Lab Session 1

Load-Extension Curve
1.1 Objective:
To draw the load-extension curve of a metallic wire and hence determine the modulus of
The elasticity of the material of the wire.

1.2 Apparatus:
• Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus
• Hangers
• Weights
• Meter Rod
• Micrometer

1.3Summery of Theory:
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus consists of a wire attached to a
fixed support. The lower end of the wire is attached to the hanger with the
help of a metallic plate. The extension of the wire on loading can be
measured from the scale present on the metallic plate. Normal stress in a solid body is defined as:
“The internal resistance force per unit area against the applied load or external force.” It is denoted
by σ. It can be tensile or compressive.

Mathematically,
Stress = Force/Area ---------- (i)
Units of stress: Newton per square meter (N/m2 ) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)

Normal strain in a solid body is defined as: a “Change of length per Original Length.” It is
denoted by the symbol ε.

Mathematically,
Normal Strain = Change in length/Original length ---------- (ii)
Strain is measured as inch/inch.

Hooke’s law shows that stress is directly proportional to the strain, whenever a material is
loaded within its proportionality limit. It is denoted by E.

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Mathematically,
Stress α Strain (within proportionality limit) ---------- (iii)
Units of E: Newton per square meter (N/m2 ) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)
Consider a body (wire) subjected to tensile stress as shown in Figure 1.1.
Let,
P = Load or force acting on the body
L = Length of the body
A = Cross-sectional area of the body
σ = Stress induced in the body
E = Modulus of elasticity for the material of the body
ε = Strain produced in the body
δl = Deformation of the body
From (i), (ii), and (iii)
σαε
σ=Exε
or
E = σ/ε
E = (p/ δl) (L/A)

1.4 Load-Extension Curve:

1.5 Procedure:

1. Put the initial load of 2 lb to remove wrinkles in wire.

2. Measure length of wire using meter rod.

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3. Measure diameter of the wire using micrometer.

4. Adjust main scale so that zeros of two scales coincide with each other.

5. Put a load of 5 lb in the hanger and measure extension.

6. Take a set of at least five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on

unloading.

7. Check the zeros at no load.

8. Calculate the “Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E)” of the material of the shaft.

1.6 Observations and Calculations:

Least Count of the scale of apparatus = 0.05mm

Least Count of micrometers = 0.1 mm

Least Count of meter rod =10mm

Length of wire (L) =892 mm

Dia of wire (d) =1 mm

Initial Load =0.5N

X-area of wire (A= πd2 /4) =0.785mm 2

Table 1Calculation of Modulus of Elasticity

No. of Effective Extension(in) P/δl Modulus of
(lb/inch) Elasticity
observation Load-P Loading Unloading Average From E=(P/δl)(L/A)
Graph (psi)

1 0.5 0.162 0.16 0.161 892

71.42 ×
2 1 0.163 0.172 0.167 0.785
𝐸 = 8.04 × 104
3 1.5 0.164 0.18 0.172
71.42
4 2 0.184 0.175 0.178
5 2.5 0.185 0.185 0.185

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1.6.1 Graph:

1.7 Comments:

A load-extension curve is an essential tool for studying the mechanical properties of materials,
including their strength, stiffness, and ductility. It provides valuable information on the behavior
of materials under various loads and helps engineers and scientists to design and optimize
structures and components.

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 Lab Session 2

Relationship Between Shear Stress and Shear Strain

2.1 Objective:
To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for rubber and to determine
the modulus of rigidity of the material.
2.2 Apparatus:
 Modulus of rigidity of rubber apparatus
 Hangers
 Weights
 Steel rule
 Dial Indicator

A rubber block 12 x 4 x 1 inch is bonded to two aluminum alloy plates. One plate is screwed to a
wall, whilst the other has a shear load applied by a loaded weight hanger. A dial gauge measures
the deflection of the block. This equipment is part of a range designed to both demonstrate and
experimentally confirm basic engineering principles. Great care has been given to each item so as
to provide wide experimental scope without unduly complicating or compromising the design.

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Each piece of apparatus is self-contained and compact. Setting up time is minimal, and all
measurements are made with the simplest possible instrumentation so that the student involvement
is the engineering principles being taught.
2.3 Summary of Theory:
The force which tends to cut off or parts off one portion of the component from the other is
called shear force. Stresses produced on the area under shear, due to shearing forces, are called
shearing stresses. Shear stress is denoted by τ.
Mathematically,
Shearing stress = Shearing force/ Area under shear ------ (i)
Units of shear stress: Newton per square meter (N/m2 ) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch
(psi)
Shearing strain is the angle of distortion. It can be represented by γ. ------ (ii)
The constant of proportionality relating shear stress and shear strain is modulus of rigidity. It is
represented by G.
Mathematically,
G = Shear stress/ shear strain ------ (iii)
Units of G: Newton per square meter (N/m2 ) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)
Let us consider the deformation of a rectangular block where the forces acting on the block are
known to be shearing stress.
The change of angle at the corner of an originally rectangular element is defined as the shear
strain.
Let,
Ps = Shearing load or force acting on the body
l = Length of the body
A = Area under shear = l x t
τ = Shear stress induced in the body
G = Modulus of rigidity for the material of the body
γ = Shear strain produced
δs = Deformation of the body
From the figure
Cc = Dd = δs = Shear Deformation

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tanγ = Dd/BD = δs/w
For smaller angles
tanγ = γ =Shear strain = δs/w
From the information in (i), (ii), and (iii)
G=τ/γ
or
G = (Ps / δs) (w/ l.t)

2.4 Procedure:
1. Set the dial indicator so that its anvil rests on the top of the loading plate.
2. Set the dial indicator to zero.
3. With the hanger in position apply a load to the hanger and read the vertical displacement of the
loading plate relative to the fixing plate from the dial indicator (δs).
4. Repeat the experiment for increasing load and record the vertical displacement of the loading
plate in each case.
5. Unload and note the corresponding readings with the load decreasing.
6. Calculate the “Modulus of Rigidity (G)” of the rubber material.

2.5 Observations & Calculations:

Length of rubber block (l) =30.01mm
Width of rubber block (w) =10.3mm
The thickness of rubber block (t) =2.6mm
Least count of the dial indicator =0.01 mm
Area =78.26m𝑚2

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 Table 2Calculation of Modulus of Rigidity

No. Load Shear Deformation-δs Shear Shear Modulus of

of Ps (mm) Rigidity
Obs. (lbs) Stress Strain
Loading Unloading Average G =τ/γ G
τ =Ps/l .t γ = δs / w (N/m2)
(N/m2) From
Graph
(N/m2)

1 1 0.03 0 0.015 1.27× 104 1.45× 10−3 8.75× 106

2 2 0.07 0.05 0.06 2.5× 104 5.82× 10−3 4.29× 106

3 3 0.11 0.09 0.10 3.8× 104 9.70× 10−3 3.91× 106

1.9× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 N/ m2.

4 4 0.15 0.12 0.135 5.1× 104 0.0131 3.8× 106

5 5 0.14 0.16 0.175 6.38× 104 0.0169 3.71× 106

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2.5.1 Graph:

2.6 Comments:

Shear stress and shear strain are essential concepts in the study of the mechanical behavior of
materials and are used to quantify the material's resistance to deformation under shear loading.
Understanding these concepts is crucial for designing and analyzing structures and components
subjected to shear stress.

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 Lab Session-3

Modulus of Rigidity of Circular Shaft

3.1 Objective:

To determine the modulus of rigidity of the given material of the circular shaft.

3.2 Apparatus:

• Torsion of shaft apparatus

• Hangers

• Weights

• Vernier Calipers

• Micrometer

• Steel rule

Torsion of shaft apparatus includes a shaft of circular section, two measuring scales, and a pulley
with a frame. The main purpose of the pulley with a hanger is to apply some load on the circular
shaft. Similarly, the scales attached to the frame are used to measure the torsion in the circular
shaft. Actually, two scales are used, one at the front and one at the back. The measuring arms
(scales) are used to measure the magnitude of the torsion at the front and the back of the circular
shaft respectively. The front is the portion of the shaft that is near the pulley and the back is the
portion of the shaft near the back support of the frame. The main purpose of the frame is to support
the shaft and balance the apparatus on the surface.

3.3 Summary of Theory:

Torsion is the engineering word used to describe the process of twisting a member about its
longitudinal axis. Consider a solid circular shaft of radius “r” and length “L” fixed at its back face
as shown in figure(b). A line AC is marked on the shaft. If a torque “T’ is applied at its free end,
line AC will acquire the shape of a helix and point A will move to A’.

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Then from figure,

Angle of twist, θ = <AO A/

Now consider a longitudinal fiber at distance “ρ” from the axis of the shaft.

Deformation in longitudinal fiber, δs = AA/= ρθ

Strain in longitudinal fiber, γ = δs /L = ρθ/L

Stress in longitudinal fiber, τ = Gθ

The shearing strain is maximum on the surface of the shaft where ρ = r.

If J is the Polar moment of inertia of the shaft, then using above information the torsional

formula for a circular shaft can be written as:

T/J = τ/r = Gθ/L

` or

G = TL/ Jθ

The torsional formula describes the relation of applied torque with the angle of twist and stresses

produced in the shafts.

3.4 Procedure:
1. Place the apparatus on a smooth horizontal surface.
2. Measure the effective length of the shaft using the steel rule.
3. Measure the diameter of the shaft using a micrometer.
4. Adjust the Zeros at 1st and 2nd measuring arm.

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 5. Put a load of ten N in the hanger.
6. Measure the 1st and 2nd angles of the twist of the shaft.
7. Take a set of six readings of the increasing value of load and then take readings on unloading.
8. Calculate the “Modulus of Rigidity (G)” of the material of the shaft.

3.5 Observations & Calculations:

Effective length of shaft (L) = 250 mm

Diameter of shaft (d) = 0.9mm

Diameter of torque pulley (D) =12.5mm

Radius of torque pulley (R=D/2) =52.5 mm

Polar Moment of Inertia of the shaft (J=πd4 /32) =0.0644 m𝑚4

No. Load Torque Angle of twist at 1st measuring arm

of θ1
Obs. W WR (rad) Modulus of Rigidity

(N) (Nm) Loading Unloading Average G=TL/Jθ

(N/m2)

1 0.5 0.02625 1 1.5 1.25 0.81× 105

2 1 0.0525 3 3.5 3.25 0.62× 105

3 1.5 0.07875 5 5 5 0.611× 105

4 2 0.105 6.5 6 6.25 0.63× 105

5 2.5 0.1312 8 8 8 0.65× 105

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No. Load Torque Angle of twist at 1st measuring arm
of Θ2
Obs. W WR (rad) Modulus of Rigidity

(N) (Nm) Loading Unloading Average G=TL/Jθ

(N/m2)

1 0.5 0.02625 0.5 0.5 0.5 2.03 × 105

2 1 0.0525 1 1 1 2.03× 105

3 1.5 0.07875 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.03× 105

4 2 0.105 2 2 2 2.03× 105

5 2.5 0.1312 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.03× 105

3.6 Comments:

The modulus of rigidity is a crucial parameter in the design and analysis of circular shafts and
determines the shaft's ability to resist shear forces and bending moments. It is related to the
material's mechanical properties and is used to calculate the maximum shear stress and shear strain
that the shaft can withstand.

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 Lab Session-4

Central deflection of a simply supported beam

4.1 Objective:

To determine the central deflection of a simply supported beam loaded by a concentrated load at
mid point and hence determine the modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam.

4.2Apparatus:

• Deflection of beam apparatus

• Hanger

• Weights

• Meter rod

• Dial indicator

• Vernier Calipers

Deflection of beam apparatus contains a metal beam and two knife-edge supports upon which the
beam is supported for this experiment and hence the beam becomes of a simply – supported type.

4.3Summery of Theory:

Beams are structural members supporting loads applied at various points along the members. A
beam undergoes bending by the loads applied perpendicular to their axis of the structure. Beams
are of various types. If the supports are at the ends such that one of them is pin and other is roller
then such a beam is called simply supported beam. Consider a simply supported beam AB of length

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“L” and carrying a point load “W” at the centre of beam C. The maximum deflection for simply
supported beam will occur at half the distance from either support (mid-point).

δ = Deflection of beam at any point along the length of the beam

δc = Central deflection of beam

x = Variable distance from end B.

From the symmetry of the figure, we find that the reaction at A is:
R A = R B = W/2
The maximum deflection (yc) at x = L/2 is given by:
δc = WL3 / 48EI
or
E= (W/ δc) (L3 / 48 I)
Where
E = Modulus of elasticity for the material of beam
I = Moment of inertia of the beam

4.4Procedure:
1. Set the Deflection of Beam apparatus on a horizontal surface.
2. Set the dial indicator at zero.
3. Apply a load of 2N and measure the deflection using dial indicator.
4. Take a set of at least five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on
unloading.
5. Calculate the “Modulus of Elasticity (E)” of the material of the beam.
4.5 Observations and Calculations:
Least Count of the dial indicator = 0.01 mm
Least Count of vernier calipers = 0.05mm
Effective length of beam (L) =85 mm
Breadth of beam (b) =24.2 mm
Height of beam (h) =7 mm
Moment of inertia of the beam (I=bh3 /12) =691.7 m

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No. of Effective Central deflection W/δs Modulus of
Rigidity
Observations Loads
(N/m)
Loading Unloading Average G
W From Graph (N/m2)
(N)

1 1 0.19 0.19 0.19

2 2 0.37 0.38 0.375

3 3 0.58 0.60 0.59 5.119 94.68

4 4 0.78 0.79 0.785

5 5 0.99 0.99 0.99

4.5.1 Graph:
On a graph, plot the deflection against load for the theoretical & practical results.

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4.6 Comments:
In engineering design, the central deflection of a simply supported beam is a critical parameter to
consider, as excessive deflection can cause the beam to fail or lead to damage to the structure it
supports. The design of beam structures typically involves selecting a suitable beam size and
material that can withstand the expected loads and meet deflection limits specified in design codes
and standards.

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 Lab Session-05
Central deflection of a fixed ended beam
5.1 Objective:
To determine the central deflection of a fixed ended beam loaded at mid-span by concentrated
loads and to compare with theoretical value.
5.2 Apparatus:
 Deflection of beam apparatus with clamps
 Hanger
 Weights
 Meter rod
 Dial indicator
 Vernier Caliper

Deflection of beam apparatus contains a metal beam and two knife-edge supports upon which the
beam is supported for this experiment. With the help of clamps arrangement at ends it can be
made fixed type of beam.
5.3Summery of Theory:
A fixed ended beam is supported by fixed supports at both ends as shown in Figure 5.1. The slope
of the beam is thus zero at each end, and a couple will have to be applied at each end and to make
the slope there have this value. The applied couples will be of opposite sign to that of bending
moment, due to loading. The maximum deflection for this fixed beam will occur at center of the
beam (mid-point).

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Let,
δ = Actual deflection of beam at any point along the length of beam
δc = Actual central deflection of beam
yc = Theoretical central deflection of beam
The maximum theoretical deflection (yc) at x = L/2 is given by:
yc = WL3 / 192EI
Where
E = Modulus of elasticity for the material of beam
I = Moment of inertia of the beam
5.4 Procedure:
1. Set the Deflection of Beam apparatus on a horizontal surface.
2. Set the dial indicator at zero.
3. Apply a load of 0.5 lb and measure the deflection using dial indicator.
4. Take a set of at least five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on
unloading.
5. Calculate:
a. the “Theoretical value of deflection (yc)” of beam at mid-span.
b. the %age error between theoretical and experimental values of central deflections.
5.5 Observations and Calculations:
Least Count of the dial indicator = 0.01 mm
Effective length of beam (L) =85mm
Breadth of beam (b) =24.2 mm
Height of beam (h) =7 mm
Modulus of elasticity of material of the beam = 1.0× 1010 N/ mm2
Moment of inertia of the beam (I=bh3 /12) =691.7mm

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No. of Effective Actual Central Deflection-δc Theoretical Percentage
(in) Error
Observations Loads
Deflection (%)
Loading Unloading Average
W
yc = WL3 /192EI
(N)
(in)
1 1 0.09 0.13 0.11 4.62× 10−10 −2.38%

2 2 0.18 0.22 0.20 9.24× 10−10 −2.16%

3 3 0.27 0.30 0.28 1.38× 10−9 −2.02%

4 4 0.37 0.40 0.38 1.84× 10−9 −2.06%

5 5 0.49 0.49 0.49 2.31× 10−9 −2.12%

5.5.1Graph:

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5.6 Industrial Applications:

The central deflection of a fixed-ended beam is a critical parameter in the design and analysis of
many industrial applications. Here are some examples of how central deflection is used in various
industries:
Building construction: In building construction, fixed-ended beams are commonly used to support
floor and roof systems. The central deflection of these beams is a critical parameter in ensuring
that the floors and roofs remain level and do not experience excessive deflection under the loads
they are subjected to.
Bridges: Fixed-ended beams are also commonly used in bridge construction. The central deflection
of these beams is a crucial consideration in ensuring that the bridge remains stable and does not
experience excessive deflection under loads of vehicles and other environmental factors.
5.7 Comments:
The central deflection of a fixed-ended beam is a critical parameter in the analysis and design of
beam structures. It refers to the amount of displacement or deformation that occurs at the midpoint
of a beam that is fixed or clamped at both ends when it is subjected to a load.

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 Lab Session-06
Deflection at mid span of a propped Cantilever Beam
6.1 Objective:
To determine the deflection at mid-span of a propped cantilever beam and compare with the
theoretical values
6.2Apparatus:
• Propped cantilever beam apparatus
• Weights
• Dial gauge
• Vernier Caliper
• Specimen
• Hangers
• Spanner

6.3Summery of Theory:
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending.
6.3.1Classification of beams:
The beams may be classified in several ways, but the commonly used classification is based on
support conditions. On this basis, the beams can be divided into six types:
(1) Cantilever beams
(2) Simply supported beams
(3) Overhanging beams
(4) Propped beams
(5) Fixed beams
(6) Continuous beams
6.3.1.1Cantilever beam:
A beam having one end fixed and the other end free is known as a cantilever beam.
6.3.1.2Simply supported beam:

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A beam having both ends freely resting on supports is called a simply supported beam.
The reaction act at the ends of the effective span of the beam. Figure show simply supported
beams. For such beams the reactions at the two ends are vertical. Such a beam is free to
rotate at the ends when it bends.
6.3.1.3Overhanging beams:
A beam for which the supports are not situated at the ends and one or both ends extend over
the support is called an overhanging beam.
6.3.1.4Propped cantilever beams:
A cantilever beam for which one end is fixed and the other end is provided support, in order to
resist the deflection of the beam, is called a propped cantilever beam. A propped cantilever is a
statically indeterminate beam. Such beams are also called as restrained beams, as an end is
restrained from rotation.
6.3.1.5Fixed beams:
A beam having both ends rigidly fixed against rotation or built into the supporting walls is called
a fixed beam. Such a beam has four reaction components for vertical loading (i.e., a vertical
reaction and a fixing moment at both ends) figure shows the fixed beam.
6.3.1.6Continuous beam:
A beam having more than two supports is called a continuous beam. The supports at the ends are
called the end supports, while all the other supports are called intermediate support. It may or may
not have an overhang. It is a statically indeterminate beam. In these beams, there may be several
spans of the same or different lengths figure shows a continuous beam.

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6.3Procedure:
i. Measure the width and depth of the beam with the help of scale to find the moment of inertia
of the beam.
ii. Set the apparatus and put the required hangers at different points.
iii. Measure the distances of each hanger from the reference end.
iv. Set the deflection dial gauge at zero after putting the hangers.
v. Take the reading of deflection after putting the loads in the hangers
vi. Repeat the process for different loads
vii. Find the theoretical deflection and compare it with the experimental values by showing it on
a
graph.
6.5 Observations and Calculations:
(Aluminium)
Width of Beam = b = 25.4mm
Depth of beam = d = 5.5 mm
Moment of Inertia for rectangular metal bar = I = bd3 /12 =504.46 𝑚𝑚4
Modulus of Elasticity = E = 70 GPa
Least count of dial gauge = 0.01mm

Length of beam = 610mm

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1.7 Graph:
On graph, plot the deflection against load for the theoretical & practical results. Draw the best
fit straight lines through the points.

1.8 Industrial Applications

The are some industrial applications for loading beams
 Heavy-duty beam trolleys
 Concrete beam construction
 Residential construction
 Supporting the heavy loads
1.9 Conclusion
We have learned a great deal about how the bending of a beam depends on the beam's load,
material properties, cross-section, and manner of support. We use the static beam equation and the
ideas that we have explored as a basis for understanding the static deformations of more
complicated structures. The deflection of Aluminum is more as compared to brass.
1.10 Comments

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There are a few valid reasons to make this experiment more accurate
 Beam is made of aluminum, which shows more deflection
 We can use steel beams which is a harder material than aluminum
 Steel beam will show the same properties for imposed loads which include life
loads
 It will also bear the wind loads, earthquake loads, and snow loads

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