived from the area under the v-t graph
(2) s = ½ (u+v)t
19. Equation of motion derived from equations (1) and (2)
(3) (v2 = u2 + 2as)
20. Equation of motion derived from equations (1) and (2)
(4) s = ut + ½ at2
21. Field of force A region of space within which a force is experienced.

22. Gravitation field A region of space in which a mass experiences an attractive force
due to the effect of another mass.
23. Electric field A region of space where an electric charge experiences an
(attractive or repulsive) force due to the effect of another charge.
24. Magnetic field A region of space in which a moving electric charge or a current-
carrying conductor experiences a force (that is perpendicular to
the magnetic field).
25. Hooke’s law If the limit of proportionality is not exceeded, the extension is
directly proportional to the force/ load applied.
26. 2 conditions for 1) The resultant force acting is zero. {translational equilibrium}
static equilibrium 2) The resultant moment about any point equals zero. {rotational
equilibrium}
27. 3 forces in If a mass is acted upon by 3 forces only and is in equilibrium, then
equilibrium the lines of action of the 3 forces must pass through a common
point.
28. Principle of For a body to be in rotational equilibrium, the sum of all the
moments anticlockwise moments about any point must be equal to the sum
of all the clockwise moments about that same point.
29. Moment of a force The product of the force and the perpendicular distance of its line
of action from the pivot/ axis of rotation.
30. Torque of a couple The product of one of the forces of the couple and the
perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces.
31. Couple A Couple is a pair of equal and opposite forces, whose lines of
action do not coincide. (Hence it tends to produce rotation only.
32. Define centre of Centre of gravity of an object is defined as that single point
gravity through which the entire weight of the object may be considered
to act.
33. Newton’s first law Every object continues in a state of rest or constant speed in a
straight line unless a net (external) force acts on it.
34. Newton’s second The rate of change of momentum of a body is (directly)
law proportional to the net force acting on the body, and the (rate of)
change of momentum takes place in the direction of the force.

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35. Newton’s third law When body X exerts a force on body Y, object Y exerts a force of
the same type that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
on object X.
36. Action-reaction pairs Always act on different objects, hence they cannot cancel each
other out. They are of the same type of force.
37. Linear momentum Linear momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass
and velocity.
38. Impulse of a force Impulse of a force is defined as the product of the force and the
time during which it acts.
39. Principle of When objects of a system interact, their total momentum before
conservation of and after interaction are equal if no net external force acts on the
linear momentum system,
40. Mass Mass is a measure of the inertia a body (which is the property of a
body which resists change in motion).
41. Weight Weight is the force experienced by a mass in a gravitational field.

42. Apparent A body is said to be experiencing apparent weightlessness if the

weightlessness resultant force acting on it is its weight (mg) and its acceleration,
a, is equal to g.
43. Work done by a Work done by a constant force is defined as the product of the
constant force force and displacement in the direction of the force.
44. Define energy Energy is the ability to do work. It exists in many possible forms:
Mechanical (i.e. Kinetic, potential energies), Chemical, Sound,
Thermal, Internal, Radiation (photon), Nuclear energies.
45. Potential energy PE is defined as the stored energy available to do work.
(PE)
46. Principle of Total energy of an isolated system remains constant; energy may
conservation of be transferred from one form to another, but never created nor
energy destroyed.
47. Gravitational GPE is the potential energy possessed by a mass due to its position
Potential Energy {or height or distance} in the field of another mass
(GPE)
48. Elastic potential EPE of a system is due to its deformation {or stretching or
energy (EPE) compression}.
49. Derive KE = ½ mv2 We can infer the formula for kinetic energy from the amount of
work that is done by an external force to bring a body from rest to
its state of motion. →KE = F s
By Newton’s second law: → KE = (ma)s
Using the equations of motion for uniform acceleration:
KE = ma (ut + ½ at2) = ma ( ½at2) = ½ma2t2
Sub a = (v-u)/t and let u = 0 → KE = ½ mv2
50. Derive GPE = mgh Mathematically, we can form an equation as follows,

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 Increase in GPE = Work done by force exerted on box by person,
→ W = Fext h = mgh (Since there is no acceleration at equilibrium)
Hence, Increase in G.P.E. = mgh
51. Power Power is defined as the work done per unit time.

52. Derive P = Fv Consider a force F that acts on a body for a small time interval Δt.
The body moves a small displacement Δx in the direction of the
force.
Work done by the force F during Δt, → ΔW = F Δx
Power delivered by that force F during the time interval
→ P = ΔW / Δt = (F Δx) / Δt = F( Δx/Δt) = Fv
Where v is the instantaneous velocity of the body.

53. Angular Angular displacement of a body is the angle in radians through

displacement which a point revolves around a centre.
54. Define 1 radian 1 radian is the angle (subtended) at the centre of a circle by an arc
equal to the radius of the circle.
55. Angular velocity  is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement.
56. Linear/tangential Tangential velocity is the instantaneous velocity at any point in its
velocity circular path.
57. Centripetal force Centripetal force refers to the resultant of all the forces that act
on a system in circular motion.
58. Explain why a Since the person and the satellite would both have the same
person in a satellite acceleration; hence the normal reaction on the person is zero.
orbiting earth {To elaborate: the sensation of weight is due to the normal
experiences reaction exerted on the object. When the person & the floor of
“weightlessness” the satellite have the same acceleration, the contact force
although the between them is zero, hence the normal reaction is zero. This is
gravitation field the state of “weightlessness”.}
strength at that
height is not zero
59. Why is velocity For uniform circular motion, there is no work done by the
constant for an centripetal force since the direction of the force is always
object in horizontal perpendicular to the direction of displacement. Hence, KE of the
circular motion? object remains constant.
60. Use newton’s laws Since object experiences a constant change in direction of motion,
to explain why an by N1L, there must be a resultant force on it.
object moving with • Given that the tangential speed remains constant by N2L, there
constant speed in a must not be any component of force in the tangential direction.
circle experiences a • Hence resultant force must act perpendicular to the velocity, in
the radial direction, towards the centre of the circle.
resultant force
towards the centre
of the circle.

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61. Geostationary Geostationary satellites are always above a certain point on the
satellites Earth as the Earth rotates about its axis.
62. Requirements for 1) have a period = period of Earth’s rotation {24 hours}
geostationary orbit 2) rotate from west to east
3) be at a fixed height from the Earth’s surface (r = 4.23 × 107 m)
4) have only one orbital speed
5) lie in equatorial plane of Earth
63. Newton’s Law of Newton’s Law of gravitation states that the gravitational force of
gravitation attraction between two point masses is proportional to the
product of their masses & inversely proportional to the square of
their separation.
64. Gravitational field Gravitational field strength at a point is defined as the
strength gravitational force per unit mass at that point.
65. Explain why Resultant of the gravitational force and the normal reaction
apparent weight at Nequator, provides the centripetal force to keep the body in a
equator is more circular motion.
than at the poles
66. Current Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of charge.

67. Emf (in terms of Emf is defined as the energy transferred per unit charge from
energy) other forms of energy into electrical energy by a source when
charge is moved round a complete circuit.
68. Potential The potential difference between 2 points in a circuit is the energy
difference (in converted from electrical energy to other forms of energy per unit
terms of energy) electric charge moved between the 2 points
69. Resistance Resistance R of a circuit component is defined as the ratio of the
potential difference across the component to the current flowing
through it,
70. Metallic ohmic Magnitude of vibration of lattice ions remains the same. Hence,
resistor at constant rate of collision with lattice ions is constant. Thus, resistance is
temperature (sketch constant so ratio of V to I is constant.
and explain)
71. Semiconductor Conducts well in one direction, but badly in other direction. An
diode (sketch and ideal diode has no resistance in forward-bias and infinite
explain) resistance in reverse-bias.
72. Filament lamp Resistance increases with increasing temperature (when I and V
(sketch and explain) are larger) due to more frequent collisions between free electrons
and lattice atoms which vibrate more vigorously at higher
temperatures. There is no change in number of charge carriers.
73. NTC Thermistor Resistance decreases with increasing temperature due to large
(sketch and explain) increase in number of charge carriers at high temperature (it is a
semiconductor material). This effect overwhelms the increase in
lattice vibrations.

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74. Resistivity Resistivity  is defined as the resistance of a material of unit cross-
sectional area and unit length.
75. Characteristic of LDR is a semiconductor whose resistance decreases as light
Light-dependent intensity falling on them increases.
resistor
76. Characteristic of Most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC),
thermistor hence resistance decreases with increasing temperature due to an
increase in number of mobile charge carriers.
77. Electric field An electric field is a region of space where any charged particle in
it experiences an electric force.

78. Electric field E at a point is defined as the electric force per unit positive charge
strength acting on a small positive (test) charge placed at that point.

79. Magnetic field Magnetic Field: a region (of space) where a magnetic force is
experienced by a current-carrying conductor {or moving charged
particle or a permanent magnet}.
80. Direction of a The Direction of a magnetic field line defines the direction of the
magnetic field line magnetic force on a north pole placed there.
81. Magnetic flux Magnetic flux density is defined as the force acting per unit
density current in a wire of unit length placed at right-angles to the field.
82. Fleming’s left hand Direction of the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the
rule plane containing the current I and B
83. How does a ferrous The magnetic domains in the soft iron causes the magnetic field to
core change the strengthen, so the number of field lines increase due to ferrous
field lines? core.
84. Describe circular From FLHR, we conclude that the direction of F B is always
motion for charged perpendicular to the direction of v. Hence the moving charge
particle in B field moves in a uniform circular path where centripetal force is
provided by the magnetic force.
85. Describe charged A setup whereby an E-field and a B-field are perpendicular to each
particle in velocity other such that they exert equal & opposite forces on a moving
selector charge & hence causes no deflection of the particle.
86. Infer results from Most of the α-particles which passed through the metal foil were
Rutherford’s deflected by very small angles,
scattering • A very small proportion was deflected by more than 90°, some
experiment of these approaching 180°.
• From these observations, it can be deduced that: the nucleus
occupies only a small proportion of the available space {i.e. the
atom is mostly empty space}
• & that it is positively charged since the positively-charged α-
particles are repelled/deflected.

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87. Isotope Atoms with the same proton number, but different number of
neutrons in the nuclei.
88. Nucleon A particle within the nucleus; can be either a proton or a neutron.

89. Nuclide An atom with a particular number of protons and a particular

number of neutrons.
90. Nuclear stability The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the
nucleus is.

91. Binding energy in Energy that must be supplied to completely separate a nucleus
nucleus into its individual particles;
Or, the energy released {not: lost} when a nucleus is formed from
its constituent nucleons.

92. Explain by reference • The products have higher B.E. per nucleon {due to shape of BE
to the Binding per nucleon vs nucleon number graph};
energy per nucleon • Hence the products are more stable. This must mean that
graph, how, in both energy is released. (The source of the energy release is the mass
“loss” during these processes.)
nuclear fusion and
fission, energy is
released
93. Binding energy per B.E. per nucleon is a measure of the stability of the nucleus.
nucleon number
94. Fusion Process where 2 light nuclei are combined to produce a heavier
nucleus.

95. Fission Process where a heavy nucleus disintegrates into 2 lighter nuclei
with the release of energy.

96. Radioactivity Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random decay of an unstable

nucleus, with the emission of an alpha or beta particle, and usually
accompanied by the emission of a gamma ray photon.

97. Spontaneous The decay occurs without the need of an external trigger & is not
affected by factors outside the nucleus such as temperature,
pressure, etc. {must give at least 1 example}

98. Random It cannot be predicted when the next emission will occur even
though the probability of decay per unit time of a nucleus is
constant. {Evidence: the fluctuations in count-rate}

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99. Notation Charge Mass Nature Penetrating Ability

4
Nature of Alpha 2𝐻𝑒 +2e 4u Particle Can be stopped by a few
4
particles 2𝛼 cm of air or a thin sheet
of paper.
0 1
Nature of Beta −1𝑒 -e u Particle Can be stopped by a few
2000
particles mm of aluminium or  1
m of air.
0
Nature of Gamma 0𝛾 0 0 EM Can be stopped by a few
particles cm of lead or 1 m of
concrete.
100. Activity Activity is the rate at which the nuclei are disintegrating.

101. Decay constant Decay constant is defined as the probability of decay of a nucleus
per unit time, or, the fraction of the total no. of undecayed nuclei
which will decay per unit time.
102. Half-life Half-life is defined as the average time taken for half the number
{not: mass or amount} of undecayed nuclei in the sample to
disintegrate.
103. Ionizing radiation Ionizing radiation with sufficient energy so that during an
interaction with an atom, it can remove electron from the atom,
causing it to be charged or ionized.
104. Background Background radiation refers to radiation from sources other than
radiation the source of interest.
105. Direct effect of Radiation interacts directly with DNA molecules, or some other
ionizing radiation on cellular component critical to the survival or the cell. DNA might
cells be broken or have sections removed.
106. Indirect effect of Radiation interacts with other molecules, e.g. water, producing
ionizing radiation on ions and radicals which can then attack cells and DNA. They can
cells also combine to form toxic substances like H2O2.

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