UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

Department of Biology
SZL 3108: Evolutionary Biology
2023/2024
Exercise #1
Disclaimer: the graphics shown below are sourced from various
authors and maybe subject to copyright. Reference is made to the
origin wherever possible in this document and you are strongly
advised accordingly.

Together with other exercises structured in a similar way, this

is in lieu of laboratory work and will go to your continuous
assessment. You are allowed to consult other colleagues or in
groups but must submit your own work individually for
grading by the set deadline. You are therefore warned that
close attention will be paid to evidence of personal reasoning
and originality.
Introduction
Although there were many earlier proponents of the theory of evolution, it
was Charles Darwin who first explicitly advanced it as descent with
modification. With this, organic evolution can now be interpreted as
theaccumulation of small-scale changes in the gene (or - more precisely -
allele) frequencies in a population from one generation to the next. When
large-scale changes occur over many generations, new species can arise
from a common ancestor.
However, evolution is not simply a matter of change over time: for
examples: trees lose their leaves in a matter of weeks or months; rocks
weather down, mountains rise and erode over millions of years, flowers
gain or lose colour in a matter of days etc. can any of these or numerous
other examples be interpreted as evolution?
The central idea is that all life on Earth shares a common ancestry,
realised through the descent of new species from the small-scale
successive changes across generations, and large-scale changes over
millennia. Using the above narrative as a basis, work through the exercise
below. Being as precise as possible.
[Part 1]
 Carefully examine the graphics below and answer the questions that

follow as briefly as possible.

A: a tree losing B: a mountain
leaves in a eroding over
matter of weeks millions of years

C: a family
geneology over
three generations D: a simple insect phylogenetic
tree
[source: The University of California Museum of Paleontology's
Understanding Evolution (http://evolution.berkeley.edu]

1
(i) Which of these changes through time represents evolution and
which do not. Why?
Graphic D,simple insect phylogenetic tree,represents evolution because
it shows the divergence of species from common ancestor over many
generations,which is consistent with the definition of evolution as the
gradual changes of genetic makeup over time.graphic A,B and C do not
represent evolution because A and B shows non biological processes
and C shows inheritance within a species without indicating the gradual
changes of genetic makeup that would lead to new species. (ii) The
third graphic illustrates the change with inheritance of phenotype that
can occur in a family over a few years. What brings about such
change?
The change of inheritance of phenotype in a family over years is
brought about the combination of genes from parents to offspring.This
 genetic inheritance determines the phenotypes of the offsprings which
can vary within the family due to the mixture of parental genes and
potential mutation.
(iii) Based on the change over a large number of years shown in the
fourth graphic, explain how evolution could have produced the
tremendous diversity in forms of life on Earth.
Evolution could have produced tremendous changes in forms of life on
earth through the process of specialization ,where genetic
changes accumulate over many generations,leading to the
formation of new species .As species adapt to different
environment ,natural selection and genetic drifts contribute to the
diversification of life forms.Graphic D illustrates how,over time
,these processes can lead to a wide variety of species all from a
common ancestor.

[Part 2]
The illustrations below depict the boa constrictor, a large non-venomous
snake related to pythons and anacondas which kill prey by squeezing it
tightly and obstructing blood flow [left], and an artist's impression of the
first known fossil of a four-legged snake [right].

photo 1 (Left) Source:

https://www.livescience.com/52787-boa-constrictor-facts.html
photo 2 (Right): source: https://whyevolutionistrue.com/tag/tetrapodophis/
The boa possesses spurs on either side of the vent at the posterior end of
the body, which connect internally to rudimentary legs and pelvic bones.
It is believed that these are remnants of hind legs.
(i) what do the two photos above tell us about the likely ancestor of the
snakes?
 The two photos suggest that the likely ancestor of the snake was a reptile
with four limbs similar to modern lizards. The presence of rudimentary
legs and pelvic bones in the boa constrictor,along with fossil of a four
legged snake,suggests a common ancestry with lizards.This evidence
shows that snakes likely evolved from lizards like ancestor with four legs
supporting the idea of a shared origin between snakes and lizards (ii)
Biologists have suggested that snakes have a shared origin with or among
the lizards. Do the examples above support or refute this suggestion and
why?
Yes,the presence of rudimentary legs and pelvic bones in the boa
constrictor,along with the fossil of a four legged snake,suggest a common
ancestry with lizards .This evidence indicates that snakes likely evolved
from a lizard like ancestor with four limbs supporting the idea of a shared
origin between snakes and lizard.

[Part 3]
A: An understanding of the diversity of living organism begins with the
appreciation of phylogeny. This is the basis of both Darwinian and
Neo-Darwinian theories, which only differ in interpretation and
mechanism. Note that Neo-Darwinism was also the result of knowledge
that did not exist at the time of Charles Darwin, especially with respect to
Mendelian genetics.
The graphic below depicts the evolutionary relationships of major
vertebrate groups. Carefully study the text and graphics, and answer the
question(s) that follow.

2
[source: the University of California Museum of Paleontology].
(i) How do evolutionary relationships represented here support the
notion of fixity of species?
The evolutionary relationships represented above can support the
notion of fixity of species by showing distinct branches of
major vertebrate groups.Each groups appears as a separate
species suggesting that species within these groups have
remained relatively unchanged over time,maintaining their
unique characteristics.

(ii) Mentioning these specifically, what does the evolutionary tree imply
about the descent of major vertebrate groups?
The evolutionary tree implies that major vertebrate groups descended
from common ancestor but have diverged overtime.for example,it
suggests that fishes,amphibians, reptiles, birds,and mammals all
share a common ancestor but have followed different evolutionary
pathways resulting in diverse array of vertebrate we see today.

B: The next graphic shows the family tree of the three biological
domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota.
 (i) Since such family trees are constructed based on relatedness, is it
logical to use them as a basis for biological classification?
Yes,because the classification system aims to reflect the evolutionary
relationship between organisms.By organizing organisms into
groups based on their shared ancestry ,biological classification
systems can provide useful information into the diversity of life on
earth.
(ii) Explain how hypotheses about early life on Earth and an
understanding of evolutionary mechanisms can help shed light
on the emergence of these broad lineages and the divergence of
their evolutionary pathways.
Hypothesis about early life on earth ,such as the RNA world
hypothesis and theories about the origins of cellular life,along
with an understanding of evolutionary mechanism like natural
selection and genetic drift,can help shed light light on the
emergence of broad lineages such as archaea,bacteria,and
eukarya.These hypothesis and mechanisms provide frameworks
for understanding how life evolved from simple ,single celled
organisms to the complex diversity of life forms we see today.

3
[Part 4]
We could then zoom in on the Animalia component of the family tree to
further examine some of the major branches within Vertebrata (see graphic
below).

This has been constructed by first examining representatives of each group

to learn about their basic morphology - eg whether or not it has vertebrae,
a cartilaginous or bony skeleton, four limbs, an amniotic egg, etc. For
example, the fish, amphibians, turtles, lizards, snakes, crocodiles, birds and
mammals all have, or historically had, four limbs.
You may not see obvious limbs on a modern snake, but fossils show that
ancient snakes had, and some retain rudimentary limbs. This supports the
idea that four limbs is a character inherited from a common ancestor that
helps set apart this particular clade of vertebrates.
(i) Based on the explanation above, what would you conclude about
the phylogeny of the main vertebrate lineages – fishes,
Amphibia, synapsida, sauropsida?
The phylogeny of the main vertebrates lineages suggest that
fishes,amphibians,synapsida sauropsida share a common
ancestor.The presence of vertebrae is a characteristic of all this
groups indicating they are parts of the vertebrata. The presence
of four limbs in these groups suggest that these lineages
diverged after evolution.
 (ii) How does your answers to questions in Part 2 above support
the validity of your interpretations of vertebrate
relationships? The conclusion drawn in part 1 is supported
by the shared characteristic of four limbs among
vertebrates; this suggests that a common ancestry and
evolutionary relationships among these groups reinforces
the validity of vertebrate relationships.
The presence of four limbs in birds, bats, mice, and crocodiles might
suggest they all inherited that feature from a common ancestor. That is
the reason evolutionary biologists place them together as tetrapods.
Sharks (cartilaginous fish) and bony fish are not tetrapods, but their
descendants have inherited that feature from an earlier ancestor.
(iii) Based on your understanding of homologous and analogous body
parts, explain what the presence of four limbs suggests about the
mode of their evolution in the various groups.
The presence of four limbs in various vertebrates suggests that these
limbs are homologous structures,meaning they evolved from common
ancestral traits. This is supported by the fact that the bone structures in
the limbs of these animals are similar in arrangement and development
indicating they inherited from a common ancestry. In contrast analogous
structures arise independently in different lineages due to convergent
evolution ,but this is not the case for the four limbs, which are a result of
divergent evolution from a common ancestor with such traits.