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The Perception of Advertisements on the Social Media Platform TikTok

Thesis · October 2023

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.26623.59049/1

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 Berlin University of Applied Sciences and Technology (BHT)

Topic:

The Perception of Advertisements on the Social Media Platform TikTok

Bachelor’s Thesis

Department I - Economics and Social Sciences

Study Program Business Administration - Digital Economy

Konstantin Barac
 Berlin University of Applied Sciences and Technology (BHT)

Abstract
As contemporary advertising strategies are increasingly shaped by the significance and prevalence
of social media platforms, users' negative perception of social media advertisements has become a
crucial challenge for marketers seeking to reach their audience effectively. TikTok, with its distinct
advertising platform, attempts to counteract users' negative attitudes and inclination to avoid ads, yet
limited research exists to evaluate its effectiveness. This study explores to what extent TikTok's
advertising strategy addresses recipients’ inherent negativity toward SMA, shedding light on an
underexplored topic. Utilizing Niu et al.’s (2021) model with its constructs of negative advertising
perceptions, this study introduces the construct of TikTok’s advertising strategy, which exhibits
influence over advertising invasiveness through distinct factors of the platform. The adapted research
model was utilized in empirical research, which employed a qualitative approach. Semi-structured
interviews with both experts and users were conducted, in order to gain a differentiated insight from
the two groups who understand the platform best, and data were analyzed using qualitative content
analysis by Mayring (2014). The key findings indicate that TikTok's ad strategy largely succeeds in
alleviating users' typically negative advertising perceptions. While negative ad perceptions are still
somewhat prevalent on TikTok, by conforming to large parts of TikTok’s advertising strategy,
advertisers can effectively seek to mitigate them and evoke positive consumer responses. Users have
high demands on TikTok and advertisers face the challenge of meeting them, because if they do not,
users may avoid ads more rigorously than audiences elsewhere. For advertisers, understanding the
factors that decrease negative perceptions becomes crucial, and this study offers guidance for brands
seeking to adapt to the evolving landscape on TikTok. Simultaneously, the study contributes to theory
by creating a framework to enhance future research in assessing users' perceptions of advertisements
on TikTok, thereby, offering valuable insights for marketers and academics alike.
 III

Table of Contents

1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background and Social Relevance .................................................................. 1
1.2 Advertising as a Part of Marketing ................................................................... 1
1.3 Research Question, Objective, and Structure of the Paper ............................. 2
2 Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Conceptualization of Key Terms...................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Social Media Advertising (SMA) .......................................................... 3
2.1.2 TikTok ................................................................................................. 3
2.1.3 Creators .............................................................................................. 4
2.1.4 User-Generated Content (UGC) .......................................................... 4
2.2 TikTok Advertising Platform and Strategy........................................................ 5
2.2.1 Advertising Formats ............................................................................ 5
2.2.2 Algorithm ............................................................................................. 7
2.2.3 Advertising Environment...................................................................... 9
2.2.4 Advertising Policies ............................................................................. 9
2.3 The Perception of Social Media Advertisements ........................................... 10
2.3.1 Model by Niu et al. (2021) ................................................................. 12
2.3.1.1 Advertising Invasiveness ..................................................... 13
2.3.1.2 Advertising Irritation ............................................................. 15
2.3.1.3 Advertising Avoidance ......................................................... 15
2.4 Current State of Research on the Perception of Advertisements on TikTok .. 16
2.4.1 Attention Invasiveness on TikTok ...................................................... 17
2.4.2 Space Invasiveness on TikTok .......................................................... 19
2.4.3 Advertising Irritation on TikTok .......................................................... 21
2.4.4 Advertising Avoidance on TikTok ...................................................... 21
2.5 Interim Conclusion ........................................................................................ 22
3 Research Methodology .......................................................................................... 22
3.1 Research Model ............................................................................................ 22
3.2 Data Collection, Population, and Study Sample ............................................ 23
3.3 Measures ...................................................................................................... 24
3.4 Data Analysis ................................................................................................ 25
4 Research Results ................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Expert Interviews........................................................................................... 25
4.1.1 Experts’ Assessments of Attention Invasiveness on TikTok .............. 25
4.1.2 Experts’ Assessments of Space Invasiveness on TikTok .................. 28
4.1.3 Experts’ Assessments of Advertising Irritation on TikTok ................... 30
4.1.4 Experts’ Assessments of Advertising Avoidance on TikTok ............... 30
4.2 User Interviews ............................................................................................. 31
4.2.1 Users’ Assessments of Attention Invasiveness on TikTok ................. 31
4.2.2 Users’ Assessments of Space Invasiveness on TikTok ..................... 34
4.2.3 Users’ Assessments of Advertising Irritation on TikTok ..................... 35
4.2.4 Users’ Assessments of Advertising Avoidance on TikTok .................. 36
 IV

5 Discussion and Conclusion .................................................................................... 37

5.1 Concluding Answer to the Research Question .............................................. 37
5.2 Theoretical Implications................................................................................. 39
5.3 Managerial Implications................................................................................. 41
5.4 Study Limitations and Opportunities for Future Research .............................. 42
5.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 42
6 Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 43
7 Appendix ................................................................................................................ 49
7.1 Interview Questionnaires ............................................................................... 49
7.1.1 Expert-Interview Questions ............................................................... 49
7.1.2 User-Interview Questions .................................................................. 50

Table of Figures

Figure 1: Nissan Australia (2020) - TikTok Campaign ................................................... 6

Figure 2: Schwarzkopf LIVE (2022) - TikTok Campaign ................................................ 7
Figure 3: Model by Niu et al. (2021) ............................................................................ 13
Figure 4: Advertising Attitudes of TikTok vs. Brand Average (Kantar 2020a) .............. 21
Figure 5: Research Model (Adapted from Niu et al. (2021)) ........................................ 23
Figure 6: Research Model and Hypotheses (Adapted from Niu et al. (2021)) .............. 41

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

Ad Advertisement
Ads Advertisements
SMA Social Media Advertising
UGC User-Generated Content
AR Augmented Reality
TV Television
Gen Z Generation Z
Gen Y Generation Y
BHC Branded Hashtag Challenge
BE Branded Effect
 1

1 Introduction
1.1 Background and Social Relevance
In the dynamic digital landscape, unprecedented growth in the availability of information, particularly
within the realm of social media content, transforms the way brands advertise, communicate and
connect with users. Within the social media space, users are faced with an abundance of information
and with the ability to influence their environment and the content they consume (Ha & McCann,
2008). Simultaneously, advertisers are on the lookout for contemporary advertising opportunities that
attract users’ attention and effectively communicate their advertising messages in the digital world. In
recent years, short-form videos have become a popular new format among social media users, which
has not gone unnoticed by advertisers, who aim to take advantage of short-form videos' capacity to
engage viewers' sense of immersion (Mosenene, 2021). TikTok, specifically, has emerged as one of
the most popular social media platforms in the world, captivating audiences with its short-form video
content (Dixon, 2023). Alongside organic video contributions, TikTok hosts paid advertisements on
its platform. However, the integration of advertising into users' social media spaces is a risky
endeavor, as users have changed advertising attitudes in these transformed settings (Niu et al.,
2021). Therefore, TikTok promotes a distinct advertising environment that strives to seamlessly
integrate branded content into the user experience, in order to enhance users’ engagement and
acceptance of sponsored content (TikTok, 2021b). In order to meaningfully connect with consumers
and achieve a favorable perception of advertisements, it is, therefore, essential for marketers to
strategize how to efficiently utilize short-form video content on TikTok. With the increasing influence
of social media on media consumption and the utilization of media in marketing by brands, it is socially
relevant to understand how users perceive and engage with ads on TikTok. The impact of users'
perceptions and attitudes toward advertising has significant implications for both practice and
academia.

1.2 Advertising as a Part of Marketing

According to Kotler (2003), “Today’s central problem facing business is not a shortage of goods but
a shortage of customers”. Similarly, it can be argued that in the social media space, there is no a
shortage of content, but a shortage of audiences. In order to break these constraints, marketing serves
as “the company’s customer manufacturing department”, allowing brands to connect with customers
by centering everything from the conceptualization to the selling of products around their needs and
wants (ibid.). Hereby, advertising acts as a key element of marketing that allows brands to spread
their messages and captivate audiences through paid reach (ibid.). Advertising should aim to address
customers’ aspirations and sell them a solution or dream in a creative manner (ibid.). Brands that
abide by this succeed in resonating with audiences, while those that do not, waste the companies’
money and audiences’ time (ibid.). However, more often than not, advertisements interrupt
 2

consumers' thought processes, irritate them, and get ignored (ibid.). The success of ads depends on
their execution, and yet, advertising often is not creative or memorable and struggles to resonate with
audiences in these changing landscapes (ibid.). It is essential for advertisements to innovate
alongside the developments of the media they are placed in, as “great ad execution must be renewed
or it will become outdated” (ibid.).

While Kotler (2003) advises, “Make good advertising, not bad advertising.”, TikTok declares, “Don’t
Make Ads. Make TikToks.” (TikTok, 2021b). These claims follow the same premise of appealing to
audiences with advertisements that align with their objectives while fitting the context of the specific
platform in which they are placed. Therefore, advertisements must conform to the distinct environment
on TikTok in order to resonate with users, which sets challenges for advertisers, who are coerced to
adapt their marketing approach. However, advertising must adjust to changes in both societal
dynamics and technological advancements in order to yield results, as “marketing is a race without a
finish line” (Kotler, 2003). Thus, it is important for advertisers to address the changed dynamics on
social media and learn how to appear toward users in these distinct spaces, by comprehending the
state and factors influencing users' perceptions of advertisements.

1.3 Research Question, Objective, and Structure of the Paper

While social media advertising is a crucial tool for marketers to engage with their target audience, the
effectiveness of the advertisements can be compromised by users' inherent inclination to perceive
them negatively (Li et al., 2002). As a newly established player in the social media landscape, TikTok
aims to foster an advertising environment that works in favor of both users and marketers (TikTok,
2021b). To determine the effectiveness of TikTok in mitigating users' typically negative ad
perceptions, this research aims to critically assess: “How effectively does TikTok's advertising
strategy address recipients’ inherent negativity toward social media advertising?”.

The primary objective of this study is to shed light on the effectiveness of TikTok's advertising strategy
in alleviating adverse attitudes and fostering more positive interactions between brands and users.
Marketers must comprehend the factors impacting social media consumers to build a mutually
beneficial relationship and effectively utilize TikTok's targeted short-form video platform (Zhao, 2020).
Accordingly, this study seeks to set practical findings for marketers aiming to adapt their advertising
strategies to this dynamic platform. Additionally, users' perceptions of advertising on TikTok,
specifically, have seen limited research. Therefore, this study aims to contribute to academia by
extending current research and offering new insights into an increasingly important but largely
unrecognized topic.
 3

The paper's structure encompasses a comprehensive literature review, which gives insights into the
TikTok advertising strategy, users’ perceptions of social media advertising, and a thorough analysis
of the current state of research on the perception of advertising on TikTok. These findings serve as
the foundation of a research model methodically applied within this paper. The results are presented
in the following. Lastly, the findings are discussed and summarized, ultimately answering the research
question and contributing to a deeper understanding of users' perceptions of ads on TikTok.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Conceptualization of Key Terms

2.1.1 Social Media Advertising (SMA)
While digital information is increasing in volume and accessibility, the time available to recipients
remains the same. Due to the variety of information that recipients encounter, they have to make a
selection of the content that they consume (Clement et al., 2019). In the attention economy, recipient
attention is the scarcest commodity and acts as a currency (Goldhaber, 1997). On social media,
specifically, attention is measured by web metrics, such as impressions, and monetized by social
media advertising (SMA). Brands have the opportunity to capture attention with SMA, as it has swept
people's online spaces by storm. “Fueled by open source e-commerce platforms, mobile devices, and
advances in online payment infrastructure, social media marketing has replaced virtually the entire
traditional advertising industry” (Diamandis & Kotler, 2020). This sudden rise can be attributed to the
advantages that SMA offers advertisers, as it allows the utilization of innovative multimedia content in
a participatory space for users (ibid.). Simultaneously, SMA sets new challenges for marketers, as
the rules of communication online are evolving, impacting users' perceptions of advertising (Kelly et
al., 2013).

2.1.2 TikTok
TikTok is a leading social media platform that specializes in short-form video content (About, n.d.). It
was launched in 2017 and gained major traction after merging with the platform musical.ly in 2018
(ByteDance, n.d.). TikTok is owned by the Chinese company ByteDance, which operates a separate
version of the app, Douyin, domestically (ibid.). TikTok, however, is available globally in more than
150 markets in 75 languages (Get Started, n.d.). The platform’s mission is to “inspire creativity and
bring joy” to its consumers (About, n.d.). It aims to do so through its participatory video app, which
prompts users to create content themselves and engage in content consumption (TikTok, 2021b).
Through various editing and interaction tools that are built into the app, users should feel compelled
to engage with their curated content feed and provide their contributions to the vast pool of videos on
the platform (ibid.). With its sound-on environment and focus on music and visual effects, a consistent
cycle of new trends constructs the TikTok culture (ibid.).
 4

TikTok has achieved success in capturing a large and dedicated user base. In 2021 already, TikTok
amassed over 1 billion users globally (TikTok, 2021c). Additionally, TikTok hosts users that
exclusively use its platform, as it claims that 1 in 4 can not be found on any other platforms (Get
Started, n.d.). TikTok’s users are captivated by the platform and devote it significant attention by
spending more time on the platform on average than with competitors YouTube, Facebook, and
Instagram (The Economist, 2022). The platform monetizes intensely on this attention, recording US$
4 billion in advertising revenue in 2021, with heavy projected increases in following years (ibid.). In
order to keep commercializing its platform whilst ensuring users’ positive advertising attitudes, TikTok
follows strategic measures for advertising on its platform.

2.1.3 Creators
Originally, social media platforms followed the objective of enabling users to form and maintain
personal connections (Ki et al., 2020). Anyone can create and curate content online, thereby
developing their unique persona on social media (ibid.). When individual social media personas and
their content are favored by others, they may gain significant popularity and accumulate a sizeable
following (ibid.). Through the commercialization of social media spaces, individuals that exert
influence over broad audiences became social media influencers (Lou & Yuan, 2019). They are
utilized by brands for endorsements and advertisements (ibid.). Influencers establish a bond with their
audience through attributes of their persona, such as their “enjoyability”, “similarity”, or “authenticity”,
and content-driven attributes, through their “informativeness”, aesthetics, and expertise (Ki et al.,
2020). The bond between followers and influencers manifests over followers' acceptance of SMA
(ibid.).

On TikTok, influencers are called creators, as the platform aims to promote a more attainable image
over the influencer status, by communicating to its users that anyone can become a creator (TikTok,
2020). Marketers are encouraged to partner with creators on TikTok, in order to reach new
communities, facilitate authentic communication, gain access to networks, and, thereby, fulfill their
goals (Creator Marketplace, n.d.).

2.1.4 User-Generated Content (UGC)

According to Burcher (2012), social media users have the ability to engage in both content
consumption and content production and are therefore commonly referred to as "prosumers". As a
result, social media platforms are largely comprised of user-generated content (UGC). Due to the vast
spread and scale of consumers' voices regarding brands, marketers should consider a strategic mix
of paid, owned, and earned media in their communication strategies on social media (ibid.). Gaining
earned media can elevate the reach of brands’ messages in a more authentic setting, as users share
content related to brands due to their emotional involvement (ibid.). Users are deliberate about
 5

passing on content when they create it, feeling a tangible need to do so (ibid.). Therefore, brands are
capable of incentivizing UGC by meeting the users’ needs (ibid.). Particularly, they can accomplish
this by strategically utilizing paid, owned, and earned media, as these channels exhibit influence over
each other (ibid.). SMA, as a part of paid media, can drive traffic to the owned media destination and
create earned conversation, which, in turn, transforms owned media spaces into interactive
communities and improves the effectiveness of paid messages (ibid.).

UGC can be utilized by social media platforms to increase the perceptiveness of its users to SMA. In
select advertising formats, TikTok strategically offers advertising packages that follow the critical
objective of accumulating UGC, for a broader and more authentic advertising experience (Branded
Hashtag Challenge, n.d.) (TikTok, 2021a).

2.2 TikTok Advertising Platform and Strategy

2.2.1 Advertising Formats
TikTok offers a variety of SMA solutions, which possess both distinctive characteristics and share
consistencies throughout all ad formats. TikTok ads appear in the users’ feeds, integrating themselves
into the users’ scrolling experiences, as they are shown a balanced mixture of paid and organic
content. Like organic content, all ad formats can be scrolled away without restrictions. In how they are
played out to audiences, ads are solely set apart from organic content by their declaration as
sponsored content. Furthermore, the individual ad formats display variances in their positioning on
the platform or in the configurations and designs offered for the ad creative. Overall, TikTok ads can
be divided into standard ads, which can be booked over the TikTok Ads Manager platform, and special
ads, which can be reserved exclusively through a TikTok representative.

Standard ads make up the majority of ads on TikTok and can be further divided into auction ads and
reservation ads. Auction ads are played out to recipients at any given point as they scroll through their
feeds. They are the most inexpensive way of advertising on TikTok and the costs are set through a
dynamic pricing model. Advertisers bid for ad placements, and the prices fluctuate by demand
(Auction In-Feed Ads, n.d.). Auction ads can be played out as spark ads, which additionally display
the ad creative and the paid results in the brand's profile, or as dark ads, which exclude these from
the brand’s profile (ibid.). The latter can be beneficial for A/B testing of ad creatives or experimenting
with new creative directions, allowing for more creativity on the platform and the optimization of
advertising results. In contrast to auction ads, where advertisers bid for ad placements, reservation
ads come at set costs, predictable reach, and controlled frequency (About Reach & Frequency, n.d.).
This allows advertisers to control the results of their campaign before the launch, but also results in
higher costs. As an added incentive for advertisers, TikTok exclusively offers the TopView and Top
Feed ad formats as reservation ads (ibid.). These are meant to capture the audience's attention more
 6

effectively, as TopView is positioned upon the app’s opening (TopView, n.d.), followed by Top Feed,
which occupies the first in-feed ad slot (About Reach & Frequency, n.d.). The strategic positioning at
the beginning of users’ scrolling experiences makes these, and especially TopView, TikTok’s most
expensive flagship placements.

Special ads are created in collaboration with TikTok, as they consist of more comprehensive
advertising measures and packages at significantly higher price points. They follow the premise of
accumulating UGC for a broader campaign reach through third-party endorsements, and often include
creator collaborations. One such format is the Branded Hashtag Challenge, which is meant to trigger
UGC by challenging users to create their own content under the branded hashtag (Branded Hashtag
Challenge, n.d.). Branded Hashtag Challenges are meant to be entertaining and simple to get users
involved, whilst following the concrete advertising goal of featuring a brand or product (ibid.). All
contributions are hosted on a TikTok microsite, allowing users to get inspired by other people’s
content. Additionally, creators can make the campaign more comprehensible and accessible to
audiences (ibid.). By acting as an example for other participants and leveraging their influence and
reach, creators’ audiences might be more perceptive to viewing and participating in the campaign.
Further, challenges might trigger engagement through a strategic selection of sounds, which are
played on all videos generated under the respective campaign. By utilizing existing brand sounds,
letting creators produce custom music, or licensing existing music, brands can build brand affinity,
equity, and leverage trends, in order to create a lasting advertising experience and improve the
advertising outcome (ibid.). Additionally, TikTok lets brands bundle different ad placements and
products to potentially improve campaign results (ibid.).

An example of a Branded Hashtag Challenge is a campaign by Nissan Australia

(2020), which was initiated to increase awareness for the newly launched
“Nissan JUKE”. Under #improvisewithJUKE, users could face the challenge of
creating a video of themselves voicing an advertisement clip of the new Nissan
JUKE (ibid.). To incentivize contributions, Nissan would feature the best
contributions in their TV commercial (ibid.). The campaign was kicked-off with
different creator collaborations and was additionally promoted in users’ feeds
and in the TopView format (ibid.). The campaign recorded 129.4 million views,
32,300 generated videos, and a 92.2 % brand awareness lift. (ibid.)
Figure 1: Nissan Australia (2020) - TikTok Campaign

The Branded Effect allows brands to create a promoted augmented reality (AR) filter for users to
create content with and experience the advertised brand or product (TikTok, 2021a). There is a wide
array of filter possibilities, including adding special effects onto faces and animals, placing virtual
objects into the users’ environments, or letting them play games (ibid.). Through this advertising
 7

format, users are incentivized to generate content through the gamification aspects of the effect.
Similarly to the Branded Hashtag Challenge, users can further be incentivized through creator
collaborations as well as a microsite, which hosts all campaign contributions (ibid.).

An example of a Branded Effect is a campaign by Schwarzkopf LIVE (2022),

which had the objective of raising awareness for their new hair dye line “LIVE”.
Across Poland, Romania, and Hungary, TikTok users could create content with
the Branded Effect and change their hair color and setting, to virtually
experience the LIVE product line (ibid.). The campaign was launched in
partnership with select creators and promoted with different advertising
positioning, to reach a broader audience and drive traffic to their e-commerce
website (ibid.). TikTok reports that 52.3 million video views and over 10
thousand UGC pieces were attained through their campaign (ibid.).
Figure 2: Schwarzkopf LIVE (2022) - TikTok Campaign

In conclusion, TikTok offers a wide array of advertising formats that allow advertisers to customize
the visibility, placement, and creative direction of their ads. Dark ads can stimulate the creativity and
risk-affinity of advertisers, as ads are not visible on the brand’s profile, while Top Feed and TopView
aim to capture audiences’ attention at a time when they are the most receptive. Moreover, by offering
special ads, such as the Branded Hashtag Challenge and Branded Effects, TikTok creates
opportunities for advertisers to accumulate UGC, propel the reach of their campaigns, and make their
advertising appear more native to the social media platform. Consumers on TikTok are shown a
mixture of organic and paid content in their feeds, and ads can be scrolled away at any given moment.

2.2.2 Algorithm
Algorithmic recommendation systems are applied on TikTok to effectively match users with relevant
content, ideally achieving “a win-win situation for users and content producers”, including advertisers
(Chen & Shi, 2022). In order to create this match, the algorithm must understand the user’s interests
and classify the content on TikTok, which is done through the process of tagging. A TikTok “video is
classified by extracting the keywords in the video content. On the other hand, [...] the algorithm will
‘tag’ users according to their usual video usage records and habits, geographic environment,
occupation, etc.” (ibid.). The extent to which the content resonates with its initial audience will
influence the overall video performance, as high engagement rates lead to a higher chance of videos
receiving an algorithmic push (Klug et al., 2021). Learning from users’ interactions, the algorithm
consistently improves its recommendations, supplying users with an endless feed of personalized
videos. The algorithm updates labels and optimizes results continuously and in real-time, thereby
enabling a curated selection of content. (Zhao, 2020). “New TikTok users are immediately presented
with content: the ‘default state’ of the platform is one of the stimulations without reflection or planning”
 8

(Bhandari & Bimo, 2022). Thereby, the user can experience TikTok unimpeded, as recommendations
get more personalized and tailored with time. As TikTok CEO Shou Chew puts it: “We do not actually
ask you 20 questions on whether you like a piece of content, what are your interests, we do not do
that. We built that experience organically into the app experience. So, you are voting with your thumbs.
By watching a video, by swiping it, by liking it, by sharing it, you are basically exhibiting interest in it.
And what it does mathematically is to take those signals, put it in a formula, and then match it through
pattern recognition” (TED, 2023).

TikTok positions its algorithm at the center of the user experience, dictating how users interact with
the platform and taking on a lead role in how content and advertisements are consumed. The majority
of users' time on TikTok is dedicated to consuming content that is selected by the algorithm and
delivered through the For You page (Bhandari & Bimo, 2022). This is the section of TikTok where
users go to discover new content and where most ads are placed, as 75% of business profiles’ video
views come from the For You page (Romero, 2023). Overall, TikTok's users often perceive
themselves as viewers rather than creators (Bhandari & Bimo, 2022). Therefore, they follow an
entirely different premise for being on the platform, which is intricately tied to consuming content that
is recommended by the algorithm. People do not primarily check TikTok to participate in social
interactions with peers, they watch TikTok to be entertained. “While other platforms ostensibly see
users engaging with other people in their network through the activity corridors of the platform, TikTok
sees users engaging almost exclusively with the algorithm itself” (ibid.). While conventionally, social
media algorithms drive interactions with the user’s peer network, TikTok attributes this a subordinate
role, while putting user-centric content curation first, so that the seamless and self-directed
consumption of personalized content lies at the core of the user experience (Rach & Peter, 2021).

The algorithm’s ability to captivate users through tailored feeds translates to paid content, as ads are
filtered according to user preferences (Dwinanda et al., 2022). This “allows users to only be exposed
to ads that are personal to their needs and characteristics”, increasing their perceptiveness (ibid.).
Through personalized feeds, advertisers can avoid having their ads sent out to users to whom they
are irrelevant (ibid.). This increases the advertising value for consumers, while also improving the
advertising outcome for marketers. Marketers can further influence to whom the algorithm plays out
their ads, by tweaking arrangements in the TikTok Ads Manager platform and setting advertising
objectives (Advertising Objectives, n.d.). Depending on whether the campaign goal is to raise
awareness, increase users' consideration of the brand or generate conversions, TikTok offers a
variety of objectives, which influence the selection of users to which ads are shown (ibid.). For
instance, when choosing the community interaction objective, ads will be shown to users that are
more likely to engage with and follow the brand’s profile (ibid.). Thereby, TikTok creates a further
dimension of advertising value through its algorithmic precision.
 9

Overall, TikTok’s algorithm aims to serve its users with content that is more relevant to them
individually than other social media platforms (Bhandari & Bimo, 2022). The highly curated and
personalized content on TikTok manages to bind users to the platform, capturing their attention more
effectively and engaging users for a longer period of time (Rach & Peter, 2021). The algorithm makes
up a major reason why users choose TikTok (Bhandari & Bimo, 2022) and represents a key
competitive advantage for TikTok’s advertising service.

2.2.3 Advertising Environment

Content is key on TikTok, which applies to both UGC and advertisements. With its mantra, “Don’t
Make Ads. Make TikToks”, TikTok aims to foster a favorable advertising environment, by appointing
marketers to leverage the platform’s distinctive characteristics and conform to user expectations, in
order to create engaging promotional content (TikTok, 2021b). Advertisements on TikTok are meant
to blend in with organic content, as marketers present themselves as a part of the community and
create ads in the same style as users (Get Started, n.d.). Specifically, TikTok defines this as producing
more “creative”, “positive”, and “authentic” content, allowing advertisers to position themselves as
more approachable to users, and thereby letting them connect with their community (TikTok, 2021b).
In turn, TikTok means to steer its marketers away from “hyper-polished”, “aspirational” ads, which
resonate less with its users (ibid.). It is key that ads captivate their audiences, as users primarily
choose TikTok over competitors for its higher-quality content and consistent entertainment, which ads
could otherwise disrupt (Bhandari & Bimo, 2022).

TikTok enables and incentivizes marketers to abide by its advertising strategy through a range of
features and measures. Videos on TikTok are designed to capture attention by taking over the entire
screen and being set to sound-on by default (TikTok, 2021b). Additionally, the platform offers tools
that enable interaction between brands and users, such as the “duet”, “react”, “respond”, and “remix”
features, while offering additional opportunities for marketers through their special advertising
packages (ibid.). Marketers can also create content in line with popular sounds and trends, allowing
them to convey their marketing messages in a relatable format (ibid.). Given that users utilize TikTok
to stay up to date with trends, memes, and current events, ads that are created in line with these
expectations can have a stronger appeal (Bhandari & Bimo, 2022). The algorithm further aims to
reward ads that resonate with audiences, as TikTok’s “user interface is optimized for discovery and
prioritizes good content over all else” (Get Started, n.d.).

2.2.4 Advertising Policies

TikTok's advertising policies further ensure that marketers create promotional content that aligns with
the platform’s advertising environment and principles, keeping users engaged.
 10

On the one hand, TikTok strictly prohibits ads that might be dangerous, misleading, or uncomfortable
for users, including violent and adult content, inconsistent information, or shocking imagery
(Advertising Policies, n.d.). However, TikTok goes a step further and restricts sensitive topics, which
are still commonly available on other social media platforms. For instance, TikTok bans political and
issue-based advertising (ibid.). In contrast, Google and Facebook enable political advertisers to micro-
target specific segments of society, charging varying prices for different age or location specifications,
and masking targets, prices, and distribution from the public (Papakyriakopoulos et al., 2022). Further,
TikTok claims to promote a body-positive and inclusive environment by banning ads that reinforce
negative or unhealthy body images or exploit insecurities toward beauty ideals (Advertising Policies,
n.d.). Thus, TikTok aims to address a crucial issue in the social media landscape, as algorithms are
designed to maintain young adolescents' engagement, even displaying content that may be
emotionally triggering (Harriger et al., 2022). Social Media platforms may “rabbit hole users into
emotionally extreme content and edited bodies that may prompt mental health risks such as
appearance-related concerns, eating disorders, and body dysmorphia” (ibid.). At the same time,
viewing body-positive TikToks increases users' body satisfaction and decreases negative affect,
demonstrating the effectiveness of positive content and strict moderation (Dhadly et al., 2023).

On the other hand, TikTok sets rules for the design and style of ad creatives, to ensure that they
seamlessly blend into the in-feed format and desired advertising environment. For instance, ad
creatives must be of high resolution and contain audio, thereby conforming to the creative, sound-on
environment on TikTok (Advertising Policies, n.d.). For its flagship ad position TopView, TikTok only
permits high-quality engaging ad creatives that inspire through imagery, do not cause visual
discomfort, and fit into the safe zones and vertical format (TopView, n.d.).

Through strict approval processes, TikTok can keep stringent oversight over the topics and styles
adopted by advertising on its platform and thereby create a homogenous and positive advertising
environment that conforms to its mantra “Don’t Make Ads. Make TikToks.” (TikTok, 2021b).

2.3 The Perception of Social Media Advertisements

Individuals consume different kinds of media for a shared underlying reason: to meet their needs and
gratification-seeking motives (Katz & Foulkes, 1962). The same media outlet can be used with several
motives, e.g., consumers may watch television to be both entertained by a film or informed by a
documentary (Taylor et al., 2011). Furthermore, there are distinctions that can be determined in
regard to the consumption of different media outlets. In comparison to offline media, such as
television, consumers of online media, such as TikTok, take on a more active role in their media use.
In online media environments, the concept of “audiences” is replaced by that of “users”, as consumers
interact more actively with online media, following specific goals (Ha & McCann, 2008). Online media
 11

allows users to engage with the platform to demonstrate control over their consumption, while
enabling advertisers to exhibit greater control over their programming and targeting (ibid.). Online
users are more goal-oriented than audiences of offline media, and process advertising messages to
fulfill certain goals (ibid.). Consequently, consumers may be more accepting of advertisements in
online environments, when they meet their goals of being informed and entertained (Taylor et al.,
2011).

Advertising formats on social media are vast and vary greatly from each other, while advertising units
in offline media are more standardized (Ha & McCann, 2008). How information is processed by
consumers and how they respond to ads can be impacted by the captivity and interactivity of online
advertising formats. For instance, pop-up or pre-roll ads are captive formats, which secure users'
attention by preventing them from proceeding, as the ad is displayed on top of or before the desired
content (ibid.). Pop-up ads place users in the role of passive spectators of obligatory messages,
similar to how audiences of offline media consume ads, such as traditional television commercials (Li
et al., 2002). Online users, however, may be less accepting of advertisements, when they are forced
onto them in certain settings (ibid.). These ad formats fail to seize interactive opportunities and might
encounter challenges in fulfilling users' goals on social media. Simultaneously, SMA can often seem
indistinguishable from user content (Taylor et al., 2011). Sponsored hyperlinks, for instance, may
seem very similar to editorial content (Ha & McCann, 2008). Within such formats, that are more native
to their medium, users are given increased control over their self-paced consumption, granting them
flexibility in the way that they interact with ads (ibid.). The evolving user expectations and their impact
on the perception of advertising imply the need for a careful balancing act when implementing SMA.
While advertising provides media outlets with revenue, overt and/or excessive commercialization can
decrease users’ appeal (Taylor et al., 2011). Therefore, media brands face the challenge of fulfilling
users’ desire for a relatively uninterrupted experience with their need to commercialize their platform
through advertising (Kantar, 2020a). The key to successfully integrating advertising into social media,
however, is consumer acceptance (Taylor et al., 2011). Campaigns that reach a receptive audience
have been found to be seven times more impactful (Kantar, 2022).

According to Kantar’s (2020a) Media Reactions study, consumers have preferences for formats and
environments in which they deem advertising to be more acceptable, despite having a general aversion to
ads. The specific locations in which consumers are most receptive and least inclined to negatively
perceive ads are considered to have high ad equity (ibid.). Therefore, marketers should strive to
advertise in trusted environments, that simultaneously align with their identity and messaging, in order
to achieve the best campaign results (ibid.). However, currently, consumers and marketers are divided
in their preferences for advertising environments (ibid.).
 12

Advertisers often prefer ads that demand consumers’ scarce attention, even though consumers tend
to form negative attitudes toward them (Li et al., 2002). In Kantar’s (2020a) Media Reactions study,
offline channels dominate the rankings of consumers’ perceived ad equity, as they are attributed to
be more trusted, high quality, and entertaining (ibid.). Online channels, however, are generally
perceived more negatively by consumers and are considered to be more intrusive (ibid.). Therefore,
online advertising could face greater challenges in standing out and appealing to consumers (ibid.).
Nonetheless, marketers largely prefer advertising in online media: “While cinema, events, and print
are the most popular ad formats among consumers, marketers prefer TV and digital formats. Clearly,
each group is arriving at this evaluation from a different perspective, with marketers keen to deliver
impactful ads, whereas consumers generally prefer an uninterrupted viewing experience” (ibid.).
Online video ads, in particular, are marketers’ most preferred advertising format, although being
considerably less favored by consumers (ibid.).

The divide between users’ significantly more positive perception of offline and marketers’ unequivocal
preference for online advertising has persisted as a long-lasting dilemma. Since 2001 the gap
between consumers’ advertising attitudes toward online and offline media has not closed (Kantar,
2021a). The attention economy and the abundance of information online may contribute to the
reduced receptiveness of online consumers toward advertisements. However, more recently,
consumers have been found to develop more favorable attitudes and iteratively become more
receptive toward advertising (Kantar, 2022). Advertising exposure is increasing at a slower pace,
whilst consumers are becoming more familiar with and accepting of advertising channels, thus
increasing their receptivity toward ads (ibid.). Additionally, media outlets and advertisers are
innovating and may be creating advertising experiences that are more in line with consumers’
expectations (ibid.). Following these trends, users’ ad perceptions online, and specifically in social
media, may improve with time.

2.3.1 Model by Niu et al. (2021)

Niu et al. (2021) discuss the discrepancy of advertisers investing increasingly in SMA to capture
consumers' attention with advertisements that are invasive, which is the primary reason for their
avoidance. Niu et al. (2021) present a model, in which they display the negatively charged constructs
through which recipients often perceive SMA. When SMA appears, users might feel as though their
private spaces are invaded or their attention is disrupted, causing advertising invasiveness and in
doing so, leading to advertising irritation (ibid.). This, in turn, can lead to users avoiding ads on a
cognitive, affective, or behavioral level. Further, Niu et al. (2021) propose psychological ownership
and social influence as additional constructs, which moderate consumers' perception of advertising
invasiveness. However, the study reached limitations in providing clear evidence for the moderating
factor of psychological ownership, implying that extensive research is needed to gain a
 13

comprehensive understanding of the impact of the moderating constructs (ibid.). Therefore,

psychological ownership and social influence will not be considered in this research.

Figure 3: Model by Niu et al. (2021)

2.3.1.1 Advertising Invasiveness

Advertising invasiveness relates to the degree to which advertisements interrupt the flow of media
consumption (Ha & McCann, 2008). Consequently, negative responses are elicited in audiences,
such as irritation and avoidance (Li et al., 2002). Overall, users’ attitudes toward media outlets are
most damaged by advertising invasiveness (Kantar, 2020a). Audiences of both traditional and social
media can feel invaded by advertising, as all media is consumed following goal-oriented behaviors
(Katz & Foulkes, 1962). While consumers of TV aim to watch certain programs, users of social media
might aim to be entertained through curated content or interact with their friends (Niu et al., 2021). In
either case, advertising can interrupt those goals, causing advertising invasiveness (ibid.). Social
media users, however, are especially goal-oriented, taking on a more active role in their consumption
(Ha & McCann, 2008). Due to users’ greater abilities to exert influence over their consumption and
the immersive nature of social media, advertisements can disrupt their attention to a greater extent,
specifically causing attention invasiveness (Youn & Shin, 2019). Additionally, as users may view their
frequently used social media as their private spaces, advertisements can invade users on a further
level, namely through space invasiveness (Niu et al., 2021).

Attention Invasiveness
Attention invasiveness is defined as the interruption of an individual’s ongoing cognitive processing
or goal-directed behaviors (Li et al., 2002). While users engage with social media platforms as these
provide them with gratifications (Katz & Foulkes, 1962), such as through fostering social interactions
or being entertained, the appearance of SMA interrupts their goal-directed behaviors (Dodoo & Wen,
2019). Therefore, users have a negative perception of this imposed change, as their attention is
unwillingly diverted to SMA (Niu et al., 2021). Specifically, users might feel like their attention is being
invaded, if they find that ads are distracting, appear abruptly, and hinder them in their browsing
activity. Advances in advertising technology have further propelled this effect, by facilitating forced
 14

exposure through formats like pop-up or pre-roll ads (Ha & McCann, 2008). At the same time, ads
which are integrated into users' destination pages, encompassing pages that contain content that
users wish to consume, are less invasive (ibid.). This ad positioning does not hinder users' control of
browsing or navigating to an intended page and allows them to process advertising messages in more
detail (ibid.). The level of invasiveness is further tied to the goals exhibited by consumers and the
value offered by SMA. By presenting consumers with ads that are relevant to them and conform to
their goals, SMA can appear less invasive to their attention. For instance, if users utilize their social
media to explore new content, they may feel equally entertained by ads and organic content if SMA
offers them high entertainment value, while being more likely to feel invaded if the advertising
execution is dull (Ha & McCann, 2008). Consequently, marketers can seamlessly integrate their
messages into consumers' experiences, by designing SMA that reflects their interests and embodies
their personality traits (Dodoo & Wen, 2019). Social media platforms can further improve the
receptivity of their users toward SMA by giving priority to well-executed ads (Ha & McCann, 2008).

Space Invasiveness
Space invasiveness describes the extent to which individuals perceive that SMA invades their
personal space in social media. When users invest time and effort into their social media accounts,
they might think of them as their private spaces (Niu et al., 2021). In contrast to traditional media,
where consumers are not able to control the flow of content, users of social media dictate what they
see and how they interact with the platform (Ha & McCann, 2008). Therefore, marketers confront the
challenge of integrating advertisements into a space that users may view as their own public, yet
private, social environment (Taylor et al., 2011). It is inherently different from traditional media, where
consumers perceive an implicit social contract with advertisers, as they are more accepting of
advertising in exchange for free or cost-reduced programming (ibid.). Within social media, however,
users exert considerable work into building a community, generating content, and personalizing
content recommendations. Consequently, they might be apprehensive about receiving SMA in an
environment that they design and in which they exhibit control (Kelly et al., 2013). Likewise, when
SMA facilitates users’ self-paced consumption and is presented very similarly to the organic content,
it can increase users’ control, thereby lowering space invasiveness. Contrarily, when SMA appears
to occupy users' spaces, they may assert that it does not belong there, leading them to feel invaded
(Niu et al., 2021).

In their study, Niu et al. (2021) proved that the appearance of SMA can both disrupt users' attention
and invade their spaces, equally and significantly contributing to advertising irritation.
 15

2.3.1.2 Advertising Irritation

Advertising invasiveness, including both attention and space invasiveness, can cause negative
attitudes toward advertising in recipients, thereby leading them to feel irritated (Niu et al., 2021). Users
may exhibit different attitudes in regard to advertising, depending on the advertising environment.
Specifically, if SMA is entertaining, informative, and relevant to consumers, they may feel less invaded
and be more receptive to and less irritated by ads (Ha & McCann, 2008). Conversely, if SMA does
not conform with users' goals and invades their attention or private spaces, they are likely to feel
irritated. For instance, users might feel invaded and irritated by the ad content, e.g., if it is untruthful
or exaggerated, execution, e.g., if it is poorly made, and placement, relating to frequencies and
formats (Li et al., 2002). Advertising attitudes as a whole have an impact on how individuals process
advertising and how receptive they are to it (Ha & McCann, 2008). Accordingly, when consumers feel
irritated by advertising, they are more likely to avoid it (Niu et al., 2021).

2.3.1.3 Advertising Avoidance

When engaging in advertising avoidance, consumers take actions to differentially reduce their
exposure to SMA (Speck & Elliot, 1997). Generally, consumers tend to dislike advertising and engage
in advertising avoidance when they are given the means to do so (Li et al., 2002). Furthermore, as
the barriers to avoiding advertising can be lower in social media spaces, users may be more prone to
participate in avoidance. In online environments, the rules of communication are evolving, as
extended factors impact users’ perceptions of advertisements (Kelly et al., 2010). Specifically, users’
desire to avoid ads is triggered when they feel invaded and irritated (Niu et al., 2021). Users are
inclined to identify SMA promptly when it is invasive, consequently irritating them and leading to its
expedient avoidance (Kelly et al., 2010). Therefore, avoidance is an outcome of consumers’
responses to SMA, which can be influenced by adjusting the characteristics of specific ads (Li et al.,
2002). If consumers consider SMA to not be relevant to them, they are more likely to feel invaded and
avoid it, while being more perceptive to ads that they do consider to be self-related (Dodoo & Wen,
2019). By providing intricate matching of ads with audiences through comprehensive user profiles
and targeting, as well as by implementing strict communication rules, social media platforms can
improve the relevance of ads, thereby lowering advertising avoidance (Kelly et al., 2010).

Consumers can avoid SMA in several ways, namely on a cognitive, affective, or behavioral level (Cho,
2013). When a cognitive avoidance response is triggered, users may intentionally ignore ads by
choosing to allocate them lacking attention (ibid.). Moreover, when users intensely dislike ads and
avoid them due to their feelings of displeasure, they do so on an affective level (ibid.). Beyond that,
users may avoid ads behaviorally, by taking additional actions, such as scrolling or clicking them away
(ibid.). Advertising avoidance causes a discrepancy in marketers’ goals, as it limits the ability of
commercial messages to reach their intended audiences (Li et al., 2002). Moreover, negative
 16

advertising attitudes that lead to advertising avoidance can additionally elicit avoidance of the
marketed brand as a whole, as consumers recall the negative emotions triggered by the ad and adopt
them toward their image of the brand (Knittel et al., 2016).

2.4 Current State of Research on the Perception of Advertisements on TikTok

“Times have changed, but not the ads” (TikTok, 2021b). With this message, TikTok recognizes the
issue of users’ generally negative perception of SMA and argues that ads have not evolved with the
developments in entertainment and connectivity (ibid.). Consistently, advertisements do not align with
users’ goals and are not integrated into users’ social media experiences and spaces, instead acting
invasive and getting avoided. “We mute them, skip them, and tune them out. They were created for a
different kind of internet experience, and haven't evolved in line with everything else competing for
users' attention" (ibid.). With its mantra, “Don’t Make Ads. Make TikToks” (ibid.), the platform aims to
set new standards and promote an impactful and engaging advertising environment. In order to
examine how well TikTok’s advertising strategy resonates with users and how they perceive ads on
TikTok, a comprehensive review of the current state of research will be presented in the following.

Kantar has been annually releasing its Media Reactions report since 2020, which aims to provide
thorough insights into the ad equity of different media environments. This metric identifies the places
in which users appreciate advertising the most and are least prone to perceiving ads negatively
(Kantar 2020a). In the 2020 report, TikTok tops the global ad equity ranking of media brands as the
preferred destination for users to receive ads (ibid.). Kantar (2020a) names the excitement around
innovative content on the platform extending to creative advertisements as a major reason for this
positioning. While both consumers and marketers deem TikTok to be one of the most innovative
platforms, a divide persists in the way that marketers evaluate their advertising opportunities on
TikTok, as TikTok ranks significantly lower in the preferred platforms of advertisers (ibid.). Instead,
they tend to favor established media outlets with higher ad saturation, such as YouTube, while
consumers prefer newer platforms, like TikTok, that have lower ad saturation and invasiveness (ibid.).
“TikTok has captured the hearts of consumers, but still needs to convince marketers” (ibid.).

The following report (Kantar 2021a) states that TikTok has undergone significant improvements in
establishing itself with marketers, ranking higher in their preference and doubling their perceived trust.
While TikTok remained at the highest rank in ad equity, “the number of consumers exposed to ads on
TikTok almost doubled from 19 % to 37 %” (ibid.). This implies that TikTok is facing a fragile balancing
act, in which it must improve its relationships with marketers and commercialize its platform further,
thereby assuming the risk of compromising its strong user appeal.
 17

This dilemma materialized in Kantar’s (2022) most recent Media Reactions study, as TikTok grew in
marketer preference when no other brand did, ranking in fourth place, while consumer preference for
TikTok dropped by one rank. Nevertheless, TikTok currently resides at a relative equilibrium of
consumer and marketer trust, appealing to both similarly, which is otherwise only achieved by Google
(ibid.). This implies the distinctiveness of TikTok’s advertising strategy, as despite a rise in
commercialization, ad equity remains rather robust.

As a whole, TikTok has proven to be an innovative advertising platform for both consumers and
marketers (Kantar 2022). While it is taking measures to commercialize its platform further, potentially
at the expense of user appeal, it has managed to retain a relative balance between consumer and
marketer preference (ibid.). Following an in-depth exploration of users’ perception of ads on TikTok,
the individual aspects mitigating users' negative perceptions can be identified. In the following, related
research will be analyzed regarding factors that influence the occurrence of advertising invasiveness
and compiled according to select constructs of the model by Niu et al. (2021).

2.4.1 Attention Invasiveness on TikTok

TikTok Style
The mantra, “Don’t Make Ads. Make TikToks.”, lies at the center of TikTok’s advertising strategy and
is meant to incentivize brands to match their advertisements with the distinctive style and tone of the
platform (TikTok, 2021b). Thus, the TikTok style is a fundamental aspect of how brands can create
content that seamlessly integrates into users’ viewing experiences, thereby evading the interruption
of their ongoing cognitive processing or goal-directed behaviors and reducing attention invasiveness.

The TikTok style has been identified as being simple and creative, through the use of AR and editing
tools, and authentic, through less polished and more personal content (Kantar, 2020b). The latter
holds significant importance, as consumers tend to pay more attention to trustworthy advertisements,
which they were found to experience with TikTok ads (Dwinanda et al., 2022). TikTok has further
established a fun and playful image, which is mimicked in the style of content on the platform (Kantar,
2020a). Additionally, music plays a major role on TikTok, as sound is on by default and trending
sounds are a part of the culture (Kantar, 2020b). A strategic selection of music can benefit advertisers,
as it can evoke emotions and contribute to users’ forming lasting memories of the advertised brand
or product (ibid.). Moreover, advertisers have been found to be most successful on TikTok when
creating paid content that aligns with the style of organic TikToks (Nielsen, 2021). Overall, TikTok ads
seem to have largely managed to adopt the platform-native style, as Kantar (2021b) shows that 8 out
of 10 participants find TikTok enjoyable overall, and almost 7 out of 10 also relate the same sentiment
to ads. This implies that brands that create ads in line with the TikTok style successfully manage to
reduce attention invasiveness.
 18

Algorithm
The level of attention invasiveness can be further reduced, by presenting consumers with
advertisements that are relevant to them. In order to create an effective match between users and
content, TikTok utilizes algorithmic recommendation systems. It has proven to be very effective in
providing users with entertaining and informative content, as the algorithm makes up a key reason
why people choose TikTok (Bhandari & Bimo, 2022).

TikTok's users explore new content on the platform and the algorithm supplies them with the means
to do so, as it successfully exposes users to relevant ads that are personal to their needs (Dwinanda
et al., 2022). Users are inclined to engage with the content they receive, and the algorithm functions
in a way that it will continue finding people who do. Contrary to other platforms, where engagement
rates decline as followers grow, engagement rates on TikTok partially increase with follower growth
(Romero, 2023). This implies that the TikTok algorithm manages to captivate audiences more strongly
and in a broader setting, increasing their likelihood of engaging with the content and reducing attention
invasiveness. Furthermore, the algorithm promotes content that resonates well with audiences,
regardless of account size. Advertisers can expand their reach and increase their chance of going
viral through high-quality content, as video views are primarily driven by content rather than follower
count (ibid.). Thereby, advertisers are further incentivized to produce high-quality content, as they can
benefit from enhanced exposure. TikTok’s algorithmic personalization has been found to play a
dominant role in the formation of advertising value (Dwinanda et al., 2022) and can, thereby,
contribute to lower attention invasiveness (Ha & McCann, 2008).

Positioning
The positioning of advertisements in users' feeds on TikTok occurs on destination pages, where users
wish to consume content (ibid.). Further, ads on TikTok are interactive, not captive, as they can be
scrolled away without limitations. This impacts attention invasiveness, as users are not constricted in
their consumption and ads appear in a more platform-native way (ibid.).

Overall, 43 % of heavy TikTok users state that advertisements on TikTok blend in with organic content
(Nielsen, 2021). This demonstrates that, recurrently, ads are able to seamlessly integrate into users'
feeds, reflecting the content of the destination pages that they are positioned in, thereby reducing
attention invasiveness and increasing consumer receptivity (Ha & McCann, 2008). Ads on TikTok
manage to outperform other platforms in capturing users' attention, with 67 % of participants agreeing
that they capture their attention, compared to the 61 % average across other platforms (Kantar,
2021b).
 19

TopView & Top Feed

TikTok offers its flagship ad positions TopView and Top Feed with the premise of allowing advertisers
to capture consumers’ attention more effectively at the beginning of their app experience (TopView,
n.d.) (About Reach & Frequency, n.d.). In a study by Kantar (2021b), a majority of research
participants (72 %) preferred TikTok's TopView over ad formats on other platforms, and TopView
ranked first in engagement and call-to-action attributes. This implies that TopView and Top Feed may
be more proficient in capturing users’ attention and invading their attention less.

2.4.2 Space Invasiveness on TikTok

Creators
Creators take on a key role in producing content on TikTok and can be utilized by brands to make
paid content appear more platform-native (Kantar, 2021b). By following a less branded approach,
advertising content that is produced in collaboration with creators may more likely be accepted by
users into their private spaces on TikTok, thereby reducing space invasiveness.

Brands leverage creators in their advertising, because they may appear more credible, trustworthy,
and entertaining (Lou & Yuan, 2019). Especially Gen-Y and Gen-Z, who make up over 70% of users
on TikTok (Ceci, 2023), have a strong trust in influencers and are more receptive to advertising that
involves creators (Youn & Shin, 2019). Additionally, personal accounts on TikTok have been found to
achieve better metrics, such as higher video views and engagement rates, than business accounts
(Romero, 2023). This implies that creators may be more inclined to produce high-quality content in
line with the algorithm and the needs of their target audience, resulting in higher-ranking outcomes.
Therefore, creators can be utilized by brands to appear more favorable to audiences, raise their
positive perception of ads and reduce space invasiveness.

Brand Community
TikTok aims to promote an environment, in which brands are a part of the community and gain
acceptance from the audience, even when creating branded and paid content (TikTok, 2021b). “For
brands, this means a new playing field where anything is possible, if you show up as a member of the
community and embrace what makes it unique.” (ibid.).

The community aspect of TikTok has been found to be relevant to users, as globally an average of
59 % state that they feel a sense of community on the platform (Nielsen, 2021). TikTok strives to
include brands in users’ experiences, build a sense of community by design and establish an
environment of discovery on its platform, where users are open and responsive to exploring new
content (TikTok, 2021b). The latter manifests in the way that branded and paid content is consumed,
as 75 % of video views of business profiles come from the For You page (Romero, 2023). Hereby,
 20

the TikTok algorithm treats business and personal profiles equally (ibid.), thus allowing brands to
integrate into users’ destination pages and be a part of the community (Ha & McCann, 2008). This
supports the notion that users are responsive to branded and paid content, as 88 % of TikTok's users
state that they enjoy discovering new content while using the app and 52 % say that they find new
products from ads on TikTok (Nielsen, 2021).

Furthermore, TikTok’s community is built on interactive two-way communication between both brands
and users, prompting users' engagement and incentivizing them to generate content. By actively
involving customers in creating their own videos and listening to their opinions, advertisers can
customize their content based on feedback, leading to an increased perception of advertising value
(Dwinanda et al., 2022). The prioritization of interaction on TikTok has been found to foster a more
personal relationship between brands and customers, establishing emotional connections and making
advertisements more useful, entertaining, and valuable (ibid.). By ensuring that ads are placed in
environments that users trust, advertisers can increase their ad equity (Kantar, 2020a), thereby
reducing space invasiveness.

Branded Effects & Branded Hashtag Challenge

With its special ad formats Branded Effects and Branded Hashtag Challenge, TikTok offers
advertisers the opportunity to create advertisements that utilize distinctive characteristics of the
platform for a more native integration into users' feeds (TikTok, 2021a). Additionally, these campaigns
usually include creator collaborations and follow the goal of accumulating UGC, thereby making
branded content appear more personal and authentic (Kantar, 2020b). Therefore, Branded Effects
and Branded Hashtag Challenges may lower perceived space invasiveness.

These gamified media formats have been found to be a positive contributor to the perception of
advertisements by users of the platform (Kantar, 2020a). Branded Hashtag Challenges, in particular,
can be very successful in reaching and resonating with broad audiences, comparable to the reach of
major TV campaigns, such as Super Bowl ads (Kantar, 2020b). Moreover, the most successful ads
on TikTok have been found to differentiate themselves through the utilization of creators, social media
hashtags, engaging voice-overs (such as through effects), authentic personalities, and music (ibid.).
TikTok’s special ad formats strategically bundle these factors, enabling advertisers to optimize their
results by improving users’ experiences. Furthermore, advertising that motivates users to interact and
create their own content, has been found to enhance the perceived advertising value (Dwinanda et
al., 2022). As Branded Hashtag Challenges and Branded Effects aim to induce UGC, they may
successfully increase users' advertising perception and lower space invasiveness.
 21

2.4.3 Advertising Irritation on TikTok

Advertising irritation can be caused by attention and space invasiveness and can be circumvented by
favorable advertising environments that meet users' needs and gratification-seeking motives (Katz &
Foulkes, 1962) (Niu et al., 2021).

Since a wide array of influencing factors has shown a positive influence on users' advertising attitudes,
thereby reducing attention and space invasiveness, advertising irritation may be less likely to occur
on TikTok. According to Dwinanda et al. (2022), the perception of advertisements on TikTok is largely
unaffected by irritation, as respondents found ads personalized, interactive, entertaining, and credible,
stimulating positive attitudes in users. These results are consistent with Kantar's (2020a) conclusion
that users find ads on the platform to be “fun”,
“entertaining”, and “innovative”. Simultaneously,
they are far less likely to think that the platform
contains too much advertising or that advertising
is “intrusive”, thereby implying lower advertising
invasiveness and irritation. While advertising
saturation noticeably increased in the following
years, advertising attitudes on TikTok remain
strong (Kantar, 2021a) (Kantar, 2022).
Figure 4: Advertising Attitudes of TikTok vs. Brand Average (Kantar 2020a)

Users’ positive perception of advertisements on TikTok can be attributed to the distinct advertising
environment that TikTok promotes. A majority of TikTok users (61 %) have been found to perceive
ads on TikTok as unique from top social and video platforms, associating them as more “authentic”,
“fun”, “genuine”, “honest”, “real”, and “trustworthy” (Nielsen, 2021). Additionally, ads on TikTok have
been identified as 21 % more trendsetting in comparison to other platforms (Kantar, 2021b), which
coincides with Kantar’s (2020a) Media Reactions study, characterizing ads on TikTok as innovative.
Overall, current research shows a minimized role of irritation on TikTok.

2.4.4 Advertising Avoidance on TikTok

Users tend to avoid advertising when they are given the means to do so (Li et al., 2002), which is
further sustained when they feel invaded and irritated by advertising (Niu et al., 2021). While users on
TikTok are capable of scrolling ads away without limitations, current research shows that they are not
as prone to feeling invaded and irritated, which, in turn, reduces advertising avoidance (ibid.). Ads on
TikTok are perceived better by users, which show a 10 % higher ad receptivity than on other platforms
(Kantar, 2021b). Moreover, the perceived advertising attributes align closely with the perceived
attributes of TikTok as a platform, suggesting that ads are natively integrated the user’s experience
(ibid.). Instead of avoiding ads, research suggests that users are more open to engaging with them.
 22

2.5 Interim Conclusion

Users tend to perceive advertisements negatively and therefore engage in avoidance when they are
given the means to do so (Li et al., 2002). In their model, Niu et al. (2021) demonstrate the negatively
charged constructs through which recipients often perceive advertising. SMA may invade users'
private spaces on social media or disrupt their attention, causing advertising invasiveness and, in
doing so, leading to advertising irritation. This, in turn, can lead to users avoiding ads on a cognitive,
affective, or behavioral level.

TikTok has recognized the issue of an increasing amount of advertisements that strive to capture
users' limited attention but fail to meet their expectations of interactive and entertaining content on
social media (TikTok, 2021b). Therefore, TikTok takes strategic steps to exhibit influence over the
perception of advertisements on its platform. Through different advertising formats, TikTok offers
advertisers opportunities to capture attention more effectively, demonstrate creativity, and trigger
endorsements through creators and UGC, while rewarding advertisers that perform well through a
broader algorithmic reach. Additionally, TikTok promotes an advertising environment where brands
create content in line with the culture of the platform, whilst ensuring that only content that fits into the
positive tonality of the platform is advertised. These measures may arguably exhibit a direct influence
over the generally negative advertising perceptions by users.

An extensive review of current research on users’ perception of advertisements on TikTok revealed

a positive acknowledgment overall, as TikTok exhibits leading ad equity (Kantar, 2020a). Additionally,
further research was compiled and presented according to the influence it arguably exhibits over Niu
et al.’s (2021) constructs of attention and space invasiveness. All in all, research indicates that
advertising attitudes on TikTok are largely positive, and users are less prone to feel invaded and
irritated, which should, in turn, lower advertising avoidance.

3 Research Methodology

3.1 Research Model

Building on the research model by Niu et al. (2021), this study aims to explore how effectively the
typically negative perception of social media advertisements is mitigated on TikTok. Specifically, this
research explores how the constructs of advertising invasiveness, irritation, and avoidance manifest
on TikTok. To achieve this, a research model was utilized (Figure 5) that builds on the findings of the
literature review, including the model by Niu et al. (2021) and current research on advertising
perceptions on TikTok. Finally, the research question shall be answered: “How effectively does
TikTok's advertising strategy address recipients’ inherent negativity toward social media
advertising?”.
 23

Previous research indicates a more positive perception of SMA on the platform, as users favor
TikTok’s advertising environment, attributing it as more positive and less intrusive. The
comprehensive review of current research on the perception of advertising on TikTok revealed
specific factors of TikTok’s advertising strategy, which, this study argues, exhibit influence over the
effect of advertising invasiveness. Specifically, attention invasiveness may be lowered on TikTok
through the application of the TikTok style in ad creatives, algorithmic recommendation systems, and
positioning, especially in regard to the TopView and Top Feed formats. Moreover, space invasiveness
may be lowered through the utilization of creators, the increased receptivity of users toward embracing
brands into their community on TikTok, as well as through the ad formats Branded Effects and
Branded Hashtag Challenge. Thereby, this study contributes to the current research by combining
learnings from previous work to explore the effect of advertising invasiveness on TikTok in greater
detail and examine the corresponding perception of irritation as well as the avoidance of SMA.

Figure 5: Research Model (Adapted from Niu et al. (2021))

3.2 Data Collection, Population, and Study Sample

The aim of this study was to examine to what extent users’ generally negative perception of
advertising relates to TikTok. Therefore, this study introduced the construct of TikTok’s advertising
strategy and set it in relation to advertising invasiveness, irritation, and avoidance. In doing so, the
research was intended to expand the current state of knowledge on the perception of SMA on TikTok.
As this concept has seen limited academic research, this study followed an exploratory technique and
can be classified as exploratory research (George, 2023a).

A qualitative research approach was employed to explore the perception of SMA on TikTok. This
approach additionally allowed for an in-depth exploration of the platform’s distinct characteristics, that
exhibit influence over people's attitudes toward targeted short-form video ads. Semi-structured
interviews were conducted with the selected sample group, in order to combine the benefits of
flexibility and adaptability with a level of structure for comparison and analysis (George, 2023b).
Interviews were conducted with both TikTok experts and users, in order to create an elaborate
overview of the research topic. Expert interviews were utilized to examine how the people that are
 24

professionally involved in the creation of SMA perceive TikTok’s distinct advertising space and how
they assess the users’ advertising perceptions. In interviews with TikTok users, all previous claims
and research were tested, to unfold how TikTok ads are perceived, in light of the generally negative
advertising attitudes of SMA recipients. Finally, the research results of both expert and user interviews
were analyzed, offering a differentiated perspective on the research question and setting the grounds
for following research opportunities.

The target population of TikTok experts was defined as professionals that utilize TikTok as an
advertising instrument, for instance, in their work for different clients and campaigns. In order to be
able to give deeper insights into their experience advertising on TikTok, experts had to have at least
2 years of relevant work experience in a reputable company. The target population of TikTok users
was defined as active users of the app, who receive SMA and spend more than 1 hour a day on
TikTok on average, thereby exceeding the overall average of 56 minutes (Williamson, 2023). With a
presence of 38.4%, the majority of TikTok users belong to Generation Z (Ceci, 2023). As Gen Z has
been pivotal in driving the growth of TikTok (Mosenene, 2021), gaining insight into its perceptions of
SMA on the platform is crucial.

In order to select the study sample in correspondence with the target population, non-probability
sampling was utilized, as 8 participants were sourced through the researcher’s social network
(McCombes, 2023). The expert study group consisted of 4 experts that work in different agencies and
utilize TikTok’s advertising platform heavily in varying SMA settings for diverse clients. All experts had
senior, director, or C-level positions, thereby owning comprehensive knowledge and experience over
SMA on TikTok. The user study group consisted of 4 TikTok users that consumed TikTok heavily on
a daily basis and were able to recall receiving specific SMA. The selected users were between 18
and 23 years old and belonged to Generation Z. Both the expert and user samples consisted of two
male and two female participants each, in order to gain a more differentiated insight. Interviews were
conducted online via video conferencing tools or in person, they were recorded and afterward
transcribed. The 4 expert interviews were all conducted first and the 4 user interviews second.

3.3 Measures
Measures were partly derived from Niu et al. (2021), by utilizing their research to describe and
examine the presence of the constructs of attention and space invasiveness, as well as advertising
irritation and avoidance. Thereby, the status quo of users' perception of advertisements on TikTok
could be assessed. Additionally, interviewees were asked in-depth questions about the arguably
mitigating factors of TikTok’s advertising strategy toward attention and space invasiveness. In regard
to the reduction of attention invasiveness, interviewees were asked about the influencing factors of
the TikTok style, algorithm, and ad positioning, especially in regard to the TopView and Top Feed
 25

formats. Regarding the reduction of space invasiveness, interviewees were questioned about the
utilization of creators in ads, the brand-inclusive TikTok community, and the special ad formats
Branded Effects and Branded Hashtag Challenge. Thereby, the distinct factors mitigating negative
consumer responses could be assessed, providing guidance for marketers and implications for
academics. Additionally, in the context of advertising irritation, the interviewees were asked to assess
the findings of more positive advertising attitudes in regard to their personal perception of SMA on
TikTok, thereby bridging the path toward current research. After the conclusion of the expert
interviews, the questionnaire (7.1., Appendix) was adapted for the user interviews.

3.4 Data Analysis

Upon the collection of data through user and expert interviews, all interviews were transcribed and
examined according to the qualitative content analysis by Mayring (2014). Through this method, the
interviews were interpreted in a systematic categorization process along the previously set research
model and its corresponding constructs (ibid.). All interviews were reviewed, and relevant material
was extracted and systematically analyzed, thereby eliminating excess data. Applicable data were
categorized according to the constructs by Niu et al. (2021), thereby following a deductive approach
(Streefkerk, 2023). Additionally, the data were coded along the status quo, the mitigating factors of
the TikTok strategy over attention and space invasiveness, as well as recurring topics from the
interviews, thereby following an inductive approach (ibid.). The expert and user interviews were
analyzed in separate tables, which were used in the next step to form the final research results.
Parallels and differences between the individual answers as well as between the expert and user
answers were identified and analyzed.

4 Research Results

4.1 Expert Interviews

4.1.1 Experts’ Assessments of Attention Invasiveness on TikTok
When users’ ongoing cognitive processing or goal-directed behaviors are interrupted by SMA, their
attention is invaded (Li et al., 2002). Different factors can influence the occurrence of attention
invasiveness, as consumers have been found to be more receptive toward ads that are relevant to
them and conform to their goals (Dodoo & Wen, 2019). Current research implies lower attention
invasiveness on TikTok, as overall advertising perceptions on the platform are comparatively higher
(Kantar, 2020a). Participant 1 was able to recall a specific study, which came to the same result,
stating that this coincides with their impression of lower attention invasiveness on the platform.
Additionally, mitigating factors of TikTok’s advertising strategy toward attention invasiveness were
identified, as the advertisement's positioning was attributed as a key influencing factor by Participant
2, while Participant 3 remarked the individual advertisement’s style as influential. Furthermore,
 26

Participant 3 acknowledged attention as a scarce commodity on TikTok’s short-form video platform,

that all content pieces seek, coinciding with Goldhaber (1997): “I find TikTok, and that's my personal
opinion, generally […] very invasive for the attention because it is such a fast-paced rhythm, […] every
content piece is like a new invasion to my attention, generally. […] I think the main resource,
“attention”, is quite hard fought for in all of the content pieces across organic and advertisements.”
This may influence the attitudes that users exhibit toward SMA, as they are acclimated to constant
stimulation through endless scrolling and attention-seeking content, reducing space invasiveness.

TikTok Style
Through its mantra, “Don’t Make Ads. Make TikToks.”, the platform promotes the idea that SMA
should follow the distinctive style and tone of the platform (TikTok, 2021b), in order to seamlessly
integrate into users’ viewing experiences and reduce attention invasiveness. Participants
acknowledged the importance of a more personal and less branded approach to advertising on
TikTok, such as Participant 2, who expressed that “it works best when the brand takes a step back.
So, it shouldn't be over-commercialized, it shouldn't be too on-brand and feel like an ad”. Instead,
Participant 1 said that “it always should look like this video is from a creator or from a personal account
and not from a brand”. Advertisers can achieve that by producing “rough content” (Participant 3) and
keeping the set-up simple (Participant 1), which coincides with current research (Kantar, 2020b).
Furthermore, Kantar’s (2020a) assessment of TikTok as fun and playful was reflected in the experts
answers, as Participant 4 described the style as “being funny, using also TikTok filters” and creating
ads “with a message and with nice storytelling”. Specifically, brands “have to be self-ironic”
(Participant 2) and “very clear and transparent in the communication” (Participant 3), in order to appeal
to consumers. Current research further attributed sounds and trends as a key element of the TikTok
style (Kantar, 2020b), which was also reflected in the participant's answers. All 4 experts
communicated the importance of choosing the right sounds when making ads. Specifically, Participant
2 said: “You have to make the right cuts, you have to make the right usage of sounds and music,
which is very, very important. And you have to be aware of trends which are going viral on the
platform”.

Overall, participants highlighted the importance of creating content in line with the TikTok style, as
“brands and the traditional way of how they produce content have a very difficult time to get it right”
(Participant 2). However, users interact more with ads that follow this premise, and “a lot of brands
are starting to produce ads that are more TikToky in nature and that are more native, and they perform
well” (Participant 3). In these scenarios, users feel less invaded in their attention and are more
receptive to advertising. Participant 4 stated that “they get the nice video and they see that it was
made with love and it was made in a TikTok way, so [...] it is not invasive”.
 27

Algorithm
The algorithm plays a crucial role in ensuring that users are matched with relevant ads, which can
contribute to a reduction of attention invasiveness. TikToks algorithm has proven to successfully
expose users to relevant ads (Bhandari & Bimo, 2022), which was confirmed in the interviews, as
Participant 3 said that “the most brilliant thing about TikTok generally is their distribution of content.
They are just the best at distributing content across large audiences and the best matchmaker of
content and people”. However, within algorithmic recommendation systems, advertisements lie at a
natural disadvantage in comparison to organic content in terms of “sender-reciever-matchmaking”
(Participant 3). Users are not necessarily shown “the most relevant, resonating, interesting content”,
but the content from “the sender who paid to be seen by the most people” (Participant 3). This
suggests that algorithmic recommendations of organic content are more personalized and tailored to
the user compared to paid content. Nevertheless, Participant 3 stated that “TikTok is really quite good
at still leveraging their distribution model, even in advertisements”, suggesting that TikTok’s algorithm
remains effective in reducing attention invasiveness.

TikTok additionally incentivizes marketers to create SMA that is less invasive to users’ attention, by
rewarding content that resonates well with audiences through broader reach (Romero, 2023).
Participant 1 voiced, “this is really the difference in the TikTok ad strategy, that they really prioritize
the assets that are done like they recommend”. Participant 2 expressed, that “the way that TikTok
works will always benefit good content, so brands have to adapt”, as ads that follow the “TikTok rule
book, perform way better and more efficient[ly]”. At the same time, users may refrain from interacting
with advertisements when they feel invaded, in order to signal their sentiment and influence future
algorithmic recommendations (Participant 3).

Positioning
SMA on TikTok is positioned in-feed in users’ destination pages and is not captive, as it can be
scrolled away without limitations (Ha & McCann, 2008). As users are not restricted in their
consumption and ads appear in a more platform-native way, attention invasiveness is reduced (ibid.).
Participants acknowledged the mitigating effect of the SMA’s positioning on attention invasiveness,
as Participant 1 voiced that it only “gets disturbing when you get forced to watch something that you
do not want to.” However, as Participant 3 stated, “the advertisement is not at any point interrupting
anything that you want to do, or see, or think about, that makes it less invasive”. In contrast, when
receiving captive ads on other social media platforms, the users “attention is already allocated toward
this video and then it is interrupted. And on TikTok, the ad model does not work like that, because I'm
in the process of skipping to the next content anyway and then it is just an ad and I'm free to do
whatever I want” (Participant 3).
 28

TopView & Top Feed

TikToks TopView and Top Feed ad positions aim to effectively capture consumers’ attention at the
beginning of their app experience (TopView, n.d.) (About Reach & Frequency, n.d.). Participant 2
agreed that “they capture attention […], because you can’t not look at it when it is the first ad on your
screen, for example”. However, adding that with TopView specifically, “there's not much room for
storytelling. It is really just boom in your face. […] Yes, it grabs attention. But is it the right attention
that is helpful in the long run?”. Likewise, Participant 3 agreed that “through these particular offerings
as ad placements, you can guarantee that it will be seen by a lot of people”, because “it does not
depend on how long the person stays on TikTok”. However, Participant 3 also expressed that
TopView, in particular, “might be super invasive, because you force everybody to watch it”. For the
same reason, Participant 4 expressed a dislike toward TopView, while favoring in-feed ads, like Top
Feed, that feel more “TikToky”. Nevertheless, Participant 1 highlighted that even TikTok’s flagship
positions are not captive and remain skippable, which works in favor of the user and constitutes
Kantar’s (2021b) assessment that users prefer this format over ones on other platforms. In view of all
aspects, it remains to be seen how users perceive these formats in light of attention invasiveness.

4.1.2 Experts’ Assessments of Space Invasiveness on TikTok

Users may assert that SMA occupies their personal space in social media, causing space
invasiveness (Niu et al., 2021). Participant 3 assessed that while “there’s definitely a feeling of it being
a personal space, maybe on TikTok it is to a lesser extent than on some other platforms.” This is
supported by Bahandari and Bimo’s (2022) assessment of TikTok users seeing themselves as
viewers rather than creators. Participant 1 added that space invasiveness is lower in comparison to
other platforms, as “brands understood how to create content on TikTok and that’s why it is not so
interrupting or disturbing in their space”. As users design the environments in which they are faced
with ads, SMA must facilitate users’ self-paced consumption in order to conform to their spaces (Ha
& McCann, 2008). Participant 1 argued, that TikTok’s platform offers a distinct environment to users
in this regard, as TikTok follows “a new approach, and they give the users a new space, where they
get less disrupted by ads”.

Creators
SMA that utilizes creators derives benefits from their credible, trustworthy, and entertaining image,
especially within TikToks main user base (Ceci, 2023), as Gen-Y and Gen-Z are more receptive to
advertising that involves creators (Dwinanda et al., 2022). Participant 1 argued that creators can lower
space invasiveness, as, to the user, “it looks like the content comes from a normal TikTok profile”.
Participant 2 highlighted creators’ experiences in producing impactful content, as “they have
entertained their community, build it up and created TikToks […] they are the experts of the platform!”.
That coincides with Participant 4’s assessment, that users follow creators and enjoy their content
 29

“even if it is an ad”. Indeed, personal accounts on TikTok have been found to be more successful than
business accounts in achieving higher metrics (Romero, 2023), and Participant 2 voiced the learning
factor for brands to engage audiences as a key reason to collaborate with creators. Nonetheless,
participants also emphasized the significance of how ads are produced for the reduction of space
invasiveness. SMA works best when creators are “transparent about their brand relationships” and
make them “part of the core content experience” (Participant 3), constitute credibility and relate to the
advertised product (Participant 4), and voice the advertising message “in their personal way”
(Participant 1). However, if done wrong, SMA that utilizes creators may appear “even more invasive,
because there's this whole para-social relationship going on of the creator being my virtual friend”,
which may damage users’ perceptions of both the creator and SMA (Participant 3).

Brand Community
In order to further reduce space invasiveness, TikTok aims to promote a brand-inclusive community
on its platform, allowing brands and their ads to be embraced by audiences (TikTok, 2021b). The
majority of TikTok users feel a sense of community and enjoy discovering new content while on the
app (Nielsen, 2021). Concerning the motive behind users' presence on the platform, Participant 1 said
that “they want to learn and want to get information easily […] and therefore, they are more open to
receive content from brands, if it is well-prepared”. Participant 2 extended, that “on this platform people
are the most open to interact with brands. […] When a brand has shown me that they are part of the
community, they want to participate, […], then people will be willing to invite them into their space”.
Overall, “the TikTok audience is harsh, for sure, but they also love to interact with brands” (Participant
2). Interaction has been found to be key when it comes to elevating users’ advertising perception, by
considering their inclinations in the production of SMA and forming personal relationships (Dwinanda
et al., 2022). This was reflected in participants' answers, as Participant 1 stated that brands should
show themselves “not in a way that the brand wants to be seen, but in a way, the users want to see
the brand”. For Participant 4, this involves brands following a different path than on other social media
platforms, where “they try to be more corporate”. Instead, Participant 2 acknowledges that TikTok
“has opened a window of opportunity for brands to […] show their brand face, but also show a human
side of themselves”. Hereby, Participant 3 clarified that the responsibility lies with brands, some of
which already successfully connect with their audience on other platforms as well.

Branded Hashtag Challenge & Branded Effects

TikToks Branded Effects and Branded Hashtag Challenge aim to accumulate UGC, widen the reach,
and enhance the authenticity and users' receptivity toward its advertising messages (TikTok, 2021a)
(Branded Hashtag Challenge, n.d.). Participant 2 stated that “I think definitely they can [lower space
invasiveness] because it is a more interactive and playful format”, however, it is key that users
“generate the content”. Users can be enticed to participate in these ad formats, when brands follow a
 30

unique and “smart idea” (Participant 1), “that tickles the creativity of the viewer”, for instance “through
a win factor” or “reach factor, because maybe it could become a viral hit” (Participant 4). Additionally,
Participant 2 stated the importance of working with creators for better campaign results, which
coincides with current research (Kantar, 2020b). Simultaneously, Participant 1 voiced concern over
users’ enthusiasm to engage, remaining unsure “if people are still willing to jump on all these trends
and do all this stuff”. Nonetheless, advertising that motivates users to interact and create their own
content has been found to enhance the perceived advertising value, which may also apply when users
do not participate in challenges and use effects themselves, but only come across others’
contributions (Dwinanda et al., 2022).

4.1.3 Experts’ Assessments of Advertising Irritation on TikTok

Advertising invasiveness directly contributes to irritation and can be circumvented by favorable
advertising environments, which cause positive advertising attitudes in users. Current research
concludes that advertising attitudes on TikTok are generally positive, as SMA is perceived as more
honest, real, unique, fun, innovative, and entertaining while advertising intrusiveness is low (Nielsen,
2021) (Dwinanda et al., 2022) (Kantar, 2020a). Upon being questioned about their stance toward this,
4/4 participants agreed that these feelings coincide with their impressions, stating that this can be
largely attributed to brands having learned to create impactful SMA on the platform. “Brands adapt,
brands learn how they have to communicate on the platform and this platform and algorithm really
demand that you make ads which are relevant for the user, which are consumer centric” (Participant
2). Participant 1 described brands being more reachable, personal, and connected on TikTok, leaving
a disruptive impression on users, which are typically used to “old-fashioned ads” on other platforms.
Participant 4 attributed users’ more positive advertising attitudes to ads being made “the TikTok way”,
which often makes them hardly distinguishable from organic content, a sentiment that was shared by
Participants 1 and 3. Nevertheless, Participant 2 expressed that TikTok users are “very, very harsh in
their criticism” of ads, as they want to be “convinced that their time was used for a reason and not
wasted”. Therefore, advertisers must be particularly careful to create ads in line with TikTok’s ad
strategy, in order to effectively mitigate advertising irritation.

4.1.4 Experts’ Assessments of Advertising Avoidance on TikTok

Users tend to avoid advertising when given the chance (Li et al., 2002), which is aggravated when
they feel invaded and irritated by it (Niu et al., 2021). So far, both current research and this study’s
results indicate lower levels of advertising invasiveness and irritation, in turn implying lower
avoidance. Participant 1 argued that individuals use TikTok to get entertained and informed, both of
which brands can provide in their SMA. Participant 3 elaborated that it is key for advertisers to
distribute good content, because “if you make interesting stuff, people will be interested and then they
also won't try to avoid it”. The participants further recalled specific brands that successfully follow this
 31

approach, such as “Pro7, for example, or Deutsche Bahn, Rewe, Aldi, all these brands which are very
loud, Ryanair for example, they do not hide, but they do not push only their narrative. They push the
narrative of the platform. And this is how they are allowed to be on the playground” (Participant 2).
However, producing ads that resonate with TikTok users can be challenging for brands, as TikTok
does not “force users to see the ads, so they are all skippable” (Participant 1). While this increases
users’ perception of ads on the platform, as they are not forced to engage with them (Participant 1),
it entitles users to be “gone faster than generations beforehand” if the first second is not engaging
(Participant 2). The persisting low avoidance barrier and users’ inclination to avoid ads is further fueled
by their harsh attitudes and heightened standards through other quality ads, leading to ads that do
not make the threshold being avoided even more rigorously (Li et al., 2002). As Participant 2 puts it,
“their demands are higher now. So, I think because there are many brands who get it right or who try
to get it right, this makes all the bad ads even worse. People are way more inclined to ignore faster,
let's say, if their needs are not met”. Participant 3 shares this assessment, stating that “there's still the
tendency to avoid ads”. However, Participant 4 further emphasized that in the broader context,
advertising is not a key concern of TikTok users, since “if you think about TikTok, you do not think
about ads”, which could lower avoidance. Nevertheless, in light of future developments, participants
voiced their concern over negative change, as TikTok remains in the process of monetizing its
platform (Participant 4), which coincides with Kantar’s assessment of TikTok facing the need to
establish itself with marketers (Kantar, 2020a). This might lead to more ads as well as captive ads
(Participant 4) and worse content in the future, as a majority of current advertisers on TikTok “are kind
of front rowers, who also care to do interesting content” (Participant 3).

4.2 User Interviews

4.2.1 Users’ Assessments of Attention Invasiveness on TikTok
Overall, participating users stated that SMA tends not to invade their attention. Participant 6
expressed that “TikTok ads do not distract me in any way, as they feel like they're included in the
content”. This sentiment was shared among Participant 7, voicing that ads are only invasive when
they are not made in the “user-generated content style”, and are therefore identifiable as paid content.
Participant 8 equally voiced “sometimes I do not even realize it is an ad”, however retrieving specific
SMA which was invasive to the attention, as it was “really flashy and it ha[d] loud music in the
beginning”. This stands in contrast to the user-friendly advertising environment that TikTok aims to
ensure with its advertising policies (Advertising Policies, n.d.). Furthermore, Participant 5 stated
occasionally feeling invaded on days with stark ad saturation.

TikTok Style
Participants described the distinct style and tone of TikTok comparably to current research. TikTok
ads should be simple and creative (Kantar, 2020b), which Participant 8 reflected by saying that “it
 32

very much looks natural,” and “composition-wise, it is really simple” as well as “more laid back”.
Participant 6 stated that good TikTok ads are “really authentic. It is like you're watching a video from
your friend.” Participant 7 extended this by pointing out that it is the most pleasant when there is “a
person standing in front of the camera” and that it should not be “a company in the foreground”. This
coincides with Dwinanda et al.’s (2022) assessment that it is elemental for ads to feel personal, as
users pay more attention to ads that they deem to be trustworthy. Finally, Participants 5, 6, and 8
stated the importance of SMA utilizing sounds and trends, concurring with current research (Kantar,
2020b). Participant 5 even went as far as to state that the right song selection evades their invasion
and avoidance. Additionally, Participant 5 preferred interesting and educational ads, which Participant
7 concurred with, by voicing that the best TikTok ads “take the user on a little journey”. Participants
repeatedly noted that ads that follow the TikTok style resemble platform-specific, natural content,
becoming indistinguishable from it and feeling less invasive.

Simultaneously, participants were able to recall SMA that did not follow this style, invading their
attention. Participant 8 voiced that some ads feel impersonal and staged, while overall being able to
tell “that that's an ad, by the way [the] cameras are” and “when they put a lot of effort into their ads”.
On the contrary, Participant 7 preferred quality ads, that are “filmed with a very good camera” and
have good lighting. This symbolizes the variety of content and preference on TikTok, as Participant 8
stated that there are “really big creators that use high quality cameras, but I also do not watch those”.
These findings demonstrate the importance of algorithmic recommendation systems that effectively
match users with their desired content.

Algorithm
Participants acknowledged TikTok’s, previously established, successful algorithm (Bhandari & Bimo,
2022), stating that “anyone who knows the algorithm knows how good it actually is” (Participant 7).
While Participant 6 stated that only “rarely there are ads which do not fit at all to the content I like”,
4/4 participants unanimously agreed that “organic content is definitely much better tailored”
(Participant 7). This corresponds to Participant 3’s expert assessment, that organic content will always
have a natural advantage over paid ads in algorithmic recommendation systems. While all participants
were able to recall receiving advertisements that were useful to themselves, this could be observed
to varying extents. Participant 6, for instance, stated that “sometimes there are ads that do not fit that
well, but there is also organic content that sometimes does not fit”, while Participant 5 went as far as
to state that a large part of ads are “for products that I can not see myself buying”. Nevertheless, the
majority of participants recalled most ads as relevant and tailored to them personally.
 33

Positioning
TikTok ads’ placement on destination pages should reduce attention invasiveness (Ha & McCann,
2008), which has been confirmed in the expert interviews and sustained in the user interviews.
Participants highlighted the natural positioning of ads in their viewing experiences, stating that “it is in
the flow” (Participant 6) and that “you will not be disturbed in your natural movement”, as “you're
scrolling anyway” (Participant 7). Participant 8 assessed that SMA “does not feel like it is hindering
me from enjoying my time on this app” and therefore is not invasive. Instead, the ad’s positioning
makes Participant 6 feel like it is “included into the person's experiences”, as it is “hidden” in the feed,
making it feel “nicer for the user”. This coincides with Nielsen (2020), evaluating that 43% of heavy
TikTok users state that advertisements on TikTok blend in with organic content. Additionally,
participants voiced their displeasure toward captive ads on other platforms, such as YouTube, voicing
that they are “interruptive” and cut off their “viewing experience”, leading them to feel invaded
(Participant 6). This supports the finding that TikTok manages to outperform other platforms in
capturing users' attention (Kantar, 2021b).

TopView & Top Feed

While TopView and Top Feed are meant to capture audiences' attention at the beginning of their
scrolling experiences, the interviewed experts expressed their doubts about the effectiveness of
TopView in particular. This sentiment was shared amongst the participating users, as 4/4 expressed
their dislike toward this ad format. Instead of it capturing the user's attention, Participant 6 voiced “I
would say it invades my attention”, Participant 7 extended “I’ve never been caught by it” and
Participant 5 concluded, “I can not recall a single TopView ad”. Participant 8 even went so far as to
state, “I hate that one”. As a reason for this negative inkling, participants mentioned their goal-directed
behaviors being interrupted at the beginning of their experience, as they “go on the app with the
intention of scrolling through stuff, not to look at ads” (Participant 5). This coincides with Ha and
McCann’s (2008) assessment of online users being more goal-oriented and Taylor et al.’s (2011)
evaluation of users being less accepting of ads that fail to meet these goals. Instead, participants,
similar to the interviewed experts, preferred in-feed ads, like Top Feed. However, while Participant 6
noted that “the first in-feed ad that I see has my highest attention”, Participant 8 felt that “it does not
make a difference”, due to the fast-paced input on the app, which challenges users’ attention spans
and memory. Nevertheless, users preferred both TopView and Top Feed over other, captive ads,
stating that it is not “necessarily disturbing”, as it is “not like YouTube, where you have to watch it”
(Participant 7). This coincides with current research stating that 72 % of users prefer TopView over
ads on other platforms (Kantar, 2021b).
 34

4.2.2 Users’ Assessments of Space Invasiveness on TikTok

Niu et al. (2021) argue that, as users invest time and effort into their social media, they may perceive
it as their private space. This was supported by Participant 8 saying that “we all have the right to say
that social media is private to us, because we choose what we want to consume and we choose what
we want to see”. However, the expert interviews concluded that users may perceive TikTok as a
private space to a lower extent, which coincides with Bahandari and Bimo’s (2022) finding of TikTok
mostly being utilized as a place of consumption, rather than social interaction. This sentiment was
shared among the interviewed users, as 4/4 participants claimed that they do not post on TikTok,
some stating that they “only follow a handful of friends” (Participant 8) and have an “anonymous
profile”, therefore they “do not really view it as a personal space” (Participant 5). Accordingly, experts,
as well as users, found space invasiveness to be less prevalent on TikTok, and Participants 7 and 8
showed understanding for ads on TikTok, stating that media companies need to advertise on their
platforms. Nevertheless, Participant 8 was able to recall being shown irrelevant ads and therefore
feeling invaded in their space before.

Creators
Creators form a connection with their audience through attributes of their persona, such as their
“enjoyability”, “similarity”, or “authenticity”, and content-driven attributes, through their
“informativeness”, aesthetics, and expertise (Ki et al., 2020). Concurrently, participants recalled
having a “connection to the person” due to them being “similar to me”, their “more authentic” self
(Participant 5), “familiarity” (Participant 7), and “personality” (Participant 8), as well as their more
“entertaining” content (Participant 6), thereby validating current research. Ads that utilize creators
“resonate with me more and they invade my space less” and work successfully, because “if you watch
that influencer, you get influenced” (Participant 8). Participants stated the reasons for this lying in the
ads coming across “much more natural”, as creators “speak directly to you” (Participant 7). Participant
5 concluded, “if they sell the product well, then I do not really realize it is an ad”. Nevertheless,
participants recalled instances in which this was not the case, as the ads with creators did not feel
credible and it felt like they were “just doing it for the money”. This highlights the importance of
Participant 3’s expert assessment, that SMA that fails to effectively connect with audiences, may elicit
negative attitudes and jeopardize users’ perception of the ads and the creator.

Brand Community
By fostering favorable advertising environments in which users exhibit trust, advertisers can increase
their ad equity and reduce space invasiveness. TikTok aims to promote such an environment through
its brand-inclusive community, which was supported in the expert interviews. Participating users
stated that “brands are a part of the community when they are funny”, “interact” with other accounts
(Participant 6), use “current trends” (Participant 5), and participate in the “culture on TikTok”
 35

(Participant 7). Furthermore, Participant 8 voiced that brands can contribute to pop culture and
establish themselves in the TikTok community, as their content and interactions can be “a great way
for new memes to emerge”. Overall, users favored the “personification of companies on TikTok”, as
brands start “acting like a user”, which coincides with Participant 1’s expert assessment and Dwinanda
et al.’s (2022) finding, that brands should portray themselves in the way that users want to see them.

Branded Hashtag Challenge & Branded Effects

SMA that engages users to interact and create their own content, such as the Branded Hashtag
Challenge and Branded Effects, enhances users’ perceived advertising value (Dwinanda et al., 2022).
However, Participant 1’s concern, that users might not participate in these formats, proved valid, as
4/4 participants were passive TikTok users and have not previously participated in such formats.
Nevertheless, participants voiced their preference over these formats, such as Participant 6 who
recalled a specific Branded Hashtag Challenge that reflected their interests and “definitely resonated
with me”. Participant 7 highlighted the “community idea” behind these formats, stating that “we all
create something together and take part in a challenge as a community”, therefore “it does not feel
like advertising”. Participant 8 extended that with challenges and effects it “does not matter if it is an
ad or not”, as these formats build “a gateway for people to be very creative” either way, which makes
them enjoyable. Additionally, Participant 5 remembered a particular Branded Hashtag Challenge by
Vogue, which “was cool”, but “some people started making fun of it” through sarcastic contributions.
Nevertheless, this made Participant 5 enjoy the contributions more, “because I wasn't sure if it is going
to be like a proper one, or if it is going to be a funny one”. This correlates with Participant 8’s previous
statement, that brands can contribute to pop culture and resonate more strongly with the community,
as the trend around this challenge made it more attractive for Participant 5.

4.2.3 Users’ Assessments of Advertising Irritation on TikTok

Throughout, participants stated not feeling too irritated by ads on TikTok, which coincides with
Dwinanda et al.’s (2022) finding that irritation plays a subordinate role on TikTok. Nevertheless,
Participant 5 did acknowledge their generally rather “negative viewing” toward ads, supporting Li et
al.’s (2002) assessment of consumer attitudes. Additionally, 4/4 participants recalled specific
instances, in which they felt annoyed by ads on TikTok, attributing this feeling to a repetitive playout
of the same frustrating ad (Participant 5), occasionally high ad saturation (Participant 6), “random
advertising” (Participant 7) and general mood (Participant 8). Simultaneously, 4/4 participants were
able to recall positive experiences with TikTok ads, such as Participant 5, who faced an ad “that made
me happy, made me giggle” due to its utilization of trend sounds, or Participant 6, who was “even
thankful” to receive an ad for a sale. Generally, participants agreed with current research attributing
users’ more positive advertising attitudes on TikTok, stating that ads can be relatable (Participants
7,8), creative (Participant 8), interesting, and “have a higher chance to be” innovative and honest
 36

(Participant 6). Participant 8 added that “there's a lot of room for positive reactions and positive
attitudes for ads on TikTok specifically, because they offer so many more resources”, while Participant
7 concluded that, throughout time, advertisers on TikTok “have understood the principle of how good
advertising should work”. This coincides with Participant 2’s expert assessment, that brands must
adapt in order to reach users, who are demanding and increasingly harsh in their criticism. While 3/4
interviewed users stated not even recognizing some paid content as ads, they were quick to feel
annoyed by ads that did not integrate smoothly into their experiences.

4.2.4 Users’ Assessments of Advertising Avoidance on TikTok

Current research and expert interviews implied lower advertising irritation and avoidance, which is
reflected in user interviews, as users were found to take less active steps to avoid ads. Affective
avoidance of ads was found to be less prevalent on TikTok, as negative advertising attitudes were
lower, leading Participant 8 to state “I do not feel like the ads are that annoying on this app” and “I do
not disfavor them”. Instead, Participant 5 was found to cognitively avoid ads at times, questioning
“what will I gain from it” and therefore avoiding them. Most dominantly, though, 4/4 participants were
found to avoid ads that do not resonate with them behaviorally, by scrolling ads away. However,
participants were reluctant to classify this act as “actively avoid[ing] advertising” (Participant 7), as
users scrolled unappealing videos away, regardless of “if it is ads or it is just content videos”
(Participant 6). Users on TikTok naturally select the next video through scrolling, choosing which
videos to allocate their attention to along the way. As Participant 6 described: “there's just an endless
timeline on TikTok, you can scroll without limitations until you find the perfect TikTok. […] Because of
that, I am more picky with the content I choose to consume”. Users’ higher demands and rigorous
avoidance of ads that fail to meet those were previously manifested in the expert interviews. In order
to exhibit control over their consumption and avoid particularly irritating ads, participating users were
found to take additional steps, as 3/4 participants claimed to block ads by selecting the “Not
Interested” option, thereby influencing future algorithmic recommendations. Nevertheless, users
highlighted the low avoidance barrier on TikTok positively, stating that “I do not have a big problem
with advertising, as long as you can skip it” (Participant 6). Contrarily, participants strongly disliked
captive ads, such as on YouTube, even stating their avoidance of the entire video or platform as a
result (Participant 6), which coincides with Knittel et al.’s (2016) assessment of advertising avoidance
relating to brand avoidance. In essence, these findings support TikTok’s careful balancing act, in line
with Kantar (2021a) and the expert interviews, between users’ and marketers’ preferences on how to
capture attention effectively through SMA.
 37

5 Discussion and Conclusion

In order to leverage the increased opportunities of targeting, interactivity, and creativity, marketers
are eager to advertise in users' spaces on social media (Diamandis & Kotler, 2020). However, they
face the challenge of users disfavoring online advertising (Kantar, 2020a) and their generally negative
perception of SMA in particular, which stems from the invasion of their attention and space, leading
them to feel irritated and avoid advertising (Niu et al., 2021). To address this discrepancy of
advertisers aiming to reach users with disruptive SMA in a space in which they naturally disfavor ads,
TikTok aims to promote a more favorable advertising environment through its ad strategy (TikTok,
2021b). This study examined how effectively TikTok's advertising strategy addresses recipients’
inherent negativity toward SMA, through an extensive literature review, a research model that was
adapted from Niu et al. (2021), as well as 8 interviews with TikTok experts and heavy users. This
study identified a gap in academic knowledge, as the perception of SMA on TikTok has seen limited
academic research. Therefore, the aim was to expand the current state of knowledge on the
perception of SMA on TikTok. The following sections provide an overview of how the research findings
addressed the research questions, discuss the implications of the study, critically evaluate the
findings, and finally conclude the research.

5.1 Concluding Answer to the Research Question

In examining the perception of advertisements on the social media platform TikTok, the advertising
platform was analyzed based on the ad formats, algorithm, environment, and policies. Additionally,
consumers’ perception of SMA was studied, portraying the challenges marketers face in counteracting
users’ negative advertising perceptions (Li et al., 2002). The research model by Niu et al. (2021) was
utilized and expanded by the construct of TikTok’s advertising strategy, which arguably reduces the
prevalence of users’ negative perception constructs. Following an in-depth assessment of the current
state of research on the perception of advertising on TikTok, specific factors that mitigate the
occurrence of advertising invasiveness were identified. On the one hand, the TikTok style, algorithm,
and ad positioning, especially regarding TopView and Top Feed, were found to arguably reduce
attention invasiveness. On the other hand, the utilization of creators, the brand-oriented community,
and the interactive formats Branded Effects and Branded Hashtag Challenge were found to arguably
reduce space invasiveness. Through qualitative research, this study explored how the constructs of
advertising invasiveness, irritation, and avoidance behave on TikTok, in order to finally answer the
research question: “How effectively does TikTok's advertising strategy address recipients’
inherent negativity toward social media advertising?”.

The literature review indicated that advertising attitudes on TikTok are largely positive, users are less
prone to feel irritated, and, accordingly, advertising avoidance may be lower. TikTok’s advertising
 38

strategy was found to lie at the core of heightened user attitudes, as ads that follow this strategy have
been found to be the most successful (Nielsen, 2021). The reason for this lies in TikTok’s customer
centricity, as “Don’t Make Ads. Make TikToks.” aims to motivate advertisers to promote content that
fits individuals’ needs and gratification-seeking motives (TikTok, 2021b) (Katz & Foulkes, 1962). Since
social media users largely control their media consumption, thereby acting increasingly goal-oriented
(Ha & McCann, 2008), meeting user expectations is key to establishing desirable ad experiences
(Taylor et al., 2011). This study’s qualitative research gave deeper insights into the expectations and
attitudes of TikTok users toward SMA.

The qualitative research found that attention invasiveness can successfully be mitigated by the TikTok
style, as experts and users highlighted the more authentic appearance of such ads, which allows them
to reflect organic content and integrate into users' feeds. Additionally, the algorithm was found to
reward resonating advertisers and largely supply users with tailored organic and paid content. The
positioning of ads on users' destination pages and their interactive format and skippability were
highlighted by both users and experts, thereby reducing attention invasiveness. Contrary to TikTok’s
claims, however, TopView, specifically, was disliked by both experts and users, stating the interruption
of goal-directed behaviors as a clear indicator of attention invasiveness. Moreover, space
invasiveness was found to be mitigated by ads utilizing creators, if done in a credible, creative, and
transparent way, as well as through the brand-oriented community on TikTok. In order to get
embraced by the TikTok community, brands, and their SMA, must conform to the culture on TikTok,
by utilizing trends or contributing to pop culture themselves. Lastly, the Branded Hashtag Challenge
and Branded Effects were confirmed to reduce space invasiveness, as experts and users assessed
the creativity, community, and the accumulation of UGC as alleviating elements. As a result of lower
advertising invasiveness, advertising irritation was assessed to be less prevalent on TikTok by experts
and users, coinciding with Dwinanda et al.’s (2022) findings. Nevertheless, users' general inclination
to view ads negatively (Li et al., 2002) prevailed on TikTok and all users were able to recall specific
instances, in which they felt annoyed by SMA. Similarly, advertising avoidance was found to be less
prevalent on TikTok, especially in regard to affective and cognitive avoidance. Nonetheless, all
interviewed users avoided ads that did not resonate with them behaviorally, for instance, by swiping
them away, utilizing TikTok’s lower avoidance barrier. Experts warned that user demands are higher
on TikTok, which may lead to stronger avoidance of ads that do not fulfill their expectations.

Overall, the qualitative research found that advertisers face a fine line between reducing or inciting
negative SMA perceptions when utilizing TikTok’s advertising strategy. For instance, creators can
benefit or harm the perception of ads, based on the execution. This is fueled by users' high demands,
which pose a certain extremity on TikTok, as advertisers are faced with users that are both very
receptive to good and yet easily invaded, irritated, and avoidant of bad advertising. Therefore,
 39

advertisers must effectively adapt to TikTok’s distinct advertising environment and culture in order to
fulfill users' needs and gratification-seeking motives, which entails following a disruptive, creative, and
authentic approach, away from traditional advertising toward entertaining and informative content.
This implies delicate balancing acts for both TikTok and advertisers. TikTok, on the one hand, faces
the challenge of satisfying users’ and advertisers’ expectations toward SMA on its platform.
Advertisers, on the other hand, find themselves having to conform to users' expectations and sustain
their attention, in an environment where they can be quick to scroll and attention is a scarce currency.
All in all, negative ad perceptions are still prevalent on TikTok, however by conforming to large parts
of TikTok’s advertising strategy, advertisers can effectively mitigate them and evoke positive
consumer response. Therefore, the research question can be answered by concluding that TikTok's
advertising strategy largely succeeds in addressing recipients’ inherent negativity toward SMA.

5.2 Theoretical Implications

This study extends the literature by building on the research model by Niu et al. (2021) and proposing
the additional construct of TikTok’s advertising strategy, which exhibits influence over advertising
invasiveness. Following current research, TikTok’s advertising strategy was found to own specific
mitigating factors toward attention and space invasiveness. Specifically, the TikTok style, algorithm,
and ad positioning were found to be able to reduce attention invasiveness, while creators, the brand-
oriented community, and the format's Branded Hashtag Challenge and Branded Effects can reduce
space invasiveness. By extracting these factors from current research and researching their influence
in the qualitative study, this paper creates a framework on how to assess advertising invasiveness in
the context of TikTok.

Additionally, this study complemented existing literature, by portraying under which conditions TikTok
ads align with or deviate from users' needs and gratification-seeking motives (Katz & Foulkes, 1962).
Furthermore, this study demonstrated to what extent users perceive TikTok as a private space and
what implications are derived from this, thereby setting Niu et al.’s (2021) construct of space
invasiveness in the context of TikTok and supporting Taylor et al.’s (2011) assessment of public, yet
private, social environments. Lastly, this study demonstrated the ways in which TikTok users aim to
exhibit control and meet their goals on TikTok, complementing Ha and McCann’s (2008) finding of
users' stronger goal orientation on social media.

Through its approach, this study was able to address a gap in academic research and expand the
possibilities of future research in the field. The findings of this study prompt the formulation of
hypotheses, which can be researched deeper in future studies and examined quantitatively, in order
to gain a comprehensive and verifiable insight into the topic.
 40

Advertising invasiveness occurs when advertisements interrupt the flow of media consumption (Ha &
McCann, 2008). More specifically, attention invasiveness relates to the interruption of an individual’s
ongoing cognitive processing or goal-directed behaviors (Li et al., 2002). Consequently, attention
invasiveness can be lowered, by seamlessly presenting consumers with ads that are relevant to them
and conform to their goals (Dodoo & Wen, 2019). This study found that TikTok’s advertising strategy
addresses the invasion of users’ attention through the TikTok style, algorithm, and ad positioning.
These factors, as a part of the construct of TikTok’s advertising strategy, were found to mitigate the
construct of attention invasiveness. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that:
H1a: TikTok’s advertising strategy effectively reduces the perception of attention invasiveness.

Additionally, as users invest time and effort into their social media spaces, they may perceive that
SMA invades their personal space in social media (Niu et al., 2021). Consequently, when SMA is
designed and played out in a way that it does not occupy users’ spaces, as it facilitates users’ self-
paced consumption and resembles organic content, space invasiveness can be lowered (Ha &
McCann, 2008). This study found that TikTok’s advertising strategy addresses the invasion of users’
spaces through the utilization of creators, the brand community on TikTok, and the special ad formats
Branded Effects and Branded Hashtag Challenge. These factors, as a part of the construct of TikTok’s
advertising strategy, were found to mitigate the construct of space invasiveness. Therefore, it can be
hypothesized that:
H1b: TikTok’s advertising strategy effectively reduces the perception of space invasiveness.

Both attention and space invasiveness can cause negative attitudes toward advertising in recipients,
thereby leading them to feel irritated (Niu et al., 2021). Accordingly, users’ irritation can be alleviated
if SMA is entertaining, informative, and relevant to consumers, leading them to feel less invaded and
irritated by ads (Ha & McCann, 2008). As this study found that reduced advertising invasiveness
equated to reduced irritation on TikTok, and since current research concludes that the effect of
advertising irritation is less significant on TikTok (Dwinanda et al., 2022), it can be hypothesized that:
H2: The reduced perception of advertising invasiveness causes reduced advertising irritation on
TikTok.

Lastly, users can choose to avoid advertising on a cognitive, affective, or behavioral level (Cho, 2013),
thereby taking actions to differentially reduce their exposure to SMA (Speck & Elliot, 1997). Their
decision to avoid ads is triggered when they feel invaded and irritated (Niu et al., 2021). As advertising
invasiveness and irritation are reduced, since advertising receptivity is higher on TikTok (Kantar,
2021b), and since this study found that avoidance is reduced on TikTok, it can be hypothesized that:
H3: The reduced perception of advertising irritation causes reduced advertising avoidance on TikTok.
 41

Figure 6: Research Model and Hypotheses (Adapted from Niu et al. (2021))

5.3 Managerial Implications

This study additionally offers important implications for marketers on TikTok. Currently, brands on
TikTok were found to have a hard time adapting to the precise prerequisites and requirements of the
TikTok advertising environment. Some marketers still utilize traditional SMA on TikTok, which does
not resonate with audiences, while others attempt to utilize a platform-native approach in their
advertising but fail to do so effectively. Nevertheless, brands have started adapting to the platform
more successfully over time, and users report rather favorable perceptions of the SMA that they
receive. It is vital for this development toward platform-native advertising to continue, in order for
consumer attitudes to remain high on TikTok. However, experts assess a certain risk in future
developments on TikTok, as a mass implementation of advertising on TikTok would attract a broader
range of advertisers. These may differ from current front-rowers, who make an effort to appeal to the
TikTok audience, as future advertisers may choose not to follow TikTok’s advertising strategy, instead
utilizing the platform as yet another medium in their portfolio. Contrarily, users’ increased demands
and expectations, as well as the strong presence of successful brands and ads on TikTok, may keep
advertising standards high in the future. In order for brands to resonate with the distinct audience on
TikTok, which demands authentic, creative, and entertaining advertising, they must comply with
TikTok’s advertising strategy. This involves the utilization of the TikTok style, their appearance as a
member of the community, and the right choice of the ad’s positioning, in order to reduce attention
invasiveness. Additionally, brands should utilize creators effectively, create favorable ads to benefit
from algorithmic recommendations, and consider employing Branded Effects and the Branded
Hashtag Challenge in order to accumulate UGC and reduce space invasiveness. Overall, it is critical
for marketers to keep irritation levels low by conforming to users’ needs and gratification-seeking
motives (Katz & Foulkes, 1962), in order to mitigate the risk of being avoided by their audience (Niu
et al., 2021). TikTok's users have the possibility to avoid any ads without limitations and do so more
rigorously when ads do not match with their goal-directed behaviors. This shifted power structure
poses additional challenges for marketers, who must meet the demands of users and consistently
innovate, in order to grab the attention of a user base with ever-decreasing attention spans and
elevated expectations.
 42

5.4 Study Limitations and Opportunities for Future Research

While this study offers new insights into users’ advertising perceptions on TikTok, it has certain
limitations that need to be considered. Firstly, while the sample provides an in-depth understanding
of the users’ and experts’ individual perspectives, the sample size and selection bias limit the
generalizability of the findings (Nikolopoulou, 2023). Secondly, semi-structured interviews may elicit
social desirability bias and recall bias in participants, as they may answer inaccurately, which may
distort data (ibid.). Further, during the interpretation of the data, the researcher’s biases may influence
the conclusions drawn from the interviews (ibid.). Lastly, there may be contextual limitations to this
study, as the findings may not be transferable to other time periods (ibid.). In the fast-paced digital
landscape, advertising developments and users' advertising perceptions of TikTok may change
significantly, and the study's conclusions might not hold true in the future.

Despite these limitations, this study provides a valuable basis for future research. By examining users'
perceptions and incorporating expert insights, it depicts the challenges of meeting users' needs and
gratification-seeking motives with SMA on TikTok from multiple angles. Researchers can utilize this
foundation and apply mixed-method approaches, in order to integrate qualitative findings with
quantitative data and gain a deeper and differentiated understanding of users' perceptions of TikTok
ads. Moreover, future studies can investigate how users' perceptions evolve with time and how
cultural and demographic factors influence ad perception, in order to strengthen the field's knowledge
and offer additional implications regarding TikTok's advertising strategy.

5.5 Conclusion
Due to the increasing spread of digital media and SMA, it is essential to gain an understanding of
users' attitudes and perceptions of ads in social media spaces. Generally, users dislike advertising
and apply negative attitudes to SMA in particular. To counteract this, TikTok has implemented a
distinct approach for advertising on its platform following the mantra “Don’t Make Ads. Make TikToks.”
This study utilized the model by Niu et al. (2021) and introduced the construct of TikTok’s advertising
strategy, in order to examine how effectively TikTok’s advertising platform addresses recipients’
inherent negativity toward SMA. The results show that TikTok’s advertising strategy largely succeeds
in effectively reducing the occurrence of attention and space invasiveness, which, in turn, lower
advertising irritation and avoidance. Therefore, in order to improve users' perceptions, advertisers
must face the challenges of the medium and conform to the culture and community of TikTok, by
adopting TikTok’s advertising strategy. Generally, user's perception of advertisements on the social
media platform TikTok were rather positive and negative advertising attitudes could be largely
alleviated.
 43

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7 Appendix
7.1 Interview Questionnaires
7.1.1 Expert-Interview Questions

Attention Invasiveness
• Users might feel like their attention is being invaded, if they find that ads are distracting,
appear abruptly and hinder them in their browsing activity (Niu et al., 2021).
o How do you assess the extent to which ads on TikTok disrupt and invade users'
attention and browsing experience?
o How does TikTok's ad strategy address users' tendency toward perceiving ads as
invasive and disruptive to their attention?
▪ The TikTok style is supposed to be unique, while you see hyper-polished ads
on other platforms, TikTok has their own style. What would you say defines
this TikTok style and what makes ads less invasive because of it?
▪ What about the way that TikTok plays out ads might reduce attention
invasiveness?
▪ What about the way that TikTok positions ads might reduce attention
invasiveness?
▪ Do TikToks Top View and Top Feed ads capture audiences attention better?
Do they invade users' attention less?

Space Invasiveness
• “When consumers put much effort into social media and generate significant content there,
they are likely to view social media as their private spaces. Therefore, when social media
advertising pops up, consumers may view their private spaces as being invaded” (Niu et al.,
2021), as they believe that the shown ads don’t belong in their feeds.
o How do you assess the extent to which TikTok users perceive their personal space
as being invaded when they come across sponsored content?
o How does TikTok's ad strategy address users' tendency toward perceiving ads as
invasive to their personal space?
▪ Do ads that are made in collaboration with creators resonate with audiences
better and invade their space less?
▪ TikTok says that brands are a part of the community and the TikTok culture.
Would you say that this is actually the case? Do users embrace brands into
their space?
▪ In TikToks Branded Hashtag Challenge and Branded Effects, brands work
with creators, so ads may appear more personal, and above that, user
generated content is triggered. Do you think that these formats can help lower
space invasiveness and lower the barrier of the audience to embrace and
enjoy branded content and ads?

Advertising Irritation & Avoidance

• Generally, “consumers dislike advertising and engage in advertising avoidance whenever
possible” (e.g. by intentionally ignoring, automatically disfavouring or actively scrolling ads
away) (Niu et al., 2021).
o What advertising attitudes do you believe TikTok ads evoke in consumers?
▪ Do you believe they are irritated by ads?
▪ Studies attribute TikTok ads as being honest, real, unique, fun, innovative and
entertaining, while advertising intrusiveness is low. How do you assess this?
o How do you evaluate users' avoidance of advertising on TikTok, considering
consumers’ inherent inclination to actively ignore, disfavor, or scroll past ads?
 50

7.1.2 User-Interview Questions

Attention Invasiveness
• Users might feel like their attention is being invaded, if they find that ads are distracting,
appear abruptly and hinder them in their browsing activity (Niu et al., 2021).
o When browsing TikTok, to what extent do you feel disrupted and invaded in your
attention by ads?
▪ Do you find ads on TikTok to be distracting? Do they hinder your browsing by
appearing abruptly?
o How does TikTok's ad strategy address your tendency toward perceiving ads as
invasive and disruptive to your attention?
▪ What defines the TikTok style for you? Does it make ads appear less invasive
to you?
▪ How well does the TikTok algorithm match you with ads that are relevant and
enjoyable to you?
▪ Does the way that TikTok ads are positioned interrupt you less in your
attention?
▪ Do TikTok’s TopView and Top Feed ad placements capture your attention?
Do they invade your attention?

Space Invasiveness
• “When consumers put much effort into social media and generate significant content there,
they are likely to view social media as their private spaces. Therefore, when social media
advertising pops up, consumers may view their private spaces as being invaded” (Niu et al.,
2021), as they believe that the shown ads don’t belong in their feeds
o To what extent do you view TikTok as your private space?
▪ Do you feel invaded in your space when coming across sponsored content?
o How does TikTok's ad strategy address your tendency toward perceiving ads as
invasive to your personal space?
▪ How do ads that are made in collaboration with creators resonate with you?
Do they invade your space less?
▪ Do you embrace brands as a part of the community on TikTok? Do you view
branded or user-generated content differently?
▪ To what extent do the Branded Hashtag Challenge and Branded Effects lower
the barrier for you to embrace and enjoy branded content and ads?

Advertising Irritation & Avoidance

• Generally, “consumers dislike advertising and engage in advertising avoidance whenever
possible” (e.g. by intentionally ignoring, automatically disfavouring or actively scrolling ads
away) (Niu et al., 2021).
o What advertising attitudes do TikTok ads evoke in you?
▪ Do you feel irritated by ads on TikTok?
▪ Studies attribute TikTok ads as being honest, real, unique, fun, innovative and
entertaining, while advertising intrusiveness is low. How do you assess this?
o To what extent are you inherently inclined to actively ignore, disfavor, or scroll past
ads?

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