TRANSPORT PROPERTIES 2-459

TABLE 2-326 Thermal Conductivities of Some Building and Insulating Materials*

k = Btu/(h⋅ft2)(°F/ft)
Apparent Apparent
density density
ρ, lb/ft3 ρ, lb/ft3
at room at room
Material temperature t, °C k Material temperature t, °C k
Aerogel, silica, opacified 8.5 120 0.013 Cotton wool 5 30 0.024
290 .026 Cork board 10 30 .025
Asbestos-cement boards 120 20 .43 Cork (regranulated) 8.1 30 .026
Asbestos sheets 55.5 51 .096 (ground) 9.4 30 .025
Asbestos slate 112 0 .087 Diatomaceous earth powder, coarse 20.0 38 .036
112 60 .114 (Note 2) 20.0 871 .082
Asbestos 29.3 −200 .043 fine (Note 2) 17.2 204 .040
29.3 0 .090 17.2 871 .074
36 0 .087 molded pipe covering (Note 2) 26.0 204 .051
36 100 .111 26.0 871 .088
36 200 .120 4 vol. calcined earth and 1 vol. cement,
36 400 .129 poured and fired (Note 2) 61.8 204 .16
43.5 −200 .090 61.8 871 .23
43.5 0 .135 Dolomite 167 50 1.0
Aluminum foil (7 air spaces per 2.5 in.) 0.2 38 .025 Ebonite 0.10
177 .038 Enamel, silicate 38 0.5–0.75
Ashes, wood 0–100 .041 Felt, wool 20.6 30 0.03
Asphalt 132 20 .43 Fiber insulating board 14.8 21 .028
Boiler scale (Note 1) Fiber, red 80.5 20 .27
Bricks: (with binder, baked) 20–97 .097
Alumina (92–99% Al2O3 by wt.) fused 427 1.8 Gas carbon 0–100 2.0
Alumina (64–65% Al2O3 by wt.) 1315 2.7 Glass 0.2–0.73
(See also Bricks, fire clay) 115 800 0.62 Borosilicate type 139 30–75 0.63
115 1100 .63 Window glass 0.3–0.61
Building brick work 20 .4 Soda glass 0.3–0.44
Carbon 96.7 3.0 Granite 1.0–2.3
Chrome brick (32% Cr2O3 by wt.) 200 200 .67 Graphite, longitudinal 20 95
200 650 .85 powdered, through 100 mesh 30 40 0.104
200 1315 1.0 Gypsum (molded and dry) 78 20 .25
Diatomaceous earth, natural, across strata Hair felt (perpendicular to fibers) 17 30 .021
(Note 2) 27.7 204 0.051 Ice 57.5 0 1.3
27.7 871 .077 Infusorial earth, see diatomaceous earth
Diatomaceous, natural, parallel to strata Kapok 0.88 20 0.020
(Note 2) 27.7 204 .081 Lampblack 10 40 .038
27.7 871 .106 Lava .49
Diatomaceous earth, molded and fired 38 204 .14 Leather, sole 62.4 .092
(Note 2) 38 871 .18 Limestone (15.3 vol. % H2O) 103 24 .54
Diatomaceous earth and clay, molded and Linen 30 .05
fired (Note 2) 42.3 204 .14 Magnesia (powdered) 49.7 47 .35
42.3 871 .19 Magnesia (light carbonate) 13 21 0.034
Diatomaceous earth, high burn, large pores Magnesium oxide (compressed) 49.9 20 .32
(Note 3) 37 200 .13 Marble 1.2–1.7
37 1000 .34 Mica (perpendicular to planes) 50 0.25
Fire clay (Missouri) 200 .58 Mill shavings 0.033–0.05
600 .85 Mineral wool 9.4 30 0.0225
1000 .95 19.7 30 .024
1400 1.02 Paper .075
Kaolin insulating brick (Note 3) 27 500 0.15 Paraffin wax 0 .14
27 1150 .26 Petroleum coke 100 3.4
Kaolin insulating firebrick (Note 4) 19 200 .050 500 2.9
19 760 .113 Porcelain 200 0.88
Magnesite (86.8% MgO, 6.3% Fe2O3, 3% Portland cement, see concrete 90 .17
CaO, 2.6% SiO2 by wt.) 158 204 2.2 Pumice stone 21–66 .14
158 650 1.6 Pyroxylin plastics .075
158 1200 1.1 Rubber (hard) 74.8 0 .087
(para) 21 .109
Silicon carbide brick, recrystallized 129 600 10.7 (soft) 21 0.075–0.092
(Note 3) 129 800 9.2 Sand (dry) 94.6 20 0.19
129 1000 8.0 Sandstone 140 40 1.06
129 1200 7.0 Sawdust 12 21 0.03
129 1400 6.3 Scale (Note 1)
Calcium carbonate, natural 162 30 1.3 Silk 6.3 .026
White marble 1.7 varnished 38 .096
Chalk 96 0.4 Slag, blast furnace 24–127 .064
Calcium sulfate (4H2O), artificial 84.6 40 .22 Slag wool 12 30 .022
plaster (artificial) 132 75 .43 Slate 94 .86
(building) 77.9 25 .25 Snow 34.7 0 .27
Cambric (varnished) 38 .091 Sulfur (monoclinic) 100 0.09–0.097
Carbon, gas 0–100 2.0 (rhombic) 21 0.16
Carbon stock 94 −184 0.55 Wall board, insulating type 14.8 21 .028
0 3.6 Wall board, stiff paste board 43 30 .04
Cardboard, corrugated 0.037 Wood shavings 8.8 30 .034
2-460 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA

TABLE 2-326 Thermal Conductivities of Some Building and Insulating Materials* (Concluded)
k = Btu/(h⋅ft2)(°F/ft)
Apparent Apparent
density density
ρ, lb/ft3 ρ, lb/ft3
at room at room
Material temperature t, °C k Material temperature t, °C k
Celluloid 87.3 30 .12 Wood (across grain):
Charcoal flakes 11.9 80 .043 Balsa 7–8 30 0.025–0.03
15 80 .051 Oak 51.5 15 0.12
Clinker (granular) 0–700 .27 Maple 44.7 50 .11
Coke, petroleum 100 3.4 Pine, white 34.0 15 .087
500 2.9 Teak 40.0 15 .10
Coke, petroleum (20–100 mesh) 62 400 0.55 White fir 28.1 60 .062
Coke (powdered) 0–100 .11 Wood (parallel to grain):
Concrete (cinder) .20 Pine 34.4 21 .20
(stone) .54 Wool, animal 6.9 30 .021
(1:4 dry) .44
*Marks, Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941. International Critical Tables, McGraw-Hill, 1929, and other sources.
Note 1: B. Kamp [Z. tech. Physik, 12, 30 (1931)] shows the effect of increased porosity in decreasing thermal conductivity of boiler scale. Partridge [University of
Michigan, Eng. Research Bull., 15, 1930] has published a 170-page treatise on Formation and Properties of Boiler Scale.
Note 2: Townshend and Williams, Chem. & Met., 39, 219 (1932).
Note 3: Norton, Refractories, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1942.
Note 4: Norton, private communication.

TABLE 2-327 Thermal-Conductivity-Temperature Table for Metals*

Thermal conductivities tabulated in watts per meter-kelvin
Temperature, K
Substance 10 20 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Alumina 7 32 121 174 160 125 55 36 26 20 16 10 8 7 6
Aluminum 38,000 13,500 2,300 850 380 300 237 273 240 237 232 220 93 99 105
Antimony 470 230 110 80 60 48 32 26 22 20
Beryllium oxide 47 196 810 1,400 1,650 1,490 480 272 196 146 111 70 47 33 25
Bismuth 240 100 45 31 24 22 18 16 14 12
Boron 165 305 400 327 230 170 45 25 15 12
Cadmium 900 250 150 120 110 110 105 104 101 99
Chromium 400 570 450 250 180 158 111 90 87 85 81 71 65 62 61
Cobalt 250 450 380 250 190 160 120 100 85 70
Constantan 4 9 16 18 19 20 23 25 27 30
Copper 19,000 10,700 2,100 850 570 483 413 398 392 388 383 371 357 342
Gallium 2,200 640 250 200 170 140 100 85
Gold 2,800 1,500 520 380 350 345 327 315 312 309 304 292 278 262
Graphite† 27 108 135 81 54 39 15 10 7 5 4 3 3 2 2
Graphite‡ 81 420 1,630 2,980 4,290 4,980 3,250 2,000 1,460 1,140 930 680 530 440 370
Hastelloy 1 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 13
Inconel 2 4 8 10 11 11 14 15
Iridium 1,300 1,900 750 360 230 172 147 145 143 140
Iron 710 1,000 560 270 170 132 94 80 69 61 55 43 33 28 31
Lead 175 57 43 42 41 40 37 35 34 33 31 19 22 24 26
Magnesium 1,200 1,300 620 290 190 169 159 156 153 151 149 146 84 98 112
Magnesium oxide 1,100 3,100 2,200 950 460 260 75 48 36 27 21 13 10 8 7
Manganese 2 2 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 9
Manganin 2 4 9 11 13 13 17 22 28 34 40
Mercury 54 40 35 33 33 32 32 8 10 11 12 13 14
Molybdenum 150 280 350 250 210 179 143 138 134 130 126 118 112 105 100
Nickel 2,600 1,700 570 290 200 158 106 91 80 72 66 67 72 76 80
Nylon 0.04 0.10 0.17 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.28 0.30
Palladium 1,200 610 160 100 88 80 78 78 78 80
Platinum 1,200 490 130 92 82 79 75 73 72 72 72 73 78 78 81
PTFE§ 0.94 1.43 1.94 2.1 2.15 2.16 2.20 2.25 2.3 2.5
Pyrex 0.12 0.20 0.33 0.42 0.51 0.57 0.88 1.1 1.6 2.1
Quartz 1,200 480 82 40 30
Rhodium 2,900 3,900 1,000 370 250 190 160 150 145 140
Rubber 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.25
Selenium (axis) 140 57 25 15 10 8 6 4 3 2
Silica 1.34 1.52 1.70 1.87 2.22 2.60
Silver 16,500 5,200 1,100 630 500 430 425 424 420 413 405 389 374 358
Tantalum 108 146 88 68 62 59 58 57 58 58 59 59 60 61 62
Tellurium 300 93 29 17 13 11 6 4 3 3
Tin 320 130 101 90 84 72 67 62 60
Titanium 14 28 39 37 33 31 26 21 20 20 19
Tungsten 880 330 310 280 190 180 170 150 140
Uranium 20 22 23 26 28 30 32
Zinc 150 135 130 123 120 116 110 110
Zirconium 100 110 59 42 38 34 25 23 22 21 21
*Especially at low temperatures, the thermal conductivity can often be markedly reduced by even small traces of impurities. This table, for the highest-purity spec-
imens available, should thus be used with caution in applications with commercial materials. From Perry, Engineering Manual, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976.
A more detailed table appears as Section 5.5.6 in the Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Hemisphere Pub. Corp., Washington, DC, 1983.
† Parallel to basal plane.
‡ Perpendicular to basal plane.
§ Also known as Teflon, etc.
 TRANSPORT PROPERTIES 2-461

TABLE 2-328 Thermal Conductivity of Chromium Alloys* TABLE 2-330 Thermal Conductivities of Some Materials for
k = Btu/(h⋅ft2)(°F/ft) Refrigeration and Building Insulation*
American Iron and Steel k at k at k = Btu/(h⋅ft2)(°F/ft) at approximately room temperature
Institute Type No. 212 °F 932 °F Apparent
301, 302, 302B, 303, 304, 316† 9.4 12.4 density,
308 8.8 12.5 lb/cu ft
309, 310 8.0 10.8 Material room temp. k
321, 347 9.3 12.8 Soft flexible materials in sheet form:
403, 406, 410, 414, 416† 14.4 16.6 Chemically treated wood fiber 2.2 0.023
430, 430F† 15.1 15.2 Eel grass between paper 3.4–4.6 0.021–0.022
442 12.5 14.2 Felted cattle hair 11–13 0.022
501, 502† 21.2 19.5 Flax fibers between paper 4.9 .023
*Table 3-322 is based on information from manufacturers. Hair and asbestos fibers, felted 7.8 .023
† Shelton and Swanger (National Bureau of Standards), Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Insulating hair, and jute 6.1–6.3 0.022–0.023
Treat., 21, 1061–1078 (1933). Jute and asbestos fibers, felted 10.0 0.031
Loose materials:
Cork, regranulated, fine particles 8–9 .025
Charcoal, 6 mesh 15.2 .031
Diatomaceous earth, powdered 10.6 .026
Glass wool, curled 4–10 .024
TABLE 2-329 Thermal Conductivity of Some Alloys Gypsum in powdered form 26–34 0.043–0.05
Mineral wool, fibrous 6 0.0217
at High Temperature* 10 .0225
Thermal conductivity, Btu/(ft)(hr)(°R) 14 .0233
18 .0242
°R Kovar Advance Monel Hastelloy A Inconel Nichrome V Sawdust 12 .034
500 7.8 9.0 5.6 6.0 5.5 Wood shavings, from planer 8.8 .034
600 8.3 11.4 10.2 6.2 6.5 6.1 Semiflexible materials in sheet form:
700 8.6 12.6 11.2 6.8 7.0 6.7 Flax fiber 13.0 .026
800 8.7 13.9 12.3 7.3 7.6 7.3 Semirigid materials in board form:
900 8.7 15.1 13.4 7.8 8.1 7.8 Corkboard 7.0 .0225
10.6 .025
1000 8.9 16.4 14.4 8.4 8.6 8.4 Mineral wool, block, with binder 16.7 .031
1100 9.2 17.6 15.4 9.0 9.1 9.0 Stiff fibrous materials in sheet form:
1200 9.5 18.8 16.5 9.5 9.7 9.5 Wood pulp 16.2–16.9 .028
1300 9.8 20.0 17.6 10.1 10.2 10.1 Sugar-cane fiber 13.2–14.8 .028
1400 10.2 21.2 18.7 10.7 10.8 10.7 Cellular gypsum 8 .029
12 .037
1500 10.5 22.5 19.8 11.3 11.3 11.3 18 .049
1600 10.8 23.8 20.8 11.8 11.8 11.9 24 .064
1700 11.1 25.0 21.9 12.3 12.4 12.4 30 .083
1800 11.3 26.2 23.0 12.9 13.0 13.0 *Abstracted from U.S. Bur. Standards Letter Circ. 227, Apr. 19, 1927.
1900 11.5 27.4 24.0 13.4 13.6 13.5

2000 11.8 28.7 25.1 14.0 14.0 14.1

2100 12.1 30.0 26.1 14.6 14.5 14.7
2200 12.3 27.2 15.1 15.0 15.3
*Silverman, J. Metals, 5, 631 (1953). Copyright American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

TABLE 2-331 Thermal Conductivities of Insulating Materials at High Temperatures*

k = Btu/(h⋅ft2)(°F/ft)
For tem- Mean temperatures, °F
peratures,
Material °F up to 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1500 2000
Laminated asbestos felt (approx. 40 laminations per in) 700 0.033 0.037 0.040 0.044 0.048
Laminated asbestos felt (approx. 20 laminations per in) 500 .045 .050 .055 .060 .065
Corrugated asbestos (4 plies per in) 300 .050 .058 .069
85% magnesia (density, 13 lb/ft3) 600 .034 .036 .038 .040
Diatomaceous earth, asbestos and bonding material 1600 .045 .047 .049 .050 .053 0.055 0.060 0.065
Diatomaceous earth brick 1600 .054 .056 .058 .060 .063 .065 .069 .073
Diatomaceous earth brick 2000 .127 .130 .133 .137 .140 .143 .150 .158 0.176
Diatomaceous earth brick 2500 .128 .131 .135 .139 .143 .148 .155 .163 .183 0.203
Diatomaceous earth powder (density, 18 lb/ft3) .039 .042 .044 .048 .051 .054 .061 .068
Rock wool .030 .034 .039 .044 .050 .057
Asbestos cement, 1.2; 85% magnesia cement, 0.05; asbestos and rock wool cement, 0.075 approx.
*Marks, Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941.
2-462 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA

TABLE 2-332 Thermal Conductivities of Insulating Materials TABLE 2-333 Thermal Conductivities of Insulating Materials
at Moderate Temperatures (Nusselt)* at Low Temperatures (Gröber)*
k = Btu/(h⋅ft2)(°F/ft) k = Btu/(h⋅ft2)(°F/ft)
Temperatures, °F Temperatures, °F
Weight, Weight,
Material lb/cu ft 32 100 200 300 400 600 800 Material lb/cu ft 32 −50 −100 −200 −300
Asbestos 36.0 0.087 0.097 0.110 0.117 0.121 0.125 0.130 Asbestos 44.0 0.135 0.132 0.130 0.125 0.100
Burned infusorial earth Asbestos 29.0 .0894 .0860 .0820 .0720 .0545
for pipe coverings 12.5 .043 .046 .052 .057 .062 .073 .085 Cotton 5.0 .0325 .0302 .0276 .0235 .0198
Insulating composition Silk 6.3 .0290 .0256 .0235 .0196 .0155
(loose) 25.0 .040 .046 .050 .053 .055
Cotton 5.0 .032 .035 .039 *Marks, Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
Silk hair 9.1 .026 .030 .034 1941.
Silk 6.3 .025 .028 .034
Wool 8.5 .022 .027 .033
Pulverized cork 10.0 .021 .026 .032
Infusorial earth (loose) 22.0 .035 .039 .045 .047 .050 .053
*Marks, Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1941.

TABLE 2-334 Thermal Diffusivity (m2/s) of Selected Elements*

Temperature, K
Element 20 40 60 80 100 200 400 600 800 1000
Aluminum 0.50 0.012 0.0014 4.4. − 4 2.3. − 4 1.1. − 4 9.4. − 5 8.4. − 5 7.4. − 5 6.6. − 5
Beryllium 0.0036 1.5. − 4 4.0. − 5 2.6. − 5 2.1. − 5 1.7. − 5
Chromium 0.038 0.0037 5.9. − 4 2.0. − 4 1.2. − 4 4.1. − 5 2.6. − 5 2.0. − 5 1.7. − 5 1.4. − 5
Copper 0.16 0.0040 6.9. − 4 3.1. − 4 2.2. − 4 1.3. − 4 1.1. − 4 1.0. − 4 9.0. − 5 9.0. − 5
Gold 0.005 4.5. − 4 2.3. − 4 1.8. − 4 1.5. − 4 1.3. − 4 1.2. − 4 1.2. − 4 1.1. − 4 9.8. − 5

Iridium 0.046 8.4. − 5 5.6. − 5 4.8. − 5 4.4. − 5 4.1. − 5 3.5. − 5

Iron 0.043 3.2. − 3 4.9. − 4 1.6. − 4 8.2. − 5 3.1. − 5 1.8. − 5 1.3. − 5 1.1. − 5 1.0. − 5
Lead 9.3. − 5 3.9. − 5 3.3. − 5 3.1. − 5 2.9. − 5 2.6. − 5 2.3. − 5 2.0. − 5 1.3. − 5 1.5. − 5
Molybdenum 0.0095 0.0014 4.0. − 4 2.0. − 4 1.3. − 4 6.3. − 5 5.1. − 5 4.5. − 5 4.2. − 5 3.8. − 5
Nickel 0.033 0.0017 3.1. − 4 1.3. − 4 8.0. − 5 3.1. − 5 1.9. − 5 1.3. − 5 1.4. − 5 1.5. − 5

Platinum 0.0029 1.6. − 4 6.3. − 5 4.3. − 5 3.6. − 5 2.7. − 5 2.5. − 5 2.5. − 5 2.5. − 5 2.5. − 5
Silver 0.031 0.0013 4.5. − 4 2.8. − 4 2.3. − 4 1.8. − 4 1.7. − 4 1.6. − 4 1.5. − 4 1.4. − 4
Zinc 0.0046 3.1. − 4 1.0. − 4 7.0. − 5 5.5. − 5 4.7. − 5 3.9. − 5 3.4. − 5 1.8. − 5 2.2. − 5
*Tables for up to 24 temperatures for 47 elements appear in the Handbook of Heat Transfer, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984. The notation 3.2. − 4 signifies
2.3 × 10−4.
 PREDICTION AND CORRELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 2-463

TABLE 2-335 Thermophysical Properties of Selected Nonmetallic Solid Substances

Density, Specific heat, Thermal conductivity, Thermal diffusivity,
Material kg/m3 Emissivity kJ/(kg⋅K) W/(m⋅K) m2/s × 106
Alumina 3975 0.765 36 11.9
Asphalt 2110 0.920 0.06 0.03
Bakelite 1300 1.465 1.4 0.74
Beryllia 3000 0.82 1.030 270 88
Brick 1925 0.93 0.835 0.72 0.45

Brick, fireclay 2640 0.93 0.960 1.0 0.39

Carbon, amorphous 1950 0.86 0.724 1.6 1.13
Clay 1460 0.91 0.880 1.3 1.01
Coal 1350 0.80 1.26 0.26 0.15
Cotton 80 1.30 0.06 0.58

Diamond 3500 0.509 2300 1290

Granite 2630 0.775 2.79 1.37
Hardboard 1000 1.38 0.15 0.11
Magnesite 3025 0.38 1.13 4.0 1.2
Magnesia 3635 0.72 0.943 48 14

Oak 770 0.90 2.38 0.18 0.10

Paper 930 0.83 1.34 0.011 0.01
Pine 525 0.84 2.75 0.12 0.54
Plaster board 800 0.91 0.17
Plywood 540 1.22 0.12 0.18

Pyrex 2250 0.92 0.835 1.4 0.74

Rubber 1150 0.92 2.00 0.2 0.09
Rubber, foam 70 0.90 0.03
Salt 0.34 0.854 7.1
Sandstone 2150 0.59 0.745 2.9 1.8

Silica 0.79 0.743 1.3

Sapphire 3975 0.48 0.765 46 15
Silicon carbide 3160 0.86 0.675 110 230
Soil 2050 0.38 1.84 0.52 0.14

Teflon 2200 0.92 0.35 0.26 0.34

Thoria 4160 0.28 0.71 14 4.7
Urethane foam 70 1.05 0.03 0.36
Vermiculite 120 0.84 0.06 0.60
NOTE: Difficulties of accurately characterizing many of the specimens mean that many of the values presented here must be regarded as being
of order of magnitude only. For some materials, actual measurement may be the only way to obtain data of the required accuracy. To convert kilo-
grams per cubic meter to pounds per cubic foot, multiply by 0.062428; to convert kilojoules per kilogram-kelvin to British thermal units per
pound-degree Fahrenheit, multiply by 0.23885.

PREDICTION AND CORRELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES*

INTRODUCTION pressure: liquid and solid; (3) thermal properties: enthalpy and Gibbs’
energy of formation and ideal gas entropy; (4) latent enthalpy: vaporiza-
Physical property values, sufficiently accurate for many engineering tion, fusion, and sublimation; (5) heat capacity: ideal gas, gas, liquid, and
applications, can be estimated in the absence of reliable experimental solid; (6) density: gas, liquid, and solid; (7) viscosity: gas and liquid; (8)
data. The purpose of this subsection is to provide a set of recom- thermal conductivity: gas and liquid; (9) surface tension; and (10) flam-
mended prediction methods for general engineering use; it is not a mability properties: flash point, flammability limits, and autoignition
comprehensive review, and many alternative methods are available in temperature. Each of the 10 subsections provides a definition of the rel-
the literature. Methods recommended were selected on the basis of evant properties and a description of one or more recommended predic-
accuracy, generality, and, in most cases, simplicity. They generally cor- tion methods. Each description lists the type of method, its uncertainty,
respond to the methods tested and given priority in the DIPPR® 801 its limitations, and the expected uncertainty of the predicted value. A
database project.† numerical example is also given to illustrate use of the method. For
Properties included in this subsection are divided into 10 categories: brevity, symbols used for physical properties and for variables and con-
(1) physical constants: critical properties, normal melting and boiling stants in the equations are defined under Nomenclature and are not gen-
points, acentric factor, radius of gyration, and dipole moment; (2) vapor erally defined after their use except where doing so clarifies usage. A list
of equation and table numbers in which variables appear is included in
the Nomenclature section for quick cross-referencing. Although empha-
sis is on pure-component properties, some mixture estimation tech-
*Some material in this subsection has been retained from the corresponding
subsection in the Seventh Edition, which was coauthored by Thomas E.
niques have been included for physical constants, density, viscosity,
Daubert and Evan Buck. thermal conductivity, surface tension, and flammability. Correlation and
†The Design Institute for Physical Properties (DIPPR®) is an industrial con- estimation of properties that are inherently multicomponent (e.g., diffu-
sortium under the auspices of AIChE; Project 801, Evaluated Process Design sion coefficients, mixture excess properties, activity coefficients, etc.) are
Data, is a pure-component database of industrially important compounds. treated elsewhere in the Handbook.
3-6 MATHEMATICS

Thus the average cost per share for John is the arithmetic mean of p1, p2, . . . , pn, Then a ⋅ b = 1 + ⋅⋅⋅ + 1 = n, and so by the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality
whereas that for Mary is the harmonic mean of these n numbers. Since the har- n n
monic mean is less than or equal to the arithmetic mean for any set of positive 1
(a ⋅ b)2 = n2 ≤  pi
numbers and the two means are equal only if p1 = p2 = ⋅⋅⋅ = pn, we conclude that i=1 pi i=1
the average cost per share for Mary is less than that for John if two of the prices
pi are distinct. One can also give a proof based on the Cauchy-Schwarz inequal- with the equality holding only if p1 = p2 = ⋅⋅⋅ = pn. Therefore
n
ity. To this end, define the vectors
pi
a = (p1−1/2, p2−1/2, . . . , pn−1/2) b = (p11/2, p21/2, . . . , pn1/2) n i=1

 n
1 ≤ n

i = 1 pi

MENSURATION FORMULAS

REFERENCES: Liu, J., Mathematical Handbook of Formulas and Tables, Area of Regular Polygon of n Sides Inscribed in a Circle of
McGraw-Hill, New York (1999); http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SphericalSector. Radius r
html, etc.
A = (nr 2/2) sin (360°/n)
Let A denote areas and V volumes in the following.
Perimeter of Inscribed Regular Polygon
PLANE GEOMETRIC FIGURES WITH
P = 2nr sin (180°/n)
STRAIGHT BOUNDARIES
Area of Regular Polygon Circumscribed about a Circle of
Triangles (see also “Plane Trigonometry”) A = a bh where b = Radius r
base, h = altitude.
Rectangle A = ab where a and b are the lengths of the sides. A = nr 2 tan (180°/n)
Parallelogram (opposite sides parallel) A = ah = ab sin α where
a, b are the lengths of the sides, h the height, and α the angle between Perimeter of Circumscribed Regular Polygon
the sides. See Fig. 3-3. 180°
Rhombus (equilateral parallelogram) A = aab where a, b are the P = 2nr tan 
n
lengths of the diagonals.
Trapezoid (four sides, two parallel) A = a(a + b)h where the
lengths of the parallel sides are a and b, and h = height. PLANE GEOMETRIC FIGURES
Quadrilateral (four-sided) A = aab sin θ where a, b are the
WITH CURVED BOUNDARIES
lengths of the diagonals and the acute angle between them is θ.
Regular Polygon of n Sides See Fig. 3-4. Circle (Fig. 3-5) Let
1 180° C = circumference
A =  nl 2 cot  where l = length of each side r = radius
4 n D = diameter
l 180° A = area
R =  csc  where R is the radius of the circumscribed circle S = arc length subtended by θ
2 n
l = chord length subtended by θ
l 180° H = maximum rise of arc above chord, r − H = d
r =  cot  where r is the radius of the inscribed circle
2 n θ = central angle (rad) subtended by arc S
Radius r of Circle Inscribed in Triangle with Sides a, b, c C = 2πr = πD (π = 3.14159 . . .)
S = rθ = aDθ
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) l = 2 r2
−d2 = 2r sin (θ/2) = 2d tan (θ/2)
r=  where s = a(a + b + c)
s 1 1 θ
d =  4 r2−l2 =  l cot 
Radius R of Circumscribed Circle 2 2 2
abc S d l
R =  θ =  = 2 cos−1  = 2 sin−1 
4s(
s
−a
)(
s
−b
)(
s
−c) r r D

FIG. 3-3 Parallelogram. FIG. 3-4 Regular polygon. FIG. 3-5 Circle.
 MENSURATION FORMULAS 3-7

Frustum of Pyramid (formed from the pyramid by cutting off

the top with a plane
1⋅A
V = s (A1 + A2 + A 2)h
where h = altitude and A1, A2 are the areas of the base; lateral area of
a regular figure = a (sum of the perimeters of base) × (slant height).
FIG. 3-6 Ellipse. Volume and Surface Area of Regular Polyhedra with Edge l
Type of surface Name Volume Surface area
FIG. 3-7 Parabola.
4 equilateral triangles Tetrahedron 0.1179 l3 1.7321 l2
6 squares Hexahedron (cube) 1.0000 l3 6.0000 l2
A (circle) = πr = dπD
2 2
8 equilateral triangles Octahedron 0.4714 l3 3.4641 l2
A (sector) = arS = ar 2θ 12 pentagons Dodecahedron 7.6631 l3 20.6458 l2
20 equilateral triangles Icosahedron 2.1817 l3 8.6603 l2
A (segment) = A (sector) − A (triangle) = ar 2(θ − sin θ)

Ring (area between two circles of radii r1 and r2 ) The circles need
not be concentric, but one of the circles must enclose the other.
SOLIDS BOUNDED BY CURVED SURFACES
A = π(r1 + r2)(r1 − r2) r1 > r2
Cylinders (Fig. 3-9) V = (area of base) × (altitude); lateral surface
Ellipse (Fig. 3-6) Let the semiaxes of the ellipse be a and b area = (perimeter of right section) × (lateral edge).
A = πab Right Circular Cylinder V = π (radius)2 × (altitude); lateral sur-
face area = 2π (radius) × (altitude).
C = 4aE(e) Truncated Right Circular Cylinder
where e2 = 1 − b2/a2 and E(e) is the complete elliptic integral of the V = πr 2h; lateral area = 2πrh
second kind,
π h = a (h1 + h2)
  
1 2
E(e) =  1 −  e2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Hollow Cylinders Volume = πh(R2 − r 2), where r and R are the
2 2
internal and external radii and h is the height of the cylinder.
[an approximation for the circumference C = 2π (a2+
b2)/2
]. Sphere (Fig. 3-10)
Parabola (Fig. 3-7)
V (sphere) = 4⁄ 3πR3, jπD3
y2 2x + 4
x
2
+y2
Length of arc EFG = 4 +y2 +  ln 
x2 y V (spherical sector) = wπR2hi = 2 (open spherical sector), i 1
2x (spherical cone)
4 V (spherical segment of one base) = jπh1(3r 22 + h12)
Area of section EFG =  xy
3 V (spherical segment of two bases) = jπh 2(3r 12 + 3r 22 + h 22 )
Catenary (the curve formed by a cord of uniform weight sus-
A (sphere) = 4πR2 = πD2
pended freely between two points A, B; Fig. 3-8)
A (zone) = 2πRh = πDh
y = a cosh (x/a)
A (lune on the surface included between two great circles, the incli-
Length of arc between points A and B is equal to 2a sinh (L/a). Sag of
nation of which is θ radians) = 2R2θ.
the cord is D = a cosh (L/a) − a.
Cone V = s (area of base) × (altitude).
Right Circular Cone V = (π/3) r 2h, where h is the altitude and r
SOLID GEOMETRIC FIGURES WITH PLANE BOUNDARIES is the radius of the base; curved surface area = πr  +
r2 h2, curved sur-
face of the frustum of a right cone = π(r1 + r2)  h2+(
r1 −r
2), where
2
Cube Volume = a3; total surface area = 6a2; diagonal = a3, r1, r2 are the radii of the base and top, respectively, and h is the alti-
where a = length of one side of the cube. tude; volume of the frustum of a right cone = π(h/3)(r 21 + r1r2 + r 22) =
Rectangular Parallelepiped Volume = abc; surface area = h/3(A1 + A2 +  1A2), where A1 = area of base and A2 = area of top.
A
2(ab + ac + bc); diagonal =  a2+b2

+c2, where a, b, c are the lengths Ellipsoid V = (4 ⁄3) πabc, where a, b, c are the lengths of the semi-
of the sides. axes.
Prism Volume = (area of base) × (altitude); lateral surface area = Torus (obtained by rotating a circle of radius r about a line whose
(perimeter of right section) × (lateral edge). distance is R > r from the center of the circle)
Pyramid Volume = s (area of base) × (altitude); lateral area of
regular pyramid = a (perimeter of base) × (slant height) = a (number V = 2π2Rr 2 Surface area = 4π2Rr
of sides) (length of one side) (slant height).

FIG. 3-8 Catenary. FIG. 3-9 Cylinder. FIG. 3-10 Sphere.

3-8 MATHEMATICS

Prolate Spheroid (formed by rotating an ellipse about its major Area of a Surface of Revolution

 y ds
axis [2a]) b

S = 2π
Surface area = 2πb + 2π(ab/e) sin e
2 −1
V = ⁄ πab
43 2
a

where a, b are the major and minor axes and e = eccentricity (e < 1). where ds = 1 +(d
y/d
x)
2 dx and y = f(x) is the equation of the plane
Oblate Spheroid (formed by the rotation of an ellipse about its curve rotated about the x axis to generate the surface.
minor axis [2b]) Data as given previously. Area Bounded by f(x), the x Axis, and the Lines x = a, x = b

 f(x) dx
b
b2 1+e A= [ f(x) ≥ 0]
Surface area = 2πa2 + π  ln  V = 4 ⁄3πa2b
e 1−e a

Length of Arc of a Plane Curve

For process vessels, the formulas reduce to the following: If y = f(x),
Hemisphere
 
b 2
dy
# # Length of arc s = 1+  dx
V =  D3, A =  D2 a dx
12 2
If x = g(y),
For a hemisphere (concave up) partially filled to a depth h1, use the
formulas for spherical segment with one base, which simplify to
 
d 2
dx
Length of arc s = 1+  dy
c dy
V = #h12(Rh1/3) = #h12(D/2 − h1/3)
If x = f(t), y = g(t),
A = 2#Rh1 #Dh1
  + 
t1 2 2
dx dy
For a hemisphere (concave down) partially filled from the bottom, use Length of arc s = dt
t0dt dt
the formulas for a spherical segment of two bases, one of which is a
plane through the center, where h = distance from the center plane to In general, (ds)2 = (dx)2 + (dy)2.
the surface of the partially filled hemisphere.

V = #h(R2h2/3) = #h(D2/4 − h2/3) IRREGULAR AREAS AND VOLUMES

A = 2#Rh = #Dh Irregular Areas Let y0, y1, . . . , yn be the lengths of a series of
equally spaced parallel chords and h be their distance apart (Fig. 3-11).
Cone For a cone partially filled, use the same formulas as for The area of the figure is given approximately by any of the following:
right circular cones, but use r and h for the region filled.
Ellipsoid If the base of a vessel is one-half of an oblate spheroid AT = (h/2)[(y0 + yn) + 2(y1 + y2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + yn − 1)] (trapezoidal rule)
(the cross section fitting to a cylinder is a circle with radius of D/2 and As = (h/3)[(y0 + yn) + 4(y1 + y3 + y5 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + yn − 1)
the minor axis is smaller), then use the formulas for one-half of an
oblate spheroid. + 2(y2 + y4 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + yn − 2)] (n even, Simpson’s rule)

V 0.1745D3, S 1.236D2, minor axis D/3 The greater the value of n, the greater the accuracy of approximation.
Irregular Volumes To find the volume, replace the y’s by cross-
3 2
V 0.1309D , S 1.084D , minor axis D/4 sectional areas Aj and use the results in the preceding equations.

MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS
See also “Differential and Integral Calculus.”
Volume of a Solid Revolution (the solid generated by rotating
a plane area about the x axis)

 [ f(x)] dx
b

V=π 2
a

where y = f(x) is the equation of the plane curve and a ≤ x ≤ b. FIG. 3-11 Irregular area.

ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
REFERENCES: Stillwell, J. C., Elements of Algebra, CRC Press, New York Example (3x + 4xy − x2) + (3x2 + 2x − 8xy) = 5x − 4xy + 2x2.
(1994); Rich, B., and P. Schmidt, Schaum's Outline of Elementary Algebra,
McGraw-Hill, New York (2004).
Example (2x + 3xy − 4x1/2) + (3x + 6x − 8xy) = 2x + 3x + 6x − 5xy − 4x1/2.

Multiplication Multiplication of algebraic expressions is term by

OPERATIONS ON ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS term, and corresponding terms are combined.
An algebraic expression will here be denoted as a combination of let-
ters and numbers such as Example (2x + 3y − 2xy)(3 + 3y) = 6x + 9y + 9y2 − 6xy2.
3ax − 3xy + 7x2 + 7x 3/ 2 − 2.8xy
Division This operation is analogous to that in arithmetic.
Addition and Subtraction Only like terms can be added or sub-
tracted in two algebraic expressions. Example Divide 3e2x + ex + 1 by ex + 1.
 HEAT TRANSFER

GENERAL REFERENCES: Arpaci, Conduction Heat Transfer, Addison-Wesley, MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
1966. Arpaci, Convection Heat Transfer, Prentice-Hall, 1984. Arpaci, Introduction
to Heat Transfer, Prentice-Hall, 1999. Baehr and Stephan, Heat and Mass Trans-
fer, Springer, Berlin, 1998. Bejan, Convection Heat Transfer, Wiley, 1995. Carslaw Heat is energy transferred due to a difference in temperature.
and Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids, Oxford University Press, 1959. Edwards, There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection,
Radiation Heat Transfer Notes, Hemisphere Publishing, 1981. Hottel and Sarofim, and radiation. All three may act at the same time. Conduction is the
Radiative Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1967. Incropera and DeWitt, Fundamentals of transfer of energy between adjacent particles of matter. It is a local
Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th ed., Wiley, 2002. Kays and Crawford, Convective Heat phenomenon and can only occur through matter. Radiation is the
and Mass Transfer, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill, 1993. Mills, Heat Transfer, 2d ed., Pren- transfer of energy from a point of higher temperature to a point of
tice-Hall, 1999. Modest, Radiative Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1993. Patankar, lower energy by electromagnetic radiation. Radiation can act at a
Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, Taylor and Francis, London, 1980.
Pletcher, Anderson, and Tannehill, Computational Fluid Mechanics and Heat distance through transparent media and vacuum. Convection is the
Transfer, 2d ed., Taylor and Francis, London, 1997. Rohsenow, Hartnett, and Cho, transfer of energy by conduction and radiation in moving, fluid
Handbook of Heat Transfer, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill, 1998. Siegel and Howell, Ther- media. The motion of the fluid is an essential part of convective
mal Radiation Heat Transfer, 4th ed., Taylor and Francis, London, 2001. heat transfer.

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION

FOURIER’S LAW THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

The heat flux due to conduction in the x direction is given by Fourier’s The thermal conductivity k is a transport property whose value for a
law variety of gases, liquids, and solids is tabulated in Sec. 2. Section 2 also
provides methods for predicting and correlating vapor and liquid ther-
. dT mal conductivities. The thermal conductivity is a function of temper-
Q = −kA  (5-1)
dx ature, but the use of constant or averaged values is frequently
. sufficient. Room temperature values for air, water, concrete, and cop-
where Q is the rate of heat transfer (W), k is the thermal conductivity per are 0.026, 0.61, 1.4, and 400 W(m ⋅ K). Methods for estimating
[W(m⋅K)], A is the area perpendicular to the x direction, and T is contact resistances and the thermal conductivities of composites and
temperature (K). For the homogeneous, one-dimensional plane insulation are summarized by Gebhart, Heat Conduction and Mass
shown in Fig. 5-1a, with constant k, the integrated form of (5-1) is Diffusion, McGraw-Hill, 1993, p. 399.
. T1 − T2
Q = kA  (5-2) STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION
∆x
One-Dimensional
. Conduction In the absence of energy source
where ∆x is the thickness of the plane. Using the thermal circuit terms, Q is constant with distance, as shown in Fig. 5-1a. For steady
shown in Fig. 5-1b, Eq. (5-2) can be written in the form conduction, the integrated form of (5-1) for a planar system with con-
. T1 − T2 T1 − T2 stant k and A is Eq. (5-2) or (5-3). For the general case of variables k (k
Q=  =  (5-3) is a function of temperature) and A (cylindrical and spherical systems
∆xkA R
with radial coordinate r, as sketched in Fig. 5-2), the average heat-
where R is the thermal resistance (K/W). transfer area and thermal conductivity are defined such that
. ⎯⎯ T1 − T2 T1 − T2
Q = kA  =  (5-4)
∆x R
For a thermal conductivity that depends linearly on T,

k = k0 (1 + γT) (5-5)
T1
Q̇
Q̇
T1 T2

T2 r1
∆x r
∆x
kA
x T1 r2

(a) (b)
FIG. 5-1 Steady, one-dimensional conduction in a homogeneous planar wall
T2
with constant k. The thermal circuit is shown in (b) with thermal resistance
∆x(kA). FIG. 5-2 The hollow sphere or cylinder.

5-3
5-4 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Nomenclature and Units—Heat Transfer by Conduction, by Convection, and with Phase Change

Symbol Definition SI units Symbol Definition SI units

A Area for heat transfer m2 Rax Rayleigh number, β ∆T gx3να
Ac Cross-sectional area m2 ReD Reynolds number, GDµ
Af Area for heat transfer for finned portion of tube m2 S Volumetric source term W/m3
Ai Inside area of tube S Cross-sectional area m2
Ao External area of bare, unfinned tube m2 S1 Fourier spatial function
Aof External area of tube before tubes are t Time s
attached = Ao m2 tsv Saturated-vapor temperature K
AT Total external area of finned tube m2 ts Surface temperature K
Auf Area for heat transfer for unfinned portion of T Temperature K or °C
finned tube m2 Tb Bulk or mean temperature at a given K
A1 First Fourier coefficient ⎯ cross section
ax Cross-sectional area of fin m2 Tb Bulk mean temperature, (Tb,in + Tb,out)/2 K
b Geometry: b = 1, plane; b = 2, cylinder; TC Temperature of cold surface in enclosure K
b = 3, sphere Tf Film temperature, (Ts + Te)/2 K
bf Height of fin m TH Temperature of hot surface in enclosure K
B1 First Fourier coefficient Ti Initial temperature K
Bi Biot number, hR/k Te Temperature of free stream K
c Specific heat J(kg⋅K) Ts Temperature of surface K
cp Specific heat, constant pressure J(kg⋅K) T∞ Temperature of fluid in contact with a solid K
D Diameter m surface
Di Inner diameter m U Overall heat-transfer coefficient W(m2⋅K)
Do Outer diameter m V Volume m3
f Fanning friction factor VF Velocity of fluid approaching a bank of finned m/s
Fo Dimensionless time or Fourier number, αtR2 tubes
gc Conversion factor 1.0 kg⋅m(N⋅s2) V∞ Velocity upstream of tube bank m/s
g Acceleration of gravity, 9.81 m2/s m2/s WF Total rate of vapor condensation on one tube kg/s
G Mass velocity, m. Ac; Gv for vapor mass velocity kg(m2⋅s) x Cartesian coordinate direction, characteristic m
Gmax Mass velocity through minimum free area dimension of a surface, or distance from
between rows of tubes normal to the fluid entrance
stream kg(m2⋅s) x Vapor quality, xi for inlet and xo for outlet
Gz Graetz number = Re Pr zp Distance (perimeter) traveled by fluid across fin m
h
⎯ Heat-transfer coefficient W(m2⋅K)
h Average heat-transfer coefficient W(m2⋅K) Greek Symbols
hf Heat-transfer coefficient for finned-tube α Thermal diffusivity, k(ρc) m2/s
exchangers based on total external surface W(m2⋅K) β Volumetric coefficient of expansion K−1
hf Outside heat-transfer coefficient calculated β′ Contact angle between a bubble and a surface °
for a bare tube for use with Eq. (5-73) W(m2⋅K) Γ Mass flow rate per unit length perpendicular kg(m⋅s)
hfi Effective outside heat-transfer coefficient to flow
based on inside area of a finned tube W(m2⋅K) ∆P Pressure drop Pa
hi Heat-transfer coefficient at inside tube surface W(m2⋅K) ∆t Temperature difference K
ho Heat-transfer coefficient at outside tube surface W(m2⋅K) ∆T Temperature difference K
ham Heat-transfer coefficient for use with ∆Tam Arithmetic mean temperature difference, K
∆Tam, see Eq. (5-33) W(m2⋅K) see Eq. (5-32)
hlm Heat-transfer coefficient for use with ∆TIm Logarithmic mean temperature difference, K
∆TIm; see Eq. (5-32) W(m2⋅K) see Eq. (5-33)
⎯k Thermal conductivity W(m⋅K) ∆x Thickness of plane wall for conduction m
k Average thermal conductivity W(m⋅K) δ1 First dimensionless eigenvalue
L Length of cylinder or length of flat plate δ1,0 First dimensionless eigenvalue as Bi
in direction of flow or downstream distance. approaches 0
Length of heat-transfer surface m δ1,∞ First dimensionless eigenvalue as Bi
m Fin parameter defined by Eq. (5-75). approaches ∞
m. Mass flow rate kg/s δS Correction factor, ratio of nonnewtonian to
NuD Nusselt number based on diameter D, hD/k newtonian shear rates
⎯⎯ ⎯
NuD Average Nusselt number based on diameter D, hDk ε Emissivity of a surface
Nulm Nusselt number based on hlm ζ Dimensionless distance, r/R
n′ Flow behavior index for nonnewtonian fluids θθi Dimensionless temperature, (T − T∞)(Ti − T∞)
p Perimeter m λ Latent heat (enthalpy) of vaporization J/kg
pf Fin perimeter m (condensation)
p′ Center-to-center spacing of tubes in a bundle m µ Viscosity; µl, µL viscosity of liquid; µG, µg, µv kg(m⋅s)
P Absolute pressure; Pc for critical pressure kPa viscosity of gas or vapor
Pr Prandtl number, να ν Kinematic viscosity, µρ m2/s
q Rate of heat transfer W ρ Density; ρL, ρl for density of liquid; ρG, ρv for kg/m3
Q. Amount of heat transfer J density of vapor
Q Rate of heat transfer W σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67 × 10−8 W(m2⋅K4)
Q/Qi Heat loss fraction, Q[ρcV(Ti − T∞)] σ Surface tension between and liquid and N/m
r Distance from center in plate, cylinder, or its vapor
sphere m τ Time constant, time scale s
R Thermal resistance or radius K/W or m Ω Efficiency of fin
 HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION 5-5

and the average heat thermal conductivity is 1

.
⎯ ⎯
k = k0 (1 + γT ) (5-6)
q =Q/A hc
⎯
where T = 0.5(T1 + T2). T1 T2 Tsur
For cylinders and spheres, A is a function of radial position (see Fig.
5-2): 2πrL and 4πr2, where L is the length of the cylinder. For con-
stant k, Eq. (5-4) becomes ∆ xD ∆x B ∆ xS
. T1 − T2 kD kB kS
Q =  cylinder (5-7) 1
[ln(r2r1)](2πkL)
hR
and
. T1 − T2
Q =  sphere (5-8) FIG. 5-4 Thermal circuit for Example 1. Steady-state conduction in a furnace
(r2 − r1)(4πkr1r2) wall with heat losses from the outside surface by convection (hC) and radiation
Conduction with Resistances in Series A steady-state temper- (hR) to the surroundings at temperature Tsur. The thermal conductivities kD, kB,
ature profile in a planar composite wall, with three constant thermal and kS are constant, and there are no sources in the wall. The heat flux q has
conductivities and no source terms, is shown in Fig. 5-3a. The corre- units of W/m2.
sponding thermal circuit is given in Fig. 5-3b. The rate of heat trans-
fer through each of the layers is the same. The total resistance is the
sum of the individual resistances shown in Fig. 5-3b: Tsur is 290 K. We want to estimate the temperature of the inside wall T1. The wall
consists of three layers: deposit [kD = 1.6 W(m⋅K), ∆xD = 0.080 m], brick
T1 − T2 T1 − T2 [kB = 1.7 W(m⋅K), ∆xB = 0.15 m], and steel [kS = 45 W(m⋅K), ∆xS = 0.00254 m].
Q. =  =  (5-9) The outside surface loses heat by two parallel mechanisms—convection and
∆XA ∆XB ∆XC RA + RB + RC radiation. The convective heat-transfer coefficient hC = 5.0 W(m2⋅K). The
 +  + 
kAA kBA kCA radiative heat-transfer coefficient hR = 16.3 W(m2⋅K). The latter is calculated
from
Additional resistances in the series may occur at the surfaces of the hR = ε2σ(T22 + T2sur)(T2 + Tsur) (5-12)
solid if they are in contact with a fluid. The rate of convective heat
where the emissivity of surface 2 is ε2 = 0.76 and the Stefan-Boltzmann con-
transfer, between a surface of area A and a fluid, is represented by stant σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W(m2⋅K4).
Newton’s law of cooling as Referring to Fig. 5-4, the steady-state heat flux q (W/m2) through the wall is
. Tsurface − Tfluid .
Q = hA(Tsurface − Tfluid) =  (5-10) Q T1  T2
1(hA) q =  =  = (hC + hR)(T2 − Tsur)
A ∆XD ∆XB ∆XS
where 1/(hA) is the resistance due to convection (K/W) and the heat- 
 +  + 
kD kB kS
transfer coefficient is h[W(m2⋅K)]. For the cylindrical geometry Solving for T1 gives
shown in Fig. 5-2, with convection to inner and outer fluids at tem-
∆xD ∆xB ∆xS
peratures Ti and To, with heat-transfer coefficients hi and ho, the
steady-state rate of heat transfer is 
T1 = T2 +  +  +  (hC + hR)(T2 − Tsur)
kD kB kS
and
. Ti − To Ti − To

Q= =  (5-11) 0.080 0.15 0.00254
T1 = 625 +  +  +  (5.0 + 16.3)(625 − 290) = 1610 K
1 ln(r2r1) 1 Ri + R1 + Ro 1.6 1.7 45
 +  + 
2πr1Lhi 2πkL 2πr2Lho
Conduction with Heat Source Application of the law of con-
where resistances Ri and Ro are the convective resistances at the inner servation of energy to a one-dimensional solid, with the heat flux given
and outer surfaces. The total resistance is again the sum of the resis- by (5-1) and volumetric source term S (W/m3), results in the following
tances in series. equations for steady-state conduction in a flat plate of thickness 2R
(b = 1), a cylinder of diameter 2R (b = 2), and a sphere of diameter 2R
Example 1: Conduction with Resistances in Series and Paral- (b = 3). The parameter b is a measure of the curvature. The thermal
lel Figure 5-4 shows the thermal circuit for a furnace wall. The outside sur- conductivity is constant, and there is convection at the surface, with
face has a known temperature T2 = 625 K. The temperature of the surroundings heat-transfer coefficient h and fluid temperature T∞.


d dT S
.  rb−1  +  rb−1 = 0
A B C dr dr k
Q
T1 dT(0)
 =0 (symmetry condition) (5-13)
dr
T1 Ti1 Ti2 T2
dT
−k  = h[T(R) − T∞]
∆ xA ∆x B ∆ xC dr
T2 The solutions to (5-13), for uniform S, are
kA A kBA kC A


b 1, plate, thickness 2R
T(r)  T∞
   
1 r 2 1
  1  b 2, cylinder, diameter 2R
SR2k 2b R bBi
b 3, sphere, diameter 2R
(a) (b) (5-14)
FIG. 5-3 Steady-state temperature profile in a composite wall with constant where Bi = hR/k is the Biot number. For Bi << 1, the temperature in
thermal conductivities kA, kB, and kC and no energy sources in the wall. The ther- the solid is uniform. For Bi >> 1, the surface temperature T(R) T∞.
mal circuit is shown in (b). The total resistance is the sum of the three resis- Two- and Three-Dimensional Conduction Application of the
tances shown. law of conservation of energy to a three-dimensional solid, with the
5-6 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

heat flux given by (5-1) and volumetric source term S (W/m3), results TABLE 5-1 Fourier Coefficients and Spatial Functions for Use
in the following equation for steady-state conduction in rectangular in Eqs. (5-21)
coordinates. Geometry A1 B1 S1
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z 
 k +  k +  k + S = 0  (5-15)
Plate 
2sinδ1
δ1 + sinδ1cosδ1

2Bi2
δ1(Bi + Bi + δ21)
2 2 cos(δ1ζ)

Similar equations apply to cylindrical and spherical coordinate sys-

tems. Finite difference, finite volume, or finite element methods are 2J1(δ1) 4Bi2
Cylinder   J0(δ1ζ)
generally necessary to solve (5-15). Useful introductions to these δ1[J20(δ1) + J21(δ1)] δ1(δ1 + Bi2)
2 2

numerical techniques are given in the General References and Sec. 3.

Simple forms of (5-15) (constant k, uniform S) can be solved analyti- 2Bi[δ21 + (Bi − 1)2]12 6Bi2 sinδ1ζ
Sphere   
cally. See Arpaci, Conduction Heat Transfer, Addison-Wesley, 1966, δ21 + Bi2 − Bi δ21(δ21 + Bi2 − Bi) δ1ζ
p. 180, and Carslaw and Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids, Oxford
University Press, 1959. For problems involving heat flow between two
surfaces, each isothermal, with all other surfaces being adiabatic, the The time scale is the time required for most of the change in θθi or
shape factor approach is useful (Mills, Heat Transfer, 2d ed., Prentice- Q/Qi to occur. When t = τ, θθi = exp(−1) = 0.368 and roughly two-
Hall, 1999, p. 164). thirds of the possible change has occurred.
When a lumped analysis is not valid (Bi > 0.2), the single-term solu-
tions to (5-18) are convenient:
UNSTEADY-STATE CONDUCTION
θ Q
Application of the law of conservation of energy to a three-dimen-  = A1 exp (− δ21Fo)S1(δ1ζ) and  = 1 − B1 exp (−δ21Fo) (5-21)
sional solid, with the heat flux given by (5-1) and volumetric source θi Qi
term S (W/m3), results in the following equation for unsteady-state where the first Fourier coefficients A1 and B1 and the spatial functions
conduction in rectangular coordinates. S1 are given in Table 5-1. The first eigenvalue δ1 is given by (5-22) in
conjunction with Table 5-2. The one-term solutions are accurate to
∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
∂x ∂x ∂y 
ρc  =  k  +  k  +  k  + S
∂t ∂y ∂z ∂z   (5-16) within 2 percent when Fo > Foc. The values of the critical Fourier
number Foc are given in Table 5-2.
The first eigenvalue is accurately correlated by (Yovanovich, Chap.
The energy storage term is on the left-hand side, and ρ and c are the 3 of Rohsenow, Hartnett, and Cho, Handbook of Heat Transfer, 3d
density (kg/m3) and specific heat [J(kg  K)]. Solutions to (5-16) are ed., McGraw-Hill, 1998, p. 3.25)
generally obtained numerically (see General References and Sec. 3).
The one-dimensional form of (5-16), with constant k and no source δ1,∞
δ1  (5-22)
term, is [1  (δ1,∞δ1,0)n]1n
∂T ∂2T Equation (5-22) gives values of δ1 that differ from the exact values by
 = α (5-17)
less than 0.4 percent, and it is valid for all values of Bi. The values of
∂t ∂x2
δ1,∞, δ1,0, n, and Foc are given in Table 5-2.
where α k(ρc) is the thermal diffusivity (m2/s). Example 2: Correlation of First Eigenvalues by Eq. (5-22) As
One-Dimensional Conduction: Lumped and Distributed an example of the use of Eq. (5-22), suppose that we want δ1 for the flat plate
Analysis The one-dimensional transient conduction equations in with Bi = 5. From Table 5-2, δ1,∞ π2, δ1,0 Bi  5, and n = 2.139. Equa-
rectangular (b = 1), cylindrical (b = 2), and spherical (b = 3) coordi- tion (5-22) gives
nates, with constant k, initial uniform temperature Ti, S = 0, and con- π2
vection at the surface with heat-transfer coefficient h and fluid δ1  1.312
temperature T∞, are [1  (π2/5 )2.139]12.139


b 1, plate, thickness 2R The tabulated value is 1.3138.
∂T α ∂ b1 ∂T

∂t
  r 
rb1 ∂r ∂r  b
b
2, cylinder, diameter 2R
3, sphere, diameter 2R
Example 3: One-Dimensional, Unsteady Conduction Calcula-
tion As an example of the use of Eq. (5-21), Table 5-1, and Table 5-2, con-
sider the cooking time required to raise the center of a spherical, 8-cm-diameter
for t , 0, T Ti (initial temperature) (5-18) dumpling from 20 to 80°C. The initial temperature is uniform. The dumpling is
heated with saturated steam at 95°C. The heat capacity, density, and thermal
∂T conductivity are estimated to be c = 3500 J(kgK), ρ = 1000 kgm3, and k = 0.5
at r 0,  0 (symmetry condition) W(mK), respectively.
∂r
Because the heat-transfer coefficient for condensing steam is of order 104, the Bi
∂T → ∞ limit in Table 5-2 is a good choice and δ1 = π. Because we know the desired
at r R,  k h(T  T∞) temperature at the center, we can calculate θθi and then solve (5-21) for the time.
∂r
θ T(0,t) − T∞ 80 − 95
The solutions to (5-18) can be compactly expressed by using dimen-  =  =  = 0.200
sionless variables: (1) temperature θθi = [T(r,t) − T∞](Ti − T∞); (2) θi Ti − T∞ 20 − 95
heat loss fraction QQi = Q[ρcV(Ti − T∞)], where V is volume; (3) dis- For Bi → ∞, A1 in Table 5-1 is 2 and for ζ = 0, S1 in Table 5-1 is 1. Equation
tance from center ζ = rR; (4) time Fo = αtR2; and (5) Biot number Bi = (5-21) becomes
hR/k. The temperature and heat loss are functions of ζ, Fo, and Bi. θ αt
When the Biot number is small, Bi < 0.2, the temperature of the  = 2 exp (−π2Fo) = 2 exp −π2 2
θi R
solid is nearly uniform and a lumped analysis is acceptable. The solu-
tion to the lumped analysis of (5-18) is
TABLE 5-2 First Eigenvalues for Bi Æ 0 and Bi Æ • and
θ Correlation Parameter n
 
hA Q hA
 = exp −  t and  = 1 − exp −  t (5-19) The single-term approximations apply only if Fo ≥ Foc.
θi ρcV Qi ρcV
Geometry Bi → 0 Bi → ∞ n Foc
where A is the active surface area and V is the volume. The time scale
for the lumped problem is Plate δ1 → Bi
 δ1 → π2 2.139 0.24
ρcV Cylinder δ1 → 2Bi
 δ1 → 2.4048255 2.238 0.21
τ=  (5-20) Sphere δ1 → 3Bi
 δ1 → π 2.314 0.18
hA
 HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION 5-7

Solving for t gives the desired cooking time. where erf(z) is the error function. The depth to which the heat pene-
trates in time t is approximately (12αt)12.
R 2
θ (0.04 m) 2
0.2
t = − 2 ln  = −  ln  = 43.5 min If the heat-transfer coefficient is finite,
απ 2θi 1.43 × 10−7(m2s)π2 2
T(x,t)T∞
Example 4: Rule of Thumb for Time Required to Diffuse a 
Distance R A general rule of thumb for estimating the time required to dif- Ti  T∞
fuse a distance R is obtained from the one-term approximations. Consider the
equation for the temperature of a flat plate of thickness 2R in the limit as Bi → hαt

x hx h2αt x
∞. From Table 5-2, the first eigenvalue is δ1 = π2, and from Table 5-1,
θ π αt

= erfc  −exp  + 
2 αt k k2 
erfc  + 
2αt k  (5-24)

 
2
 = A1 exp −  2 cosδ1ζ
θi 2 R where erfc(z) is the complementary error function. Equations (5-23)
When t R2α, the temperature ratio at the center of the plate (ζ 0) has and (5-24) are both applicable to finite plates provided that their half-
decayed to exp(π24), or 8 percent of its initial value. We conclude that diffu- thickness is greater than (12αt)12.
sion through a distance R takes roughly R2α units of time, or alternatively, the Two- and Three-Dimensional Conduction The one-dimen-
distance diffused in time t is about (αt)12. sional solutions discussed above can be used to construct solutions to
multidimensional problems. The unsteady temperature of a rect-
One-Dimensional Conduction: Semi-infinite Plate Consider angular, solid box of height, length, and width 2H, 2L, and 2W, respec-
a semi-infinite plate with an initial uniform temperature Ti. Suppose tively, with governing equations in each direction as in (5-18), is
that the temperature of the surface is suddenly raised to T∞; that is, the
θ θ θ θ
 θ   θ  θ
heat-transfer coefficient is infinite. The unsteady temperature of the
=  (5-25)
plate is i 2H 2L 2W θi 2H i 2L i 2W

T(x,t) − T∞ x
 = erf 
Ti − T∞ 2 αt  (5-23) Similar products apply for solids with other geometries, e.g., semi-
infinite, cylindrical rods.

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

⎯
CONVECTIVE HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT The average heat-transfer coefficient h is defined by
Convection is the transfer of energy by conduction and radiation in
moving, fluid media. The motion of the fluid is an essential part of
⎯ 1 L

h =  h dx
L 0
(5-29)
convective heat transfer. A key step in calculating the rate of heat Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient and Heat Exchangers A
transfer by convection is the calculation of the heat-transfer coeffi- local, overall heat-transfer coefficient U for the cylindrical geometry
cient. This section focuses on the estimation of heat-transfer coeffi- shown in Fig. 5-2 is defined by using Eq. (5-11) as
cients for natural and forced convection. The conservation equations .
Q Ti − To
for mass, momentum, and energy, as presented in Sec. 6, can be used  =  = 2πr1U(Ti − To) (5-30)
to calculate the rate of convective heat transfer. Our approach in this ∆x 1 + ln(r2r1) + 1
  
section is to rely on correlations. 2πr1hi 2πk 2πr2ho
In many cases of industrial importance, heat is transferred from one where ∆x is a short length of tube in the axial direction. Equation
fluid, through a solid wall, to another fluid. The transfer occurs in a (5-30) defines U by using the inside perimeter 2πr1. The outer
heat exchanger. Section 11 introduces several types of heat exchangers, perimeter can also be used. Equation (5-30) applies to clean tubes.
design procedures, overall heat-transfer coefficients, and mean tem- Additional resistances are present in the denominator for dirty
perature differences. Section 3 introduces dimensional analysis and tubes (see Sec. 11).
the dimensionless groups associated with the heat-transfer coefficient. For counterflow and parallel flow heat exchanges, with high- and
Individual Heat-Transfer Coefficient The local rate of con- low-temperature fluids (TH and TC) and flow directions as defined in
vective heat transfer between a surface and a fluid is given by New- Fig. 5-5, the total heat transfer for the exchanger is given by
ton’s law of cooling .
Q = UA ∆Tlm (5-31)
q h(Tsurface  Tfluid) (5-26)
where A is the area for heat exchange and the log mean temperature
where h [W(m2K)] is the local heat-transfer coefficient and q is the difference ∆Tlm is defined as
energy flux (W/m2). The definition of h is arbitrary, depending on (TH − TC)L − (TH − TL)0
whether the bulk fluid, centerline, free stream, or some other tem- ∆Tlm =  (5-32)
perature is used for Tfluid. The heat-transfer coefficient may be defined ln[(TH − TC)L − (TH − TL)0]
on an average basis as noted below. Equation (5-32) applies to both counterflow and parallel flow exchang-
Consider a fluid with bulk temperature T, flowing in a cylindrical ers with the nomenclature defined in Fig. 5-5. Correction factors to
tube of diameter D, with constant wall temperature Ts. An energy bal- ∆Tlm for various heat exchanger configurations are given in Sec. 11.
ance on a short section of the tube yields In certain applications, the log mean temperature difference is
replaced with an arithmetic mean difference:
. dT
cpm  πDh(Ts  T) (5-27) (TH − TC)L + (TH − TL)0
dx ∆Tam =  (5-33)
. 2
where cp is the specific heat at constant pressure [J(kgK)], m is the
mass flow rate (kg/s), and x is the distance from the inlet. If the tem- Average heat-transfer coefficients are occasionally reported based on
perature of the fluid at the inlet is Tin, the temperature of the fluid at Eqs. (5-32) and (5-33) and are written as hlm and ham.
a downstream distance L is Representation of Heat-Transfer Coefficients Heat-transfer
⎯ coefficients are usually expressed in two ways: (1) dimensionless rela-
T(L)  Ts hπDL

Tin  Ts 
exp   .
m cp
(5-28) tions and (2) dimensional equations. Both approaches are used below.
The dimensionless form of the heat-transfer coefficient is the Nusselt
10-78 TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF FLUIDS

TABLE 10-22 Properties of Steel Pipe

Circumference,
ft, or surface, Capacity at 1-ft/s
Cross-sectional area ft2/ft of length velocity
Nominal Outside Wall Inside Weight of
pipe diameter, Schedule thickness, diameter, Metal, U.S. gal/ plain-end
size, in in no. in in in2 Flow, ft2
Outside Inside min lb/h water pipe, lb/ft
f 0.405 10S 0.049 0.307 0.055 0.00051 0.106 0.0804 0.231 115.5 0.19
40ST, 40S .068 .269 .072 .00040 .106 .0705 .179 89.5 .24
80XS, 80S .095 .215 .093 .00025 .106 .0563 .113 56.5 .31
d 0.540 10S .065 .410 .097 .00092 .141 .107 .412 206.5 .33
40ST, 40S .088 .364 .125 .00072 .141 .095 .323 161.5 .42
80XS, 80S .119 .302 .157 .00050 .141 .079 .224 112.0 .54
r 0.675 10S .065 .545 .125 .00162 .177 .143 .727 363.5 .42
40ST, 40S .091 .493 .167 .00133 .177 .129 .596 298.0 .57
80XS, 80S .126 .423 .217 .00098 .177 .111 .440 220.0 .74
a 0.840 5S .065 .710 .158 .00275 .220 .186 1.234 617.0 .54
10S .083 .674 .197 .00248 .220 .176 1.112 556.0 .67
40ST, 40S .109 .622 .250 .00211 .220 .163 0.945 472.0 .85
80XS, 80S .147 .546 .320 .00163 .220 .143 0.730 365.0 1.09
160 .188 .464 .385 .00117 .220 .122 0.527 263.5 1.31
XX .294 .252 .504 .00035 .220 .066 0.155 77.5 1.71
e 1.050 5S .065 .920 .201 .00461 .275 .241 2.072 1036.0 0.69
10S .083 .884 .252 .00426 .275 .231 1.903 951.5 0.86
40ST, 40S .113 .824 .333 .00371 .275 .216 1.665 832.5 1.13
80XS, 80S .154 .742 .433 .00300 .275 .194 1.345 672.5 1.47
160 .219 .612 .572 .00204 .275 .160 0.917 458.5 1.94
XX .308 .434 .718 .00103 .275 .114 0.461 230.5 2.44
1 1.315 5S .065 1.185 .255 .00768 .344 .310 3.449 1725 0.87
10S .109 1.097 .413 .00656 .344 .287 2.946 1473 1.40
40ST, 40S .133 1.049 .494 .00600 .344 .275 2.690 1345 1.68
80XS, 80S .179 0.957 .639 .00499 .344 .250 2.240 1120 2.17
160 .250 0.815 .836 .00362 .344 .213 1.625 812.5 2.84
XX .358 0.599 1.076 .00196 .344 .157 0.878 439.0 3.66
1d 1.660 5S .065 1.530 0.326 .01277 .435 .401 5.73 2865 1.11
10S .109 1.442 0.531 .01134 .435 .378 5.09 2545 1.81
40ST, 40S .140 1.380 0.668 .01040 .435 .361 4.57 2285 2.27
80XS, 80S .191 1.278 0.881 .00891 .435 .335 3.99 1995 3.00
160 .250 1.160 1.107 .00734 .435 .304 3.29 1645 3.76
XX .382 0.896 1.534 .00438 .435 .235 1.97 985 5.21
1a 1.900 5S .065 1.770 0.375 .01709 .497 .463 7.67 3835 1.28
10S .109 1.682 0.614 .01543 .497 .440 6.94 3465 2.09
40ST, 40S .145 1.610 0.800 .01414 .497 .421 6.34 3170 2.72
80XS, 80S .200 1.500 1.069 .01225 .497 .393 5.49 2745 3.63
160 .281 1.338 1.429 .00976 .497 .350 4.38 2190 4.86
XX .400 1.100 1.885 .00660 .497 .288 2.96 1480 6.41
2 2.375 5S .065 2.245 0.472 .02749 .622 .588 12.34 6170 1.61
10S .109 2.157 0.776 .02538 .622 .565 11.39 5695 2.64
40ST, 40S .154 2.067 1.075 .02330 .622 .541 10.45 5225 3.65
80ST, 80S .218 1.939 1.477 .02050 .622 .508 9.20 4600 5.02
160 .344 1.687 2.195 .01552 .622 .436 6.97 3485 7.46
XX .436 1.503 2.656 .01232 .622 .393 5.53 2765 9.03
2a 2.875 5S .083 2.709 0.728 .04003 .753 .709 17.97 8985 2.48
10S .120 2.635 1.039 .03787 .753 .690 17.00 8500 3.53
40ST, 40S .203 2.469 1.704 .03322 .753 .647 14.92 7460 5.79
80XS, 80S .276 2.323 2.254 .02942 .753 .608 13.20 6600 7.66
160 .375 2.125 2.945 .02463 .753 .556 11.07 5535 10.01
XX .552 1.771 4.028 .01711 .753 .464 7.68 3840 13.69
3 3.500 5S .083 3.334 0.891 .06063 .916 .873 27.21 13,605 3.03
10S .120 3.260 1.274 .05796 .916 .853 26.02 13,010 4.33
40ST, 40S .216 3.068 2.228 .05130 .916 .803 23.00 11,500 7.58
80XS, 80S .300 2.900 3.016 .04587 .916 .759 20.55 10,275 10.25
160 .438 2.624 4.213 .03755 .916 .687 16.86 8430 14.32
XX .600 2.300 5.466 .02885 .916 .602 12.95 6475 18.58
3s 4.0 5S .083 3.834 1.021 .08017 1.047 1.004 35.98 17,990 3.48
10S .120 3.760 1.463 .07711 1.047 0.984 34.61 17,305 4.97
40ST, 40S .226 3.548 2.680 .06870 1.047 0.929 30.80 15,400 9.11
80XS, 80S .318 3.364 3.678 .06170 1.047 0.881 27.70 13,850 12.50
4 4.5 5S .083 4.334 1.152 .10245 1.178 1.135 46.0 23,000 3.92
10S .120 4.260 1.651 .09898 1.178 1.115 44.4 22,200 5.61
40ST, 40S .237 4.026 3.17 .08840 1.178 1.054 39.6 19,800 10.79
 PROCESS PLANT PIPING 10-79

TABLE 10-22 Properties of Steel Pipe (Continued)

Circumference,
ft, or surface, Capacity at 1-ft/s
Cross-sectional area ft2/ft of length velocity
Nominal Outside Wall Inside Weight of
pipe diameter, Schedule thickness, diameter, Metal, U.S. gal/ plain-end
size, in in no. in in in2 Flow, ft 2
Outside Inside min lb/h water pipe, lb/ft
80XS, 80S .337 3.826 4.41 .07986 1.178 1.002 35.8 17,900 14.98
120 0.438 3.624 5.58 0.07170 1.178 0.949 32.2 16,100 19.00
160 .531 3.438 6.62 .06647 1.178 0.900 28.9 14,450 22.51
XX .674 3.152 8.10 .05419 1.178 0.825 24.3 12,150 27.54
5 5.563 5S .109 5.345 1.87 .1558 1.456 1.399 69.9 34,950 6.36
10S .134 5.295 2.29 .1529 1.456 1.386 68.6 34,300 7.77
40ST, 40S .258 5.047 4.30 .1390 1.456 1.321 62.3 31,150 14.62
80XS, 80S .375 4.813 6.11 .1263 1.456 1.260 57.7 28,850 20.78
120 .500 4.563 7.95 .1136 1.456 1.195 51.0 25,500 27.04
160 .625 4.313 9.70 .1015 1.456 1.129 45.5 22,750 32.96
XX .750 4.063 11.34 .0900 1.456 1.064 40.4 20,200 38.55
6 6.625 5S .109 6.407 2.23 .2239 1.734 1.677 100.5 50,250 7.60
10S .134 6.357 2.73 .2204 1.734 1.664 98.9 49,450 9.29
40ST, 40S .280 6.065 5.58 .2006 1.734 1.588 90.0 45,000 18.97
80XS, 80S .432 5.761 8.40 .1810 1.734 1.508 81.1 40,550 28.57
120 .562 5.501 10.70 .1650 1.734 1.440 73.9 36,950 36.39
160 .719 5.187 13.34 .1467 1.734 1.358 65.9 32,950 45.34
XX .864 4.897 15.64 .1308 1.734 1.282 58.7 29,350 53.16
8 8.625 5S .109 8.407 2.915 .3855 2.258 2.201 173.0 86,500 9.93
10S .148 8.329 3.941 .3784 2.258 2.180 169.8 84,900 13.40
20 .250 8.125 6.578 .3601 2.258 2.127 161.5 80,750 22.36
30 .277 8.071 7.265 .3553 2.258 2.113 159.4 79,700 24.70
40ST, 40S .322 7.981 8.399 .3474 2.258 2.089 155.7 77,850 28.55
60 .406 7.813 10.48 .3329 2.258 2.045 149.4 74,700 35.64
80XS, 80S .500 7.625 12.76 .3171 2.258 1.996 142.3 71,150 43.39
100 .594 7.437 14.99 .3017 2.258 1.947 135.4 67,700 50.95
120 .719 7.187 17.86 .2817 2.258 1.882 126.4 63,200 60.71
140 .812 7.001 19.93 .2673 2.258 1.833 120.0 60,000 67.76
XX .875 6.875 21.30 .2578 2.258 1.800 115.7 57,850 72.42
160 .906 6.813 21.97 .2532 2.258 1.784 113.5 56,750 74.69
10 10.75 5S .134 10.482 4.47 .5993 2.814 2.744 269.0 134,500 15.19
10S .165 10.420 5.49 .5922 2.814 2.728 265.8 132,900 18.65
20 .250 10.250 8.25 .5731 2.814 2.685 257.0 128,500 28.04
30 .307 10.136 10.07 .5603 2.814 2.655 252.0 126,000 34.24
40ST, 40S .365 10.020 11.91 .5475 2.814 2.620 246.0 123,000 40.48
80S, 60XS .500 9.750 16.10 .5185 2.814 2.550 233.0 116,500 54.74
80 .594 9.562 18.95 .4987 2.814 2.503 223.4 111,700 64.43
100 .719 9.312 22.66 .4729 2.814 2.438 212.3 106,150 77.03
120 .844 9.062 26.27 .4479 2.814 2.372 201.0 100,500 89.29
140, XX 1.000 8.750 30.63 .4176 2.814 2.291 188.0 94,000 104.13
160 1.125 8.500 34.02 .3941 2.814 2.225 177.0 88,500 115.64
12 12.75 5S 0.156 12.438 6.17 .8438 3.338 3.26 378.7 189,350 20.98
10S 0.180 12.390 7.11 .8373 3.338 3.24 375.8 187,900 24.17
20 0.250 12.250 9.82 .8185 3.338 3.21 367.0 183,500 33.38
30 0.330 12.090 12.88 .7972 3.338 3.17 358.0 179,000 43.77
ST, 40S 0.375 12.000 14.58 .7854 3.338 3.14 352.5 176,250 49.56
40 0.406 11.938 15.74 .7773 3.338 3.13 349.0 174,500 53.52
XS, 80S 0.500 11.750 19.24 .7530 3.338 3.08 338.0 169,000 65.42
60 0.562 11.626 21.52 .7372 3.338 3.04 331.0 165,500 73.15
80 0.688 11.374 26.07 .7056 3.338 2.98 316.7 158,350 88.63
100 0.844 11.062 31.57 .6674 3.338 2.90 299.6 149,800 107.32
120, XX 1.000 10.750 36.91 .6303 3.338 2.81 283.0 141,500 125.49
140 1.125 10.500 41.09 .6013 3.338 2.75 270.0 135,000 139.67
160 1.312 10.126 47.14 .5592 3.338 2.65 251.0 125,500 160.27
14 14 5S 0.156 13.688 6.78 1.0219 3.665 3.58 459 229,500 23.07
10S 0.188 13.624 8.16 1.0125 3.665 3.57 454 227,000 27.73
10 0.250 13.500 10.80 0.9940 3.665 3.53 446 223,000 36.71
20 0.312 13.376 13.42 0.9750 3.665 3.50 438 219,000 45.61
30, ST 0.375 13.250 16.05 0.9575 3.665 3.47 430 215,000 54.57
40 0.438 13.124 18.66 0.9397 3.665 3.44 422 211,000 63.44
XS 0.500 13.000 21.21 0.9218 3.665 3.40 414 207,000 72.09
60 0.594 12.812 25.02 0.8957 3.665 3.35 402 201,000 85.05
80 0.750 12.500 31.22 0.8522 3.665 3.27 382 191,000 106.13
100 0.938 12.124 38.49 0.8017 3.665 3.17 360 180,000 130.85
120 1.094 11.812 44.36 0.7610 3.665 3.09 342 171,000 150.79
140 1.250 11.500 50.07 0.7213 3.665 3.01 324 162,000 170.21
160 1.406 11.188 55.63 0.6827 3.665 2.93 306 153,000 189.11
16 16 5S 0.165 15.670 8.21 1.3393 4.189 4.10 601 300,500 27.90
10S 0.188 15.624 9.34 1.3314 4.189 4.09 598 299,000 31.75
10 0.250 15.500 12.37 1.3104 4.189 4.06 587 293,500 42.05
10-80 TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF FLUIDS

TABLE 10-22 Properties of Steel Pipe (Concluded)

Circumference,
ft, or surface, Capacity at 1-ft/s
Cross-sectional area ft2/ft of length velocity
Nominal Outside Wall Inside Weight of
pipe diameter, Schedule thickness, diameter, Metal, U.S. gal/ plain-end
size, in in no. in in in2 Flow, ft 2
Outside Inside min lb/h water pipe, lb/ft
20 0.312 15.376 15.38 1.2985 4.189 4.03 578 289,000 52.27
30, ST 0.375 15.250 18.41 1.2680 4.189 3.99 568 284,000 62.58
40, XS 0.500 15.000 24.35 1.2272 4.189 3.93 550 275,000 82.77
60 0.656 14.688 31.62 1.1766 4.189 3.85 528 264,000 107.50
80 0.844 14.312 40.19 1.1171 4.189 3.75 501 250,500 136.61
100 1.031 13.938 48.48 1.0596 4.189 3.65 474 237,000 164.82
120 1.219 13.562 56.61 1.0032 4.189 3.55 450 225,000 192.43
140 1.438 13.124 65.79 0.9394 4.189 3.44 422 211,000 223.64
160 1.594 12.812 72.14 0.8953 4.189 3.35 402 201,000 245.25

18 18 5S 0.165 17.670 9.25 1.7029 4.712 4.63 764 382,000 31.43

10S 0.188 17.624 10.52 1.6941 4.712 4.61 760 379,400 35.76
10 0.250 17.500 13.94 1.6703 4.712 4.58 750 375,000 47.39
20 0.312 17.376 17.34 1.6468 4.712 4.55 739 369,500 58.94
ST 0.375 17.250 20.76 1.6230 4.712 4.52 728 364,000 70.59
30 0.438 17.124 24.16 1.5993 4.712 4.48 718 359,000 82.15
XS 0.500 17.000 27.49 1.5763 4.712 4.45 707 353,500 93.45
40 0.562 16.876 30.79 1.5533 4.712 4.42 697 348,500 104.67
60 0.750 16.500 40.64 1.4849 4.712 4.32 666 333,000 138.17
80 0.938 16.124 50.28 1.4180 4.712 4.22 636 318,000 170.92
100 1.156 15.688 61.17 1.3423 4.712 4.11 602 301,000 207.96
120 1.375 15.250 71.82 1.2684 4.712 3.99 569 284,500 244.14
140 1.562 14.876 80.66 1.2070 4.712 3.89 540 270,000 274.22
160 1.781 14.438 90.75 1.1370 4.712 3.78 510 255,000 308.50

20 20 5S 0.188 19.624 11.70 2.1004 5.236 5.14 943 471,500 39.78

10S 0.218 19.564 13.55 2.0878 5.236 5.12 937 467,500 46.06
10 0.250 19.500 15.51 2.0740 5.236 5.11 930 465,000 52.73
20, ST 0.375 19.250 23.12 2.0211 5.236 5.04 902 451,000 78.60
30, XS 0.500 19.000 30.63 1.9689 5.236 4.97 883 441,500 104.13
40 0.594 18.812 36.21 1.9302 5.236 4.92 866 433,000 123.11
60 0.812 18.376 48.95 1.8417 5.236 4.81 826 413,000 166.40
80 1.031 17.938 61.44 1.7550 5.236 4.70 787 393,500 208.87
100 1.281 17.438 75.33 1.6585 5.236 4.57 744 372,000 256.10
120 1.500 17.000 87.18 1.5763 5.236 4.45 707 353,500 296.37
140 1.750 16.500 100.3 1.4849 5.236 4.32 665 332,500 341.09
160 1.969 16.062 111.5 1.4071 5.236 4.21 632 316,000 397.17

24 24 5S 0.218 23.564 16.29 3.0285 6.283 6.17 1359 679,500 55.37

10, 10S 0.250 23.500 18.65 3.012 6.283 6.15 1350 675,000 63.41
20, ST 0.375 23.250 27.83 2.948 6.283 6.09 1325 662,500 94.62
XS 0.500 23.000 36.90 2.885 6.283 6.02 1295 642,500 125.49
30 0.562 22.876 41.39 2.854 6.283 5.99 1281 640,500 140.68
40 0.688 22.624 50.39 2.792 6.283 5.92 1253 626,500 171.29
60 0.969 22.062 70.11 2.655 6.283 5.78 1192 596,000 238.35
80 1.219 21.562 87.24 2.536 6.283 5.64 1138 569,000 296.58
100 1.531 20.938 108.1 2.391 6.283 5.48 1073 536,500 367.39
120 1.812 20.376 126.3 2.264 6.283 5.33 1016 508,000 429.39
140 2.062 19.876 142.1 2.155 6.283 5.20 965 482,500 483.12
160 2.344 19.312 159.5 2.034 6.283 5.06 913 456,500 542.13

30 30 5S 0.250 29.500 23.37 4.746 7.854 7.72 2130 1,065,000 79.43

10, 10S 0.312 29.376 29.10 4.707 7.854 7.69 2110 1,055,000 98.93
ST 0.375 29.250 34.90 4.666 7.854 7.66 2094 1,048,000 118.65
20, XS 0.500 29.000 46.34 4.587 7.854 7.59 2055 1,027,500 157.53
30 0.625 28.750 57.68 4.508 7.854 7.53 2020 1,010,000 196.08
5S, 10S, 40S, and 80S are extracted from Stainless Steel Pipe, ASME B36.19M-1985, with permission of the publisher, the American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers, New York. ST = standard wall, XS = extra strong wall, XX = double extra strong wall, and Schedules 10 through 160 are extracted from Welded and Seamless
Wrought Steel Pipe, ASME B36.10M-1996, with permission of the same publisher. Refer to these standards for a more comprehensive listing of material sizes and
wall thicknesses. Decimal thicknesses for respective pipe sizes represent their nominal or average wall dimensions. Mill tolerances as high as ⫾12a percent are per-
mitted.
Plain-end pipe is produced by a square cut. Pipe is also shipped from the mills threaded, with a threaded coupling on one end, or with the ends beveled for weld-
ing, or grooved or sized for patented couplings.
To convert inches to millimeters, multiply by 25.4; to convert square inches to square millimeters, multiply by 645; to convert feet to meters, multiply by 0.3048; to
convert square feet to square meters, multiply by 0.0929; to convert pounds per foot to kilograms per meter, multiply by 1.49; to convert gallons to cubic meters, mul-
tiply by 3.7854 × 10−3; and to convert pounds to kilograms, multiply by 0.4536.