Photosynthesis

Figure 8.1: This world map illustrates Earth’s distribution of

photosynthesis, visualized through chlorophyll a concentrations.
Terrestrial plants demonstrate photosynthesis on land, while
phytoplankton in oceanic zones contribute to this process. (Credit:
modification of work by SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space
Flight Center and ORBIMAGE)

Chapter Outline:
8.1: Overview of Photosynthesis
8.2: The Light-Dependent Reaction of Photosynthesis
8.3: Using Light to Make Organic Molecules

Introduction:
All biological processes necessitate energy. Organisms typically
acquire this energy by consuming other organisms. However, the
ultimate source of stored energy in food can be attributed to
photosynthesis.

Photosynthetic organisms serve as the foundation for most food webs

on Earth. For instance, the Indian River Lagoon, spanning 156 miles
and comprising a mixture of fresh and salt water along Florida's
eastern coast, relies on its sea grass for the survival of its marine life.
Unfortunately, the proliferation of certain algal phytoplankton species
can lead to the destruction of sea grass. A 16-year study on algal
blooms revealed that extreme climate conditions, such as cold weather
and low rainfall, influence the prevalence of specific phytoplankton
species, resulting in sea grass die-off, diminished marine life
populations, and alterations in salinity.
Overview of Photosynthesis:

In this section, we will delve into the following questions:

 What is the significance of photosynthesis for living organisms?
 What are the primary cellular structures involved in
photosynthesis?
 What are the substrates and products of photosynthesis?


Connection for AP® Courses:

As previously discussed in Chapter 7, all living organisms, ranging
from simple bacteria to complex plants and animals, require free
energy for cellular processes like growth and reproduction. Various
strategies are employed by organisms to capture, store, transform, and
transfer free energy, among which photosynthesis is crucial.
Photosynthesis enables organisms to harness vast amounts of free
energy from the sun and convert it into the chemical energy of sugars.
While all organisms engage in some form of cellular respiration, only
specific organisms, known as photoautotrophs, can conduct
photosynthesis. Examples of photoautotrophs include plants, algae,
certain unicellular eukaryotes, and cyanobacteria. These organisms
necessitate the presence of chlorophyll, a specialized pigment that
absorbs specific wavelengths of the visible light spectrum to capture
solar energy.
Photosynthesis is a process wherein components of water and carbon
dioxide are utilized to synthesize carbohydrate molecules, while
oxygen is released as a waste product into the atmosphere. In
eukaryotes, photosynthesis reactions take place within chloroplasts,
whereas in prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, the reactions occur less
localized within membranes and in the cytoplasm. Although
photosynthesis and cellular respiration initially evolved as
independent processes—contributing to the formation of an oxidizing
atmosphere early in Earth's history—they are now interdependent. As
explored in Cellular Respiration, aerobic cellular respiration leverages
the oxidizing capacity of oxygen to produce organic compounds
utilized in cellular processes.

 Importance of Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis stands as a fundamental process for all life on Earth,

with both plants and animals relying on it. It uniquely captures energy
originating from outer space (sunlight) and converts it into chemical
compounds (carbohydrates), which serve as the energy source for
every organism's metabolism. In essence, sunlight energy is harnessed
to energize electrons, and this energy is then stored within the
covalent bonds of sugar molecules. The stability and longevity of
these covalent bonds are remarkable; the energy extracted today from
burning coal and petroleum represent sunlight energy captured and
stored by photosynthesis almost 200 million years ago.
Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria are the primary organisms capable of
photosynthesis. They are referred to as photoautotrophs because they
manufacture their own food using light as an energy source. In
contrast, animals, fungi, and most bacteria are termed heterotrophs,
relying on sugars produced by photosynthetic organisms for their
energy requirements. Another group of bacteria, chemoautotrophs,
synthesizes sugars using energy extracted from inorganic chemical
compounds.
The significance of photosynthesis extends beyond its ability to
capture sunlight energy. It evolved as a mechanism to store solar
radiation energy within the carbon-carbon bonds of carbohydrate
molecules. These carbohydrates serve as the energy source for
heterotrophs, powering the synthesis of ATP via respiration. Hence,
photosynthesis drives 99 percent of Earth's ecosystems. When a
predator consumes prey, such as a wolf preying on a deer, it
represents an energy transfer pathway from solar radiation to
vegetation, to deer, and finally to the predator.

Think About It:

 Scientists hypothesize that photosynthesis evolved before

aerobic cellular respiration because early Earth had an
atmosphere devoid of oxygen, making anaerobic processes like
photosynthesis more favorable.
 Carnivores like lions depend on photosynthesis indirectly for
survival because their prey derives energy from photosynthetic
organisms. Evidence supporting the interdependence of
photosynthesis and cellular respiration lies in the energy flow
through ecosystems, where photosynthetic organisms provide
the energy source for heterotrophs, which in turn produce
carbon dioxide used by photosynthetic organisms, completing
the cycle.

Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is a complex multi-step process that requires sunlight,
carbon dioxide, and water as substrates. Upon completion, it releases
oxygen and produces glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GA3P), simple
carbohydrate molecules that store energy. These carbohydrates, such
as glucose and sucrose, provide the energy and carbon necessary for
all living organisms.
The chemical equation for photosynthesis is deceptively simple,
representing the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose
and oxygen. However, the actual process involves numerous
intermediate reactants and products, occurring through multiple
complex steps.
In plants, photosynthesis primarily occurs in leaves, specifically in a
middle layer called the mesophyll. Gas exchange of carbon dioxide
and oxygen happens through small openings called stomata, which
are regulated structures located on the underside of leaves. Guard
cells flank each stoma, regulating their opening and closing to manage
gas exchange and water balance.
Photosynthesis takes place within an organelle called the chloroplast
in autotrophic eukaryotes. In plant cells, chloroplast-containing cells
are found in the mesophyll. Chloroplasts possess a double membrane
envelope comprising an outer and inner membrane. Within the
chloroplast are thylakoids, stacked disc-shaped structures embedded
with chlorophyll, responsible for absorbing light and initiating the
process of photosynthesis. The thylakoid membrane encloses an
internal space known as the thylakoid lumen. Stacks of thylakoids are
referred to as grana, with the liquid-filled space surrounding them
termed stroma.
Understanding these structures is crucial for comprehending the
intricate process by which photoautotrophs convert sunlight into
energy-storing carbohydrates, which are essential for sustaining life
on Earth.

 On a hot, dry day, when plants close their stomata to

conserve water, the impact on photosynthesis would be:

a. Rate of photosynthesis will be inhibited as the level of carbon

dioxide decreases.

Closing stomata restricts the entry of carbon dioxide into the leaf.
Since carbon dioxide is a substrate necessary for photosynthesis, a
decrease in its concentration would inhibit the rate of photosynthesis.
Therefore, option a is the correct answer.
a. The light reactions produce ATP and NADPH, which are then
used in the Calvin cycle.

Explanation:

The light reactions of photosynthesis occur in the thylakoid

membrane of chloroplasts and involve the absorption of light energy
to produce ATP and NADPH. These ATP and NADPH molecules are
high-energy carriers that are subsequently utilized in the Calvin cycle,
also known as the light-independent reactions. In the Calvin cycle,
ATP and NADPH provide the energy and reducing power necessary
to convert carbon dioxide into organic molecules, such as glucose.
Therefore, the light reactions and the Calvin cycle are interdependent,
with the products of the light reactions (ATP and NADPH) serving as
essential inputs for the Calvin cycle to proceed.

 The Light-Dependent Reaction of Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis consists of two main stages: the light-dependent

reactions and the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle). The
light-dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes of
chloroplasts, while the Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma of
chloroplasts.
The light-dependent reactions involve two photosystems, PS I and PS
II, which are complexes of pigments that capture solar energy.
Chlorophylls a and b absorb violet, blue, and red wavelengths from
the visible light spectrum and reflect green light. Carotenoid pigments
absorb violet-blue-green light and reflect yellow-to-orange light.
These pigments are essential for capturing light energy.
In the light-dependent reactions, a photon of light strikes the antenna
pigments of PS II, initiating photosynthesis. This absorbed energy
travels to the reaction center of chlorophyll a, boosting electrons to a
higher energy level. These electrons are then accepted by a primary
electron acceptor protein and pass through an electron transport chain,
releasing energy that pumps hydrogen ions (H+) across the thylakoid
membrane via chemiosmosis. This creates a high concentration of H+
ions in the thylakoid lumen, and as they flow through ATP synthase,
ATP molecules are formed. Additionally, PS I absorbs another photon
of light, forming a molecule of NADPH from NADP+. The energy
carried in NADPH is used to power the chemical reactions of the
Calvin cycle.
Overall, the light-dependent reactions convert light energy into
chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH, which are then
utilized in the Calvin cycle to synthesize carbohydrate molecules from
carbon dioxide.

 What Is Light Energy?

The sun emits an immense amount of electromagnetic radiation,

known as solar energy. However, humans can only perceive a fraction
of this energy, which is referred to as "visible light." Solar energy
travels in waves, and scientists measure the energy of a wave by its
wavelength, which is the distance between consecutive points of a
wave, such as from crest to crest or from trough to trough.
Visible light is just one type of electromagnetic radiation emitted by
the sun, and it occupies a specific portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all possible
frequencies of radiation, including visible light as well as other types
like X-rays and ultraviolet (UV) rays. Each type of electromagnetic
radiation travels at a particular wavelength, with shorter, tighter waves
carrying more energy, while longer waves carry less energy.
The electromagnetic spectrum diagram illustrates various types of
radiation emitted by the sun, with X-rays and UV rays representing
higher-energy waves. These higher-energy waves have the capability
to penetrate tissues and potentially damage cells and DNA. This
explains why X-rays and UV rays can pose risks to living organisms,
including humans.

Absorption of Light:

In the process of photosynthesis, light energy plays a crucial role by

initiating the process when pigments absorb light. These organic
pigments, whether found in the human retina or in the chloroplast
thylakoid, have specific energy levels that they can absorb. Energy
levels lower than those represented by red light are insufficient to
raise an orbital electron to an excited state, while energy levels higher
than those in blue light can physically damage molecules, a process
known as bleaching.

As a result, the range of light energy that pigments can absorb lies
between approximately 700 nanometers (nm) and 400 nm, which is
within the visible light spectrum. This range is often referred to as
visible light, and for plants, it is particularly important as it constitutes
the spectrum of light utilized for photosynthesis. Plant physiologists
term this range for plants as photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR).

Visible light, which appears as white light to humans, actually

consists of a spectrum of colors. Objects like prisms or drops of water
can disperse white light to reveal its constituent colors to the human
eye. The visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
encompasses a range of colors, with violet and blue having shorter
wavelengths and therefore higher energy, while red has longer
wavelengths and carries lower energy.
  Understanding Pigments:

In photosynthetic organisms like plants and algae, various pigments

exist, each capable of absorbing specific wavelengths (colors) of
visible light. Pigments appear in different colors because they reflect
or transmit the wavelengths they cannot absorb. The two major
classes of photosynthetic pigments are chlorophylls and carotenoids.

Chlorophylls, including chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, are the

primary pigments responsible for capturing light energy during
photosynthesis. These pigments absorb light primarily in the blue and
red regions of the visible spectrum but reflect green light, giving
plants their green color.

Carotenoids are another class of pigments found in plants, with

examples including lycopene, zeaxanthin, and β-carotene.
Carotenoids serve various functions, including attracting seed
dispersers in fruits. In photosynthesis, carotenoids absorb excess
energy to prevent damage to the plant. They absorb primarily in the
short-wavelength blue region and reflect longer wavelengths of
yellow, red, and orange light.

Each type of pigment has a unique absorption spectrum, indicating the

specific wavelengths of light it can absorb. For example, chlorophyll
a absorbs wavelengths from both ends of the visible spectrum (blue
and red), while carotenoids absorb primarily in the blue region.

Many photosynthetic organisms possess a mixture of pigments,

allowing them to absorb energy from a wider range of wavelengths.
This adaptation is particularly important for organisms living in
environments with varying light conditions, such as underwater or in
shaded areas.

Scientists can identify the types of pigments present in a

photosynthetic organism by generating absorption spectra using
instruments like spectrophotometers. These instruments measure the
wavelengths of light absorbed by pigments, providing valuable
information about the pigments' roles in photosynthesis. Other
methods, such as chromatography, can also be used to separate and
identify plant pigments based on their affinities to solid and mobile
phases.

The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis involve the

conversion of solar energy into chemical energy, specifically in the
form of NADPH and ATP. These reactions occur in photosystems
located in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. There are two
main photosystems involved: photosystem II (PSII) and
photosystem I (PSI):

In PSII, photons of light are absorbed by chlorophyll molecules in the

light-harvesting complex. This absorbed energy is then transferred to
a pair of special chlorophyll a molecules in the reaction center of
PSII. These chlorophyll a molecules undergo oxidation upon
excitation, releasing high-energy electrons. The electrons are passed
through an electron transport chain embedded in the thylakoid
membrane, leading to the pumping of protons (H+) into the thylakoid
lumen. Meanwhile, water molecules are split, providing electrons to
replace those lost from chlorophyll a. This process releases oxygen as
a byproduct. The energy released by the electron transport chain is
used to synthesize ATP through chemiosmosis.
The high-energy electrons eventually reach PSI, where they are re-
energized by another photon of light absorbed by chlorophyll
molecules in the PSI antenna. The energized electrons are then
transferred to NADP+ along with protons (H+) from the stroma to
form NADPH. This process completes the production of both ATP
and NADPH, which are essential for the light-independent reactions
(Calvin cycle) that occur in the stroma of the chloroplast.

The electrons' movement through the photosynthetic electron

transport chains is powered by external sources, specifically derived
from water molecules. When water molecules are split during the
light-dependent reactions, they release electrons that ultimately pass
through the electron transport chains of PSII and PSI.

The correct answers to the questions are as follows:

What role do electrons play in the formation of NADPH?

c. Electrons from PS I cause the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH.

If the stomata were sealed, what would happen to oxygen (O2)

and carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in a photosynthesizing leaf?

b. CO2 levels would increase and O2 levels would decrease.

Think About It:

On a hot, dry day, when plants close their stomata to conserve water,
the availability of carbon dioxide (CO2) inside the leaf would
decrease because stomata are the main entry points for CO2 during
photosynthesis. As a result, the rate of photosynthesis would decrease
due to limited CO2 availability. Additionally, the closure of stomata
would trap the oxygen (O2) produced as a byproduct of
photosynthesis inside the leaf, causing oxygen levels to increase. This
situation can lead to a condition called photorespiration, which can be
detrimental to the plant's metabolic processes. Overall, the closure of
stomata on a hot, dry day would likely decrease the rate of
photosynthesis and potentially impair the plant's growth and survival.

 The Calvin cycle, which is part of the light-independent

reactions of photosynthesis:

1. Calvin Cycle Overview: The Calvin cycle is a series of

chemical reactions that occur in the stroma of chloroplasts. It
utilizes ATP and NADPH generated during the light-dependent
reactions to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into carbohydrates,
specifically glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).

2. RuBisCO: The enzyme ribulose biphosphate carboxylase

(RuBisCO) catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle, where
CO2 is combined with ribulose biphosphate (RuBP). This
process, known as carbon fixation, initiates the conversion of
CO2 into organic molecules.

3. G3P Formation: Through a series of enzymatic reactions, G3P

is produced. For every three turns of the Calvin cycle, one
molecule of G3P exits the cycle to be used in carbohydrate
synthesis, while the remaining G3P molecules are regenerated
into RuBP to sustain the cycle.
 4. Enzymatic Catalysis: Each step of the Calvin cycle is
facilitated by specific enzymes, ensuring the efficiency of the
overall process.

5. CO2 Utilization: Some plants have evolved adaptations to

efficiently utilize CO2 under varying environmental conditions.
For example, they may employ mechanisms to optimize CO2
uptake when stomata are open to minimize water loss during hot
weather.

6. Integration with Cellular Respiration: Photosynthesis and

cellular respiration are interconnected processes in plant cells.
While photosynthesis produces organic molecules using light
energy, cellular respiration breaks down these molecules to
release energy for cellular processes. Both processes are
essential for the metabolism of plant cells.

 Questions:

Which of the following events is associated with the

development of oxygenic photosynthesis?
The correct answer is: c. Photosynthetic organisms began to
use two photosystems instead of one.
Explanation: Oxygenic photosynthesis involves the use of two
photosystems (Photosystem I and Photosystem II) to generate
oxygen as a byproduct. This development marked a significant
milestone in the evolution of photosynthesis.
 What does the absence of oxygen in the early Earth's
atmosphere suggest about the evolution of photosynthetic
organisms relative to non-photosynthetic organisms?
The correct answer is: a. Photosynthetic organisms evolved
before non-photosynthetic organisms because no oxygen was
present in the atmosphere when life began.
Explanation: The absence of oxygen in the early Earth's
atmosphere suggests that photosynthetic organisms evolved
before non-photosynthetic organisms. Oxygenic photosynthesis
evolved to produce oxygen as a byproduct, gradually increasing
atmospheric oxygen levels over time.

Regarding the creation of a model or diagram to show the links

between photosynthesis and cellular respiration, I'm unable to
create visual content directly. However, I can describe the key
similarities between the two processes:

Both photosynthesis and cellular respiration involve the

exchange of gases: oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Both processes occur within specific organelles: photosynthesis
occurs in chloroplasts, while cellular respiration occurs in
mitochondria.
Both processes involve the use of electron transport chains to
generate ATP.
Both processes are interconnected in the carbon cycle, with the
products of one process (e.g., oxygen from photosynthesis) serving
as reactants for the other process (e.g., oxygen for cellular
respiration).