LECTURE 6: METAL FORMING PROCESSES

EXTRUSION
Extrusion

It is a compression forming process in which work metal is

forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired
cross-sectional shape
1) Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste
tube
2) In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of
uniform cross sections
3) Two basic types of extrusion:
a) Direct extrusion
b) Indirect extrusion
 Direct Extrusion

1) It is also called forward extrusion

2) Starting billet cross section is
usually round.
3) Final cross-sectional shape of
extrudate is determined by the die
opening shape.
4) As ram approaches die opening, a
small portion of billet remains that
cannot be forced through the die.
5) This portion, called the butt, must
be separated from the extrudate by
cutting it off just beyond the die
exit
Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes

(a) Direct extrusion is

used to produce
hollow or
semi-hollow cross
sections;
(b) hollow and
(c) semi-hollow cross
sections
Indirect Extrusion
Indirect extrusion is used to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a
hollow cross sections

1) It is also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion

2) Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by ;
a) Lower rigidity of hollow ram
b) Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits die
Advantages of Extrusion

1) Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion

2) Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion
3) Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion
4) In some operations, little or no waste of material

Limitation:
1) Part cross section must be uniform throughout the length
Hot vs. Cold Extrusion

1) Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its

recrystallization temperature is required
2) This process reduces strength and increases ductility of the
metal, permitting more size reductions and more complex
shapes

Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete parts

1) The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high speed cold
extrusion
Extrusion Ratio

It is also called the reduction ratio, and is defined as ;

Ao
rx =
Af
where rx = extrusion ratio;
Ao = cross-sectional area of the starting billet; and
Af = final cross-sectional area of the extruded section
It applies to both direct and indirect extrusion
Extrusion Die Features

(a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b) effect of die

angle on ram force
Physical Significance of Die Angle

1) Low die angle - surface area is large, which increases friction

at die-billet interface. Higher friction results in larger ram
force
2) Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow during
reduction. Turbulence increases the required ram force.
3) Optimum angle depends on work material, billet temperature,
and lubrication
Shape of Extrusion Die Orifice

1) Simplest cross-sectional shape is circular die orifice

2) Shape of die orifice affects the ram pressure
3) As cross section becomes more complex, higher
pressure and greater force are required
4) Effect of cross-sectional shape on pressure can be
assessed by means of the die shape factor Kx.
Die shape factor is defined as the ratio of pressure required to
extrude a cross section of a given shape to the extrusion
pressure for a round cross section of the same area

`
Die Shape Factor

𝐶𝑥 2.25
𝐾𝑥 = 0.98 + 0.02
𝐶𝑐

Where, Kx = Die shape factor

Cx = Perimeter of the extruded cross section in mm
Cc = Circumference of the circle of same area as the
extrudate shape, mm
1) For the given figure determine the shape factor.

(b) Ax = 2(5)(30) + 5(60 − 10) = 300 + 250 = 550 mm2

Cx = 30 + 60 + 30 + 5 + 25 + 50 + 25 + 5 = 230 mm
Ao = R2 = 550, R2 = 550/ = 175.07, R = 13.23 mm
Cc = 2R = 2(13.23) = 83.14 mm
Kx = 0.98 + 0.02(230/83.14)2.25 = 1.177
Ram Pressure for Direct and Indirect Extrusion

Ram pressure for indirect extrusion = Pi = 𝐾𝑥 . 𝑌𝑓 x 𝜀𝑥

2𝐿
Ram pressure for direct extrusion = Pd = 𝐾𝑥 . 𝑌𝑓 𝜀𝑥 +
𝐷0

Ideal true strain 𝜀 = ln 𝑟𝑥

Actual true strain by Johnson’s formula = 𝜀𝑥 = a + b ln 𝑟𝑥

Where 𝜀𝑥 = extrusion strain, a and b are empirical constants for a

given die angle. Typical values are a = 0.8 and b = 1.2 to 1.5
a and b values tend to increase with increasing die angle.
Numericals

1a) An aluminum cylindrical billet is 400 mm long and 150 mm in diameter.

It is reduced by indirect extrusion to a 40-mm diameter. Die angle = 90. In
the Johnson equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.5. In the flow curve for the work
metal, strength coefficient = 175 MPa and strain-hardening exponent = 0.20.
Determine the (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain (homogeneous deformation),
(c) extrusion strain, (d) ram pressure, and (e) ram force.
1b) Solve the previous problem except direct extrusion is used
instead of indirect extrusion. Determine the ram pressure and ram
force at a remaining billet length of 125 mm.
Impact Extrusion

• Produce short lengths of hollow shapes, such as collapsible

toothpaste tubes or spray cans.
• Requires soft materials such as aluminium, lead, copper or tin
are normally used in the impact extrusion.
• A small shot of solid material is placed in the die and is
impacted by a ram, which causes cold flow in the material. It
may be either direct or indirect extrusion and it is usually
performed on a highspeed mechanical press.
• Although the process is generally performed cold,
considerable heating results from the high speed deformation.
Hydrostatic Extrusion
• The billet in the container is surrounded with fluid media,
is also called hydrostatic medium.
• The billet is forced through the die by a high hydrostatic
fluid pressure.
• The rate, with which the billet moves when pressing in
the direction of the die, is thus not equal to the ram
speed, but is proportional to the displaced hydrostatics
medium volume.
Advantages:
1) It eliminates the large friction force between the billet and the
container wall, extrusion pressure vs ram travel curve is nearly flat.
2) Hydrostatic pressure on the work increases its ductility.
Accordingly, this process can be used on metals that are too brittle for
conventional extrusion. Ductile metals are also hydrostatically extruded
with large reduction ratios. (Mild steel – upto 20:1, Al – 200:1)
Disadvantage-
Preparation of the starting material is required. The billet must be
formed with a taper at one end so that it snugly fits into the die and
forms a seal, to prevent the fluid leakage from the die opening, when
the container is pressurized.
Extrusion Presses

1) Either horizontal or vertical configurations,

horizontal type is more common.
2) Extrusion presses – These are usually hydraulically
driven
3) Mechanical drives – often used for cold extrusion
of individual parts
Horizontal Extrusion Press

• (15- 50 MN capacity or
upto 150 MN)
• Used for most
commercial extrusion
of bars and shapes.

Disadvantages:
• Deformation is non-
uniform due to different
temperatures between
600 Tonne, DUISBURG, HYDRAULIC EXT
top and bottom parts of PRESS
the billet.
Vertical Extrusion Press

• 3- 20 MN capacity
• Chiefly used in the production of
thin-wall tubing.
Advantages:
• Easier alignment between the press ram and
tools.
• Higher rate of production.
• Require less floor space than horizontal
presses.
• uniform deformation, due to uniform cooling
of the billet in the container.
Requirements:
• Need considerable headroom to make
extrusions of appreciable length.
FACTORS INFLUENCING RAM PRESSURE
 Effect of Ram Speed and Shape complexity on Ram Pressure

• The rapid rise in pressure during

initial ram travel is due to the initial
compression of the billet to fill the
extrusion container.
• For direct extrusion, the metal begins
to flow through the die at the
maximum pressure, the breakthrough
pressure.
• As the billet extrudes through the die
the pressure required to maintain
flow progressively decreases with
decreasing length of the billet in the
container.
• For indirect extrusion, extrusion pressure is ~ constant with increasing
ram travel and represents the stress required to deform the metal
through the die.
Effect of Lubrication in Extrusion

a) Low container friction and a

well-lubricated billet–nearly
homogeneous deformation.
b) Increased container wall
friction, producing a dead zone
of stagnant metal at corners
which undergoes little
deformation.
c) For high friction at the container-billet interface, metal flow is
concentrated toward the centre and an internal shear plane develops – due
to cold container. In the sticky friction, the metal will separate internally
along the shear zone. A thin skin will be left in a container and a new
metal surface is obtained.
d) Low container friction and a well lubricated billet in indirect extrusion.
Extrusion Defects

1) Inhomogeneous deformation in direct extrusion provides the dead

zone along the outer surface of the billet due to the movement of the
metal in the centre being higher than the periphery. After 2/3 of the
billet is extruded, the outer surface of the billet (normally with
oxidised skin) moves toward the centre and extrudes through the die,
resulting in non-uniform composition which is seen as an annular ring
of oxide.
2) If lubricant film is carried into the interior of the extrusion along the
shear bands, this will show as longitudinal laminations in a similar
way as oxide.
3) As the Container wall friction increases, extrusion defects also
increase. As the Container wall temp decreases, again extrusion
defects increase.
Extrusion Defects

Solutions:
• discard the remainder of the billet (~30%) where the surface
oxide begins to enter the die as it is not economical.
• use a follower block with a smaller diameter of the die to scalp
the billet and the oxidised layer remains in the container (in brass
extrusion).
Extrusion Defects

4. Surface cracking, ranging from a badly roughened

surface to repetitive transverse cracking called fir-tree
cracking, see Fig. This is due to longitudinal tensile stresses
generated as the extrudate passes through the die. The most
common case is too high ram speed for the
extrusion temperature. At lower
temperature, sticking in the die
land and the sudden building up
of pressure and then breakaway
will cause transverse cracking.
Extrusion Defects

5) Centre burst or Chevron cracking is an internal crack that

occurs due to the tensile stresses along the centerline of the workpart
during extrusion. Factors that promote center burst are high die
angles, low extrusion ratio and impurities in the metal which act as
stress concentration zones and trigger crack initiation.
6) Piping/ fishtailing/ tailpipe Defect :
• This is associated with direct extrusion. It is
the formation of a sink hole at the end of the
billet, and propagates as a funnel shaped void.
• It occurs due to presence of oxides and
impurities.
• Use of dummy block whose diameter is
slightly less than that of the billet helps to
avoid piping