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Chapter
1
INTRODUCTION

The efficient operation of the power grid system is essential for the uninterrupted
supply of electricity to consumers, and the integration of renewable energy sources
has become crucial for achieving sustainable development. The Southern Regional
Load Dispatch Centre (SRLDC) plays a vital role in maintaining a balance between
electricity generation and consumption in southern India. During my internship, I had
the opportunity to work in the Renewable Energy Management Centre (REMC) and
learn about the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system and
Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU).

The importance of renewable energy cannot be overstated in today's world. With the
global population increasing and energy consumption growing, it is crucial to
generate and distribute energy efficiently and sustainably. This is where SRLDC's
SCADA and PMU systems come into play at REMC. The REMC manages the
integration of renewable energy sources into the power system, ensuring that the
generated energy is transmitted efficiently and reliably. The SCADA and PMU
systems provide real-time monitoring of the power system, enabling SRLDC to make
timely decisions and take corrective actions to maintain the grid's stability.

My internship at SRLDC provided me with a valuable experience to learn about the

management of renewable energy and power system operation. I gained insights into
the challenges and opportunities in the renewable energy sector, as well as the
importance of efficient power system operation for sustainable development. Overall,
SRLDC PMU and SCADA system at REMC are critical components in achieving a
sustainable and efficient power system.

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Motivations

During my internship at SRLDC, I had the opportunity to study the real-time

systems and operations of the electrical grid and control systems, including
communication systems and data acquisition. The increasing demand for
efficient energy management systems in today's world motivated me to learn
about these technicalities. Working with a team of experts in the field provided
valuable insights and guidance, allowing me to gain hands-on experience in
managing the electrical grid in real time

The integration of renewable energy sources into the electrical grid is crucial
for reducing carbon emissions and combating climate change. However,
renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power are variable and
unpredictable, making their integration into the electrical grid challenging.

To manage this challenge, utilities use Renewable Energy Management Centre

(REMC) and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems.
These systems enable real-time monitoring and control of renewable energy
sources, ensuring that the generated energy is transmitted efficiently and
reliably. Through my internship experience at SRLDC, I gained an in- depth
understanding of the intricacies of managing the electrical grid in real-time,
especially in integrating renewable energy sources. Overall, my internship
provided a valuable learning experience, highlighting the importance of
efficient energy management systems.

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OBJECTIVES

The main aim of the internship at SRLDC was to acquire hands-on experience
in managing renewable energy sources and to comprehend the role of REMC
and SCADA systems in integrating them into the electrical grid.

This involved gaining an understanding of the componentsof these systems,

such as data loggers, sensors, communication networks, and control systems.
Practical experience was also acquired in the operation and maintenance of
these systems, including the software tools employed to control and monitor
renewable energy sources and the communication protocols used to transmit
data between these sources and the REMC.

Furthermore, the internship provided an insight into the technical, economic,

and regulatory obstacles and opportunities related to the integration of
renewable energy sources into the electrical grid. Overall, the internship at
SRLDC aimed to equip interns with the necessary knowledge and practical
experience to meet the increasing demand for efficient energy management
systems in today's world.

This report seeks to offer comprehensive insights into the operations of

Renewable Energy Management Centre (REMC) and Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems concerning the management of renewable
energy sources in the electrical grid. It highlights the various aspects of REMC
and SCADA systems, such as data loggers, control systems, communication
networks, and sensors, and how they collaborate to monitor and manage
renewable energy sources in real-time.

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1.1 Applications

My internship at SRLDC was a valuable learning experience, providing me with

hands-on knowledge in the field of renewable energy sources. Throughout my
time there, I gained a deep understanding of how the Phasor Measurement Unit
(PMU systems functioned in obtaining real-time data and managing them
effectively Renewable Energy Management Center (REMC). The applications
of PMU were crucial in maintaining the stability and reliability of the electrical
grid.

During my internship, I learned about several key applications of PMU systems

in SRLDC. One of the most significant was their role in real- time monitoring,
which allowed SRLDC to detect any abnormalities in the electrical grid
promptly and take corrective action. This was essential in ensuring that the grid
remained stable and reliable.

Another critical application of PMU systems was load management, which

involved balancing the supply and demand of electricity on the grid to prevent
overloading or underloading. Fault detection and diagnosis were also crucial
applications that allowed SRLDC to detect and resolve faults promptly,
minimizing downtime and reducing the risk of damage to the grid.

Finally, communication was another essential application of PMU and at

REMC. By facilitating effective communication between different departments
at SRLDC, PMU and SCADA systems at REMC ensured that the electrical grid
was managed efficiently and effectively.

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Chapter 2
DETAILED VIEW OF COMPANY

SOUTHERN REGIONAL LOAD DISPATCH CENTER (SRLDC)

Southern Regional (SR) grid is a large system comprising of around

651000sq.kms of area encompassing 5 states system viz Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and Union Territory of
Pondicherry and central sector, state sector and independent power producing
Generating station. The SR grid is connected with other load dispatch centers
through HVDC bipolar or back-to-back connections within the region. The
different states are interconnected with each other through a 400kv grid
network and some 220kv grid of interstate lines.

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A large part of the loads in the southern regions are Agricultural and depend on
the vagaries of the monsoon. Wind generation in Tamil Nadu which during high
wind period goes up to 1500 MW is also weather dependent and both the above
factors contribute vastly to the un-predictability of the system behaviour and
provide a richly diverse playing field. Therefore, the frequency in the grid at
times varies in wide range and poses real challenge to the grid operators.

As regards to the grid voltage, few years back SR grid was experiencing critical
low voltage conditions due to weak transmission system and large quantum of
power flow on EHV AC lines from North to South. However, with the
commissioning of 2500 MW Talcher - Kolar HVDC bipole link and addition of
large number of EHV transmission lines.

The transmission network is SR has been strengthened considerably and in

general low voltage condition are not being experienced it has rather been
observed that in certain areas due to addition of large transmission network
without matching generation.

At times the grid is having high voltage conditions and many a times in addition
to taking different voltage control measures, grid operators have to open the
number of lightly loaded redundant EHV lines hence in order to control the
voltage.

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Chapter 3
Renewable and non-renewable resources

Renewable sources – which are obtained from sources that are essentially
inexhaustible. Examples wind, solar, tidal, and geo-thermal etc.,

Non-renewable sources – which are finite do not get replenished after their
consumption or these sources are exhaustible do not quickly replenished. Examples
fossil fuels, nuclear etc.,

Salient features of Renewable energy sources

Advantages
 Renewable energy sources are available in nature, free of cost.
 They cause no or very little pollution. Thus, by and large, they are
environmentally friendly.
 They are inexhaustible.
 They have low gestation period.

Disadvantages
 Though available freely in nature, the cost of harnessing energy from
Renewable energy sources is high, as in general, these are available in
dilute forms of energy.
 Uncertainty of availability: the energy flow depends on various natural
phenomena beyond human control.
 Difficulty in transporting this form of energy.

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Chapter 4

SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. The power from the Sun
intercepted by the earth is approximately1.8×1011 MW which is many thousands of
times larger than the present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy
sources. Thus, in principle solar energy could supply all the present & future energy
needs of the world on a continuing basis. This makes it one of the most promising of the
Renewable energy sources.

Solar energy is received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly
into other forms of energy, such as heat & electricity. This energy is radiated by the Sun
as electromagnetic waves of which 99% have wave lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4
micrometers.

Solar energy reaching the top of the Earth‘s atmosphere consists about 8% U.V
radiation, 46% of visible light, 46% Infrared radiation.

Classification of methods for solar energy utilization:

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Solar Constant

The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of
fusion reactions. Its diameter is 1.39 x 106 KM. While that of the earth is 1.27 x 104
KM. The mean distance between the two is 1.50 x 108 KM. Although the sun is large, it
subtends an angle of only 32 minutes at the earth’s surface. This is because it is also a
very large distance. Thus, the 2-beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is
almost parallel. The brightness of the sun varies from its center to its edge. However,
for engineering calculations, it is customary to assume that the brightness all over the
solar disc in uniform. As viewed from the earth, the radiation coming from the sun
appears to be essentially equivalent to that coming from a back surface at 5762ºk.

“The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called solar
constant”. This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area
perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun.
Because of the sun’s distance and activity vary throughout the year, the rate of arrival of
solar constant is thus an average from which the actual values vary up to 3 percent in
either direction. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA)
standard value the solar constant, expressed in three common units, is as follows:

(i) 1.353 kilowatts per square meter

(ii) 116.5 Langley per hour (1 Langley being equal to 1cal/cm2 of solar radiation
received in one day)
(iii) 429.2 Btu per Sq.ft. per hour.

Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface

The solar radiation that penetrates the earth’s atmosphere and reaches the surface
differs in both amount and character from the radiation at the top of the atmosphere. In
the first place. Part of the radiation is reflected back into the space, especially by
clouds. Furthermore, the radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by
molecules in the air. Oxygen and Ozone (O3), formed from oxygen, absorb nearly all
the Ultraviolet radiation, and water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some of the
energy in the infrared range. In addition, part of the solar radiation is scattered (i.e., its
direction has been changed) by droplets in clouds by atmosphere molecules, and by
dust particles.

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Solar Radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly
from the sun is called “Direct Radiation” or Beam Radiation. Diffuse radiation is that
Solar Radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by reflection
and scattering by the atmosphere. Because of the Solar Radiation is scattered in all
directions in the atmosphere, diffuses radiation comes to the earth from all parts of the
sky. The sum of the beam and diffuse radiation flux is referred to as total or global
radiation.

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SELECTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Photovoltaic comprises the technology to convert sunlight directly into electricity. The
term “photo” means light and “voltaic,” electricity. A photovoltaic (PV) cell, also
known as “solar cell,” is a semiconductor device that generates electricity when light
falls on it. Since its first commercial use in powering orbital satellites of the US space
programs in the 1950s, PV has made significant progress with total photovoltaic
module industry growing at more than 40% in the past decade. The PV modules
combined with a set of additional application-dependent system components (e.g.
inverters, batteries, electrical components, and mounting systems), form a PV system.
These PV systems are highly modular, i.e. modules can be linked together to provide
power ranging from a few watts to tens of megawatts (MW). The solar PV panels
typically produce DC electricity that is fed to a grid interactive inverter, which in turn
converts the DC electricity into AC electricity at a required voltage level. In order to
achieve a higher system voltage, the output of inverters is fed to step up transformers
to increase the voltage levels at the desired level. From the transformer, the power is
routed through the high voltage panel and eventually to other required measuring &
protection devices before connecting to the grid. The major equipment and
components of a typical solar plant are shown in the following figure.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

The photoelectric conversion in the PV junction. PV junction (diode) is a boundary

between two differently doped semiconductor layers; one is a P ‐type layer (excess
holes), and the second one is an N‐type (excess electrons). At the boundary between
the P and the N area, there is a spontaneous electric field, which affects the generated
electrons and holes and determines the direction of the current.

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To obtain the energy by the photoelectric effect, there shall be a directed motion of
photoelectrons, i.e. electricity. All charged particles, photoelectrons also, move in a
directed motion under the influence of electric field. The electric field in the material
itself is located in semiconductors, precisely in the impoverished area of PV junction
(diode). It was pointed out for the semiconductors that, along with the free electrons
in them, there are cavities as charge carriers, which are a sort of a byproduct in the
emergence of free electrons. Cavities occurs whenever the valence electron turns into
a free electron, and this process is called the generation, while the reverse process,
when the free electron fills the empty spaces ‐ a cavity, is called recombination. If the
electron‐cavity pairs occur away from the impoverished areas it is possible to
recombine before they are separated by the electric field. Photoelectrons and cavities
in semiconductors are accumulated at opposite ends, thereby creating an
electromotive force. If a consuming device is connected to such a system, the current
will flow and we will get electricity In this way, solar cells produce a voltage around
5‐7 V, with a current density of about several tens of mA/cm2 depending on the solar
radiation power as well as on the radiation spectrum.

TYPES OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM

ON-GRID SOLAR SYSTEM

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An on-grid solar system or grid tied, is a solar PV system which connects directly to
the National Grid. This kind of Solar PV System is the most common amongst home
and business owners. This type of system is perfect for someone who is already
connected to the Grid, yet wants to reduce their carbon footprint and energy bills.

However, on-grid systems don't provide power during grid outages for safety reasons.
Additionally, they're subject to grid availability and regulations that might affect the
compensation for excess energy sent to the grid.

HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

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Hybrid Solar systems combine the technology of Solar Panels and Solar batteries to
create a green energy solution which provides a back-up supply of energy. Although
a hybrid PV system remains connected to the National Grid, any solar energy
generated is first stored in a home battery solution before going to the grid. Hybrid
solar panel systems offer great flexibility, as when you have used up all your energy
in your battery, you still have the ability to draw from the grid. This makes a hybrid
solar system the perfect in between solution.
The main advantage of a hybrid solar system is that by storing your surplus energy in
a battery, you can use your solar energy to power your home during the night and will
export less energy back to the Grid. What’s more, unlike an on-grid system, when the
national grid is down, you can also draw energy from your battery supply. This is
known as islanding and is particularly ideal for property owners who live in areas
prone to power outages.

OFF-GRID SOLAR SYSTEM

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Unliked an on-grid solar system, an off-grid system has zero ties to the national
grid. Making it desirable of those who can’t connect to the grid easily or wish to be
energy independent.

With energy prices rising, energy independence is more in demand than ever. A
complete Off-Grid Solar System contains everything you need to generate your
own solar energy. Unlike hybrid systems, Off-grid systems tend to feature back-up
generators and other types of renewable sources, to ensure your battery is charged
fully all year round. This is because your off-grid system is the only means of
energy supply you have. Off-grid solar systems have the ability to provide
electricity even in the remotest of locations. Through an off grid solar system, you
can be energy self-sufficient, with a supply of power no matter where you decide
to live.

The benefits of an off grid system include, having no energy bill, as well as relying
only on environmentally friendly resources.

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Advantages and disadvantages of solar system

Advantages:
 Renewable Energy Source: Solar power is a renewable resource that can be harnessed if
the sun exists.
 Environmentally Friendly Solar power generates electricity with no greenhouse gas
emissions, reducing carbon footprint and air pollution.
 Reduced Electricity Bills Installing solar panels can significantly decrease electricity bills,
especially in areas with ample sunlight.
 Low Maintenance: Solar panels typically require minimal maintenance and have a long
lifespan, often lasting 25-30 years.
 Energy Independence: Using solar power reduces reliance on fossil fuels and the
traditional energy grid, providing greater energy independence.
 Diverse Applications: Solar energy can be used for various purposes, from
powering homes and businesses to charging devices and even running vehicles.

Disadvantages:
 Intermittent Energy Source: Solar power production is dependent on sunlight,
making it intermittent. Cloudy days and nighttime reduce energy production.
 Initial Cost: The upfront cost of purchasing and installing solar panels can be high,
although prices have been decreasing over time.
 Space Requirements: Solar panels require significant space for installation, which
may not be feasible for everyone, especially in urban areas.
 Weather Dependency: Weather conditions, such as cloudy days or storms, can
affect solar panel efficiency, reducing energy production.
 Storage Challenges: Storing excess energy generated during peak sunlight hours
for use during low sunlight periods can be challenging and expensive.

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Chapter 5

WIND ENERGY SYSTEM

Wind Energy captures the natural wind in our environment and converts the air’s
motion into mechanical energy. Wind is caused by differences in atmospheric
pressure. Wind speeds vary based on geography, topography, and season. As a
result, there are some locations better suited for wind energy generation than
others. In general, wind speeds are higher near the coast and offshore since there
are fewer objects like vegetation, mountains, and buildings to slow them down.

The mechanism used to convert air motion into electricity is referred to as a

turbine. A turbine is a large structure with several spinning blades. These blades
are connected to an electro-magnetic generator that generates electricity when the
wind causes the blades to spin.

WIND TURBINE

Wind Power plants are a collection of wind turbines either horizontal or vertical
type. These turbines collect the energy individually and are connected to a
common plant. The wind turbine is also similar to the normal turbine, as it converts
kinetic energy into mechanical energy. And they are designed in such a way that
the height and length of the blades are maintained at some ratio. Among all the
power plants Wind plant is one of the major plants with more than 20 years of life
span. It usually requires maintenance every six months. The overall efficiency of a
Wind turbine power plant is 20% - 40%.

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Working of Wind Power Plant

The wind turbine works on the principle of conversion of kinetic energy of wind to
mechanical energy used to rotate the blades of a fan connected to an electric
generator. When the wind or air touches the blades (or) vanes of the windmill it the
air pressure can be uneven, higher on one side of the blade and lower on the other.
Hence, uneven pressure causes the blades to spin around the centre of the turbine.
The turbine does not operate at wind speeds above 55 mph with the use of the
controller.

Fig : Working of wind power plant

The rotor shaft of the turbine (ie., low speed and high speed) is interlinked with
the gearbox which converts the speed from 30 to 60 rpm into 1000 to 1800 rpm.
As the gearbox consists of gears, to transmit mechanical energy. These speeds are
most suitable to the generator for the generation of electricity. When the rotor of
the turbine rotates it drives a generator through a setup gearbox causing the
generator to produce electrical energy.

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Types of Wind Power Plant (Wind Turbines)

There are two types of wind turbines

 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT): These turbines resemble windmills, with
the tip of the shaft pointing in the direction of the wind. Smaller turbines are steered
by wind vanes mounted on the building since they must face the wind. Wind sensors
and servos are used with larger turbines to turn them.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

Mounted on the vertical shaft is the main root. This gets rid of the problems with
horizontal wind turbines. As they require more space and are difficult to install. The
turbines are shown in below figure

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Advantages and disadvantages of wind turbine

Advantages of Wind Energy:

Renewable & Clean: Wind energy is renewable and doesn't produce greenhouse gas
emissions or air pollutants during operation, contributing to cleaner energy
production and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
Abundant Resource: Wind is abundant and widely available in many regions
globally, offering a consistent and reliable energy source.
Low Operating Costs: Once installed, wind turbines have relatively low operating
costs compared to traditional power plants. Maintenance is becoming more efficient
as technology advances.
Land Use Flexibility: Wind farms can be established on agricultural land, allowing
for dual land use and minimal disruption to farming or grazing activities.

Disadvantages of Wind Energy:

Intermittency and Variability: Wind is intermittent and variable, making energy
production unpredictable. It requires backup power sources or energy storage systems
to compensate for fluctuations in wind speed.
Visual and Noise Impact: Wind turbines can be visually unappealing to some and
produce noise, potentially impacting local communities and wildlife habitats.
High Initial Costs: The initial investment for setting up wind farms, including
purchasing and installing turbines, can be substantial, although costs have been
decreasing over time.
Environmental Concerns: Some environmental concerns include the impact on bird
and bat populations due to collisions with turbine blades and disruption of local
ecosystems during construction.
Location Dependency: Wind energy is highly location-dependent, with optimal sites
often situated far from densely populated areas, necessitating long-distance energy
transmission.

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Chapter 6
HYDRO ENERGY SYSTEM

Hydro-energy is known as a traditional renewable energy source. It is based on

natural circulating water flow and its drop from higher to lower land surface that
constitutes the potential. In order to convert this potential energy to applicable
electric energy, water flow should be led to and drive a hydraulic turbine,
transforming hydro energy into mechanical energy.

Mankind has used the energy of falling water for many centuries, at first in
mechanical form and since the late 19th century by further conversion to
electrical energy. Historically, hydropower was developed on a small scale to
serve localities in the vicinity of the plants. With the expansion and increasing
load transfer capability of transmission networks, power generation was
concentrated in increasingly larger units and to benefit from the economies
resulting from development on a larger scale.

Sites selected for development tended to be the most economically attractive; in

this regard, higher heads, and proximity to load centers were significant factors.
For this reason, development was not restricted to large sites, and hydro stations
today range from less than 1 MWe capacity to more than 10,000 MWe. The
efficiency of hydroelectric generation is more than twice that of competing
thermal power stations.

Hydropower is called a renewable energy source because the water on Earth is

continuously replenished by precipitation. As long as the water cycle continues,
we won’t run out of this energy source.

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Working of hydro power plant

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Dam and Reservoir: The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly areas to
ensure sufficient water storage at height. The dam forms a large reservoir
behind it. The height of water level (called as water head) in the reservoir
determines how much of potential energy is stored in it.

Control Gate: Water from the reservoir is allowed to flow through the
penstock to the turbine. The amount of water which is to be released in the
penstock can be controlled by a control gate. When the control gate is fully
opened, maximum amount of water is released through the penstock.

Penstock: A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries water from the
reservoir to the turbine. Potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic
energy as it flows down through the penstock due to gravity.

Water Turbine: Water from the penstock is taken into the water turbine. The
turbine is mechanically coupled to an electric generator. Kinetic energy of the
water drives the turbine and consequently the generator gets driven. There are
two main types of water turbine; (i) Impulse turbine and (ii) Reaction turbine.
Impulse turbines are used for large heads and reaction turbines are used for low
and medium heads.

Generator: A generator is mounted in the powerhouse and it is mechanically

coupled to the turbine shaft. When the turbine blades are rotated, it drives the
generator and electricity is generated which is then stepped up with the help of
a transformer for the transmission purpose.

Types of hydroelectric power plants

There are three types of hydroelectric power plants:

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 Run-of-the-river power plants

 Hydroelectric power plants with a reservoir
 Pumped-storage hydroelectric power plants

Run-of-the-river power plants: these hydroelectric power plants withdraw

water from the river based on the available water flow, which depends on
environmental conditions, and run it through the turbines. The drop in elevation
is small and these power plants require a constant water flow.

Hydroelectric power plants with a reservoir: they are hydroelectric power

plants that use an upstream water impoundment with a dam. The reservoir
regulates the amount of water going through the turbines and producing
electrical energy year-round, independently of the water flow in the river.

Pumped-storage hydroelectric power plants: they are hydroelectric power

plants with two reservoirs at different elevations, which are operated when there
is an extra demand of electrical energy. Water in the upper reservoir goes
through the turbine and flows into the lower reservoir, and is later pumped back
up to the upper reservoir at the time of day when there is not such a high
demand of energy.

Advantages and disadvantages of hydro powerplant

Advantages
 No fuel is required as potential energy is stored water is used for electricity
generation.
 Neat and clean source of energy
 Very small running charges - as water is available free of cost.
 Comparatively less maintenance is required and has longer life.

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 Serves other purposes too, such as irrigation.

Disadvantages

 Very high capital cost due to construction of dam

 High cost of transmission – as hydro plants are located in hilly areas which
are quite away from the consumers.

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Chapter 6
PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNIT

A Phasor Measurement Unit, also called a PMU or a synchro phasor, is a key tool
used on electric systems to improve operators’ visibility into what is happening
throughout the vast grid network. A PMU is a device that measures a quantity
called a phasor.

A phasor tells the magnitude and phase angle for the AC voltage or current at a
specific location on a power line. This information can also be used to determine
frequency and is useful for identifying and analysing system conditions.

PMUs provide up to 60 measurements per second, which is much more than the
typical one measurement every 2 to 4 seconds provided by conventional SCADA
systems. PMUs have a big advantage over traditional means of collecting data
because all PMU data is time-stamped using Global Positioning System (GPS)
data.

This means that data collected across a grid is all synchronized by using the same
exact method of associating time with data. For this reason, PMUs are sometimes
called synchro phasors.

PMUs can also be used to measure the frequency in the power grid. A typical
commercial PMU can report measurements with very high temporal resolution,
up to 120 measurements per second. This helps engineers in analyzing dynamic
events in the grid which is not possible with traditional SCADA measurements
that generate one measurement every 2 or 4 seconds.

Therefore, PMUs equip utilities with enhanced monitoring and control

capabilities and are considered to be one of the most important measuring devices
in the future of power systems.[2] A PMU can be a dedicated device, or the PMU
function can be incorporated into a protective relay or other device.

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Transmission of data to control center.

 Current Transformers (CTs) and Potential Transformers (PTs), installed

on transmission lines, provide inputs to transducers of RTU (Remote
Terminal Unit) panel.

 Transducer is an electronic device that converts the relay signals from

one form to another (here electrical).

 The output of RTU is connected to the communication equipment,

through Modem. In between substation & sub LDC, a communication
link has been shown. Telephone exchanges are connected with
communication equipment. Such communication links can be of any
type.

 ADC is used to convert Analog signals to digital signals.

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 FEP is the abbreviation of front-end protocol were the input is output of

RTU. The RTU sends the information based on three protocols.

 This is a communication protocol used by RTUs to communicate with a

central control center. The IEC 60870-5-101 protocol is a serial

communication protocol that uses a master/slave architecture to exchange
data between devices. The IEC 60870-5-104 protocol is an updated
version of the protocol that uses a more advanced communication model
and supports TCP/IP networks.

 The output of FEP is connected to the Scada system. The system is

responsible for gathering, processing and displaying information about
the state of a monitored system.

 GUI is the abbreviation of graphical user interface. It shows the location

at which the fault occurs.

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Need of Phasor Measurement Unit

The data from different locations are not captured at precisely the same
time.
 System monitoring is more critical during disturbance and
transients when V, P and Q change abruptly.
 Faster synchronized data is needed to capture
the dynamics (SCADA/EMS refresh rate is secs to mins).
 Fast real time control is possible only with real time
situational awareness.
 Angle separation between generator and load buses provide a
reliable way to assess system stress conditions
 “It’s like going from X-ray to MRI of the grid”.

PMU – Benefits

🞂 Real time Monitoring and Control

🞂 Power System State Estimation
🞂 Real Time Congestion Management
🞂 Benchmarking, validation and tuning of system models
🞂 Post-Disturbance Analysis
🞂 Power System Restoration
🞂 Protection and Control Applications for D.G.
🞂 Overload Monitoring and Dynamic Rating
🞂 Adaptive Protection
🞂 Planned Power System Separation

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PMU – ARCHITECTURE – Internal

🞂 Filtering a signal before sampling to remove components whose

frequency is equal to or greater than the Nyquist frequency (one-half
the sample rate) – Anti aliasing.

🞂 Filtered signal is then digitized by an A/D converter.

🞂 Use DFS/DFT method to compute magnitude and phase of sampled

signal.

🞂 A common timing reference i.e. a source of accurate timing signals is

needed as described in IEEE Std. C37.118.1-2011.

🞂 GPS sends signal every second, a phase-locked oscillator is used to

generate the time tags within the second.

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🞂 Phasor Data Concentrator – A device that concentrates and aligns

phasor data from different locations. It helps in correlating data and
wide area monitoring.

🞂 For each measurement, the PMU shall assign a time tag that includes
the time and time quality at the time of measurement.

🞂 The time tag shall accurately resolve time of measurement to at least 1

μs within a specified 100 year period.

🞂 The time status shall include time quality that clearly indicates
traceability to UTC, time accuracy and leap second status.

🞂 PDC can perform various quality checks on phasor data, insert

appropriate flags, check disturbance flags, provide specialized outputs.

PMU – Standards or Protocols

🞂 Every form of data transfer requires a standard for universal use and
understanding, interoperability etc.

🞂 These standards address issues like synchronization of data sampling,

data to phasor conversion, formats for timing input, phasor data
communication and output.

🞂 The defector standard for PMU to PDC communication was

Macrodyne 1 and 2.

🞂 This was replaced by IEEE 1344 protocol and subsequently by IEEE

C37.118 which provides definition and measurement requirements for
power system frequency, ROCOF.

🞂 The latest version (2011) specifies performance under dynamic

conditions too.

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PMUs in India

🞂 SRLDC Pilot project – Installation of 6 PMUs at Ramagundam,

Vijayawada, Somanahalli, Sriperumbudur, Trichur by M/s SEL.
Project completed on 31st March 2013.

🞂 Northern Region project – 4 PMUs installed at Kolar, Gajuwaka,

Gooty and Tirunelveli by M/s SEL. Two additional PMUs installed at
Raichur and Gajuwaka east bus.

🞂 An additional PMU was installed at Raichur 765kV station by M/s

ALSTOM in December 2013.

🞂 The communication link from PMUs to PDC is fiber optic, other than
PMU in Narendra which is using VSAT link of KPTCL. The PDC at
SRLDC communicates with PDC at NLDC on C37.118 protocol.

Applications of PMU
🞂 DF/DT setting: With the commissioning of large generating units like
UMPP , KUDANKULAM it was necessary to re-examine the DF/DT
setting using PMU data.

🞂 Verification of HVDC control settings: The tripping of filter banks,

electrode characteristics can be checked using PMU data.

🞂 Signature Analysis: Certain events or activities leave behind a

signature that can be used in real time control.

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Phasor-Based Wide Area Monitoring System

WAMS

It’s a collective technology to monitor power system dynamics in real

time, identify system stability related weakness and helps to design and
implement counter measures & improve the performance, reliability and
security of power systems.

It is based on Phasor measurement units (PMUs) that measures electrical

parameters in power systems such as voltages, currents, and frequency. It
uses Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) to provide globally synchronized
power system measurements. Precise synchronization using GPS is the
key to WAMS performance.

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Components of WAMS

PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNIT (PMU)

🞂 IEEE definition – “A device that produces synchronized phasor,

frequency, and ROCOF estimates from voltage and/or current signals and
a time synchronizing signal”
🞂 GPS – uses a constellation of 24 satellites broadcasting a precision
signal for location and time synchronization.
🞂 A time error of 1 s causes a phase error of 0.0180.
🞂 A PMU can be a dedicated device, or the PMU function can be
incorporated into a protective relay or other device (DFR).
🞂 Very precise synchronisation (μs accuracy), reporting at rate of 20-60
phasors/ second, computes MW and MVAR directly.

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Chapter 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

As part of my internship at the South Regional Load Dispatch Centre (SRLDC),

I had the opportunity to study and analyse the functioning of the Renewable
Energy Management Centre (REMC), which are integral components of the
electrical grid operation.

The REMC at the SRLDC is responsible for managing renewable energy

generation and distribution within the state. The REMC receives real-time data
from different renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind farms, and
monitors their output levels. The primary function of the REMC is to ensure
optimal utilization of renewable energy sources while maintaining the grid's
stability.

During my internship, I discovered that the REMC plays a crucial role in the
efficient utilization of renewable energy sources. It analyses real-time data from
different sources and ensures the best utilization of renewable energy sources,
which leads to reduced carbon emissions and better grid stability.

The SCADA system is an integral part of the REMC, which allows real-time
monitoring and control of the grid. The SCADA system obtains real-time data
from the different components of the grid, such as power plants, transmission
lines, and substations. The SCADA system also facilitates the monitoring and
control of the grid's voltage and frequency levels, which are essential
parameters for maintaining grid stability.

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During my internship, I learned that the SCADA system at the SRLDC is highly
efficient in obtaining real-time data from various grid components. The system
enables remote monitoring and control of the grid, reducing the need for on-site
inspections. Additionally, the SCADA system is equipped with various alarm
systems that alert the operators in case of any abnormalities in the grid.

In conclusion, the REMC and SCADA systems are vital components in the
efficient operation and management of the electrical grid. The REMC ensures
optimal utilization of renewable energy sources, while the SCADA system
allows for real-time monitoring and control of the grid, which enhances grid
stability. The integration of these systems has led to an efficient and reliable
grid operation at the SRLDC. Overall, my internship experience has provided
me with a comprehensive understanding of the functioning of the electrical grid
and the significance of renewable energy sources in meeting the increasing
energy demand.

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Chapter 6

CONCLUSION

During my internship at the South Regional Load Dispatch Centre

(SRLDC), I gained practical knowledge of the Renewable Energy
Management Centre (REMC) and Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) system, which are vital components of the electrical
grid. The REMC manages renewable energy generation and distribution,
while the SCADA system enables real- time monitoring and control of the
grid, resulting in an efficient and reliable grid operation.

This internship has provided me with a deeper understanding of the

electrical grid's functioning and the significance of renewable energy
sources in meeting the energy demand sustainably. The knowledge and
skills I gained through this experience will be invaluable in my future career
as anelectrical engineer. I am excited to apply this knowledge to contribute
to the development of the energy sector.

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REFERENCES

[1]. "Renewable Energy Management Centre (REMC)." Power System

Operation CorporationLimited (POSOCO),
www.posoco.in/operations/renewable-energy-management-centre-remc/.
[2]. "SCADA: An Introduction to SCADA Systems." GE Digital,
www.ge.com/digital/blog/scada-systems-101.
[3]. Renewable Energy Management Centre, Power System Operation
Corporation Limited, Ministry of Power, Government of India. Available
at: https://www.posoco.in/posoco- web/renewable-energy-management-
Centre.

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