CHAPTER -I

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Organic light emitting diode (OLED)

Organic electronics are still a young area of technology that comprises applications as diverse as
illuminant, photovoltaics, printed electronics and batteries. Replacing inorganic by organic
materials, in particular conversion of light to electrical current (photovoltaics) and electrical
current to light (light diodes), are promising basic economic and ecological benefits as well as
benefits regarding application options and design, e.g. for large-area lighting, flexible displays
and generation of energy” .Organic light emitting diodes (OLED) are promising candidates for
general illumination, too, since they offer the possibility to realize large area light sources which
can even be transparent and flexible. The energy-saving potential of OLEDs is similar to that of
LEDs, but the two technologies differ in a number of ways. The following table compares LED
and OLED technologies. An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a light-emitting diode
(LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound that emits
light in response to an electric current. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such
as television screens, computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld
game consoles and PDAs. A major area of research is the development of white OLED devices
for use in solid-state lighting applications. While there has recently been a dramatic expansion in
the use of OLEDs for displays, a direct impact on the cost of OLED lighting products is not yet
evident . Partly this is because OLED lighting manufacturing is still evolving and the device
architectures and performance requirements are different than those for displays. Nevertheless,
today several OLED products for general lighting are already available. OLEDs offer yet another
light source technology with unique spectral power densities. The broad spectrum of OLED
emission peaks allows for full coverage of the visible spectrum; however, red emission in the
infrared regime and the lack of efficient, long-life blue emitters limit options in terms of
optimizing the trade-off between colour quality and efficacy. [DOE-14]. Most OLED panels emit
light over a complete hemisphere, with a distribution close to Lambertian , this is a fundamental
difference from other lighting technology. Unlike existing light sources, such as incandescent
light bulbs and fluorescent lamps, OLEDs are planar light emitters that are lightweight and have
thin profiles. This allows lamp manufacturers and designers to create unprecedented designs and
provide dramatic effects, leading to the creation of new living environments in houses, offices,
stores, and vehicles such as cars and airplanes. In principle, OLEDs emit UV-free “pleasant
light” with a high Colour Rendering Index (CRI). An OLED device with broad spectrum can
achieve a radiant efficacy1 as high as 325 lm/W and, possibly, this value can goes up to 400
lm/W. However, an early NanoMarker white paper pointed-out that Organic electronics is in no
position to replace silicon, but there are many applications for which organic materials currently
offer a competitive or superior mix of performance and economics, their number is growing, and
the opportunity for materials firms is substantial.

1.1 History

Electroluminescence in organic materials was first observed in 1950 applying high voltages in air
to acridine orange. Ohmic dark-injecting electrode was developed by Martin Pope in NY
University in 1960. They explained needs for hole and electron electrode contacts. DC
electroluminescence was first observed under vacuum on one crystal of anthracene by Pope‘s
group. He implied in 1965 that when external E.F. is absent, electroluminescence in anthracene
crystals is generated by recombination of electron and hole. Double injection recombination
electroluminescence was produced in an anthracene crystal through hole and electron electrodes
by W. Helfrich and W. G. Schneider of the National Research Council in Canada in 1965. They
reported about electronic excitation at contacts between graphite molecules and anthracene
particles. Electro luminescence of polymer films was observed by Roger Partridge at the
National Physics Laboratory in the UK. It had a film of poly (n-vinyl carbazole) between two
charged injecting electron. recombination and light emission in middle of the organic layer,
leading to OLED research and device production. J.H. Burroughs at the Cavendish Laboratory in
Cambridge culminated with polymer electroluminescence in 1990 reporting a green light-
emitting polymer device.

1.1.2 COMPONENT OF OLED

An OLED is a solid-state device consisting of a thin, carbon-based semiconductor layer that

emits light when electricity is applied by adjacent electrodes. In order for light to escape from the
device, at least one of the electrodes must be transparent. The intensity of the light emitted is
controlled by the amount of electric current applied by the electrodes, and the light's colour is
determined by the type of emissive material used. The basic structure of an OLED consists of a
thin film of organic material (typical thickness in the order of 100nm) sandwiched between two
electrodes, as depicted in Fig. 1, all deposited on a substrate.

OLED consist of following components:-

1. Substrate- the substrate in an OLED may be a plastic foil or even a glass. If light emitted
passes through substrate, such OLED devices are named bottom emission devices.

2. Anode- indium tin oxide (ITO) is the anode component. It is a sufficient conductor having
high work function promoting injection of holes into the HOMO levels.

3. Hole-transport layer (HTL) - The p-type materials for OLED are TPD and NPB.

4. Emissive layer- the emissive layer of an OLED consists of organic plastic molecules like
polyfluorine holes are more mobile than electrons in organic semiconductors. The colour of the
light produced varies to type of organic molecule used. In organic electroluminescence, the
processes involved are charge injection, charge transportation, exciton formula and light
emission.

1.1.3 WORKING OF OLED

OLED Technology Works:

Early OLEDs had one layer of organic material between two electrodes. Modern OLEDs are bi-
layer, they have an emissive layer and conductive layer sandwiched between two electrodes.

1. Electric current passes from the cathode to the anode. It passes through two layers of organic
molecules.

2. The first layer the electrons pass into what is called the emissive layer. Electrons leave the
conductive layer making 'holes' (positive charge). Meanwhile in the emissive layer there are
excessive electrons (negative). The 'holes' jump to the emissive layer along the border of the two
layers where they recombine with electrons (this place is the p/n junction). When the electrons
join the holes light is emitted. Light colour is dependent on the materials used in the organic or
polymer layers.

1.1.4 TYPES OF OLED

Depending on the type of manufacture and the nature of their application, OLEDs are classified
into:-

1. Passive- matrix OLED (PMOLED) :- PMOLEDs basically consist of organic layers and
anode strips in perpendicular order to the cathode strips. Intersection of strips makes pixels
where light is emitted. The brighter the pixel the more amount of current is applied. External
circuit provides current to some strips to turn on or off the pixels. They are easy and cheap but
use more power than other OLED but still less power than LCD and LED. They are limited in
size and resolution. They have wide applications in MP3 player, cell phones displays.

2. Active matrix OLED (AMOLED) :- AMOLEDs include complete layers of cathode, organic
components and anode. The layers of anode consists of TFT (thin film transistors) in parallel to
form a matrix, which helps in switching each pixel to it‘s on or off state as required hence,
forming an image. When the pixels are not needed, they turn off or a black image on display
occurs. This is least power consuming type and has quick refresh rates. They are best used in
computer monitors, electronic signs or big TV screens.
3. Transparent OLEDs :- TOLEDs have only components which are transparent as the name
suggests like substrate, cathode and anode. When a display of such kind is turned on, light is
allowed to pass in both directions. It is applied in both active and passive matrix categories.
Since they consist of transparent parameters on both sides, they can form displays with top and
bottom emitting. It is widely used in head-up displays, laptops and smart windows. TOLEDs
enabled features like transparency, enhanced constant ratio and multi-stacked devices. TOLEDs
are applied into a rear-view mirrors and transmitters or had-up information systems.

4. Top-emitting OLED :- Such OLEDs have either an opaque or reflective substrates. They are
preferred for active-matrix applications due to the reason of them being easily integrated with a
non-transparent transistor backplane . Top-emitting OLED displays are used by manufacturers in
smart cards.

5. Foldable OLEDs :- FOLEDs have substrates out of flexible metallic foils or plastics. They
have advantages of flexibility, durability and lightweight quality. Since the material has high
strength, it decreases breakage and hence, are used in GPS devices, mobilephones and big curved
screen TVs. FOLEDs have many added merits like it offers better picture resolution and faster
response time. It finds its applications in mobile phones, GPS receiver and OLED display into it.

6. White OLEDs :- White OLEDs are characterised by true-colour qualities of incandescent

lightning and emit brighter white light than that by uniform and energy efficient fluorescent
lights and incandescent bulbs. Since they are manufactured in big sheets, are cost-effective and
consumes less power, they replace fluorescent lamps and could decrease energy costs for
lightning. It is best suited for car lightning.

7. PHOLEDs :- PHOLEDs decreases heat generation. Thus, we find its application in a large-
sized OLED TV or lamps. Because it is energy- efficient, PHOLEDs can decrease temperature
substantially. It also reduces the quantity of air conditioning needed to remove the produced heat
making such a technology a necessary element in environmental building strategy. PHOLEDs
have applications in computer monitors and TV screens or light panels

1.1.5 Difference between LED and OLED

The Differences between LED and OLED TVs The differences between LED and OLED TVs
include illumination methods, price points, and energy efficiency levels. The list below
documents these differences.

1. The main difference between an LED TV and an OLED TV is that the pixels of an OLED TV
are self illuminating, whereas the LEDs in an LED TV are used to light an LCD display.

2. LED TVs are currently less expensive than OLED displays, though eventually experts expect
OLED TVs to drop significantly in price.

3. OLED TVs feature a wider viewing angle than do LED TVs. With OLED, the colors do not
get washed out when viewers watch from extreme angles.

4. OLED technology offers the ability to develop lighter and thinner displays than LED TVs do.

5. OLED TVs offer the deepest blacks of any type of flat-screen diode TV available.

6. OLED TVs have the ability to make a greater number of colors, though this advantage is
miniscule when compared to the current level of HDTV technology, limiting the number of
colours that can be utilized.

7. OLED TVs are more energy efficient when compared to their LED counterparts.

1.1.6 Advantages

OLED Advantages:

1. The plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible than the
crystalline layers in an LED.

2. Because the light-emitting layers of an OLED are lighter, the substrate of an OLED can be
flexible instead of rigid. OLED substrates can be plastic rather than the glass used for LEDs.

3. OLEDs are brighter than LEDs. Because the organic layers of an OLED are much thinner than
the corresponding inorganic crystal layers of an LED, the conductive and emissive layers of an
OLED can be multi-layered. Also, LEDs and LCDs require glass for support, and glass absorbs
some light. OLEDs do not require glass.

4. OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCDs. LCDs work by selectively blocking areas of
the backlight to make the images that you see, while OLEDs generate light themselves. Because
OLEDs do not require backlighting, they consume much less power than LCDs. This is
especially important for battery operated devices such as cell phones.

5. OLEDs are easier to produce and can be made to larger sizes. Because OLEDs are essentially
plastics, they can be made into large, thin sheets. It is much more difficult to grow and lay down
so many liquid crystals.

6. OLEDs have large fields of view, about 170 degrees. Because LCDs work by blocking light,
they have an inherent viewing obstacle from certain angles. OLEDs produce their own light, so
they have a much wider viewing range.

1.1.7 OLED Disadvantages:

1. Usually only with a lifespan of 5,000 hours; 10,000 hours lower than LCD at least.

2. Large quantity production of large-size screens is not available. It is therefore, only applied to
those portable digital products.

3. Problems of colour purity still remains: it is difficult to display fresh and rich colors.

4. Water can easily damage OLED.

5. Sunlight Effect: Another disadvantage of OLED display is that they are hard to see.

1.1.6 Applications of OLED

1. OLED’s are currently being used in developing small screen devices such as cell phones,
PDA’s, DVD players and digital cameras. Its ability to be foldable and flexible makes it weight
and space saving technology. In March 2003, Kodak released a first digital camera using OLED
2. Several companies have prototypes for built in Monitors and TV screens that use OLED
technology. Nokia has come up with the concept of scroll laptop. The Fraunhofer Institute has
created a miniaturized OLED display with SVGA (600x800) resolution measuring just 0.6-
inches diagonal. That provides a pixel density of 1,667 pixels-per-inch.

3. Applications of OLED’s are being continuously expanding. Figure 18: Applications of OLED
OLED’s are also used in multiple-input/multiple-output (MIMO) wireless optical channels.
OLED’s are emissive transmitters printed on flexible sheets of plastic. High transmission speed
of OLED’s can be used in visible optical communications. The communication field is limited
near the emitting area of an OLED, resulting in a safe data transmission.

1.2 Luminescence :-

The luminescence phenomenon is described as the emission of electromagnetic radiation in

excess of thermal radiation. In most cases, the emitted radiation occurs within the visible range,
even though ultraviolet emission and infrared emission were also observed .Luminescence is
traditionally divided according to the excitation source type , which allows for the definition of
photoluminescence, electroluminescence, cathodoluminescence, X-ray luminescence,
triboluminescence, and chemiluminescence, with the most prominent role belonging to the first
two mechanisms.

Luminescence is also often characterized by the time of extinction, measured as the effect
duration after the disappearance of the excitation. This value may vary according to the effect
mechanism and material construction from 0 to several hours, which provides a hint as to the
traditional classification of the phosphorescence (with no afterglow effect) and fluorescence
(with notable afterglow) . The role of this effect may be notable in particular applications, as well
as during emission intensity measurement processes. Luminescence is also practically used in
many applications, including light-emitting diodes (LEDs), storage phosphors, persistent
luminescence phosphors, scintillators, and notably in up and down conversion mechanism
materials which are designed for photovoltaics .

There are many factors causing serious limitations in the actual efficiency of the
photovoltaic structures. Amongst them one can distinguish thermalization losses (close to 33%
of the total losses), the too small energy of absorbed photons (about 15% of the total loss) or the
waste of ultraviolet (UV) light high energy photons and recombination losses (around 15% of
total loss) . According to the Shockey-Queisser limit the maximum efficiency of a standard
crystalline Si solar cell is limited to 31%, which currently leaves only about a 4.3% gap for
future improvement . Many concepts have been developed to overcome this constraint, including
the following: multijunction or tandem solar cells , the implementation of the intermediate band ,
hot carrier and carrier multiplication , spectrum split systems , or insulation spectrum
modifications .

The mechanisms of these spectral modifications may fall into one of three main categories:
up-conversion (UC), based on the absorption of two low-energy photons and the subsequent
emission of one higher energy photon; down conversion (DC), where one high energy photon is
absorbed and converted into two lower-energy ones; and down shifting (DS), with the
conversion of one high energy photon into one with lower energy and an additional energy
emission . Up conversion, as the non-linear process with low probability, did not find many
practical applications in photovoltaics due to their low efficiency and natural limited amount of
energy in the infrared range of the light spectrum. Consequently, the DC process is interesting,
but is also limited, as it is necessary to introduce an intermediate level precisely in the center of
the semiconductor bandgap and eliminate losses to generate two photons from the single
absorbed one. Finally, the last of these processes was practically proposed in a PV application by
Hovel et. al. in 1979 ; however, the general concept was formulated a few years before as a solar
luminescent concentrator . It is estimated that this solution may lead to even 10% efficiency
growth in solar cell structures when employed properly ; however, the current progress in cell
parameters is still lower .

1.2.1Types of Luminescence

There are several varieties of luminescence , each named according to what the source of energy
is, or what the trigger for the luminescence is, for example:
1. Chemiluminescence: The emission of light by the release of energy from a chemical reaction
is called chemiluminescence. The reaction of Luminol (C8H7N3O2) with an appropriate oxidant
results in a striking blue glow.

2. Bioluminescence: Bioluminescence is also known as “living light” and the most amazing
examples of this phenomenon can be found in the deep seas. In the darkness of the oceans where
sunlight can not reach, several living organisms produce light as the result of chemical reactions.

3. Triboluminescence: In this accidentally discovered type of luminescence, light is generated by

mechanical energy. Pulling apart, ripping, scratching, crushing, or rubbing can result in the
breaking of chemical bonds in the material which triggers light emission like in sugar or silicon
crystals. It is also called mechanoluminescence. Luminescence Fluorescence tc 10-8 sec
(Temperature dependent process) Short period tc 10-4 sec Thermoluminescence Minutes<tc

4. Cathodoluminescence (CL): The light emission is a result of electron beam excitation. Both in
the case of cathode ray tube (CRT), televisions or computer screens and a scanning electron
microscope (SEM), an electron gun is used for this purpose. • Electroluminescence (EL): Light is
generated in response to an applied electric field on a certain material. The most used
electroluminescent devices in daily life are certainly light emitting diodes (LEDs).

5. Photoluminescence (PL): Emission of the light is the result of the excitation by

electromagnetic radiation/photons. It is a less specific term which embraces both fluorescence
and phosphorescence. Photoluminescence has a very broad application area from whitening
substances in washing powder to plasma screens for large scale displays.There is a special type
of luminescence which has a very slow decay with the emission continuing for minutes or hours.
This type of luminescence is called long lasting or persistent luminescence and it is commonly
used in road safety and exit marking.

6. Thermoluminescence (TL): It is also known as thermally stimulated luminescence (TSL). It is

the luminescence activated thermally after initial irradiation by other means such as α, β, γ, UV
or Xrays. It is not to be confused with thermal radiation: the thermal excitation only triggers the
release of energy, imparted to the material from another source of excitation. •
Radioluminescence (RL): It is the phenomenon by which light is produced in a material by
bombardment with ionizing radiation such as beta particles, X-rays or gamma rays.

7. Sonoluminescence (SL): It is the phenomenon by which light is produced due to the

excitation by ultrasonic waves.

Each process mentioned above has its own significance and advantage in the field of science and
technology. Emphasis in the present review has been given to study the basic phenomenon of
Luminescence and its mechanism, along with photoluminescence (PL) of phosphors that exhibit
strong emission in the visible region.

1.2.2 Photoluminescence :-

Photoluminescence (PL) is a process in which a substance absorbs photons (electromagnetic

radiation) and then re-radiates photons. Quantum mechanically, this can be described as an
excitation to a higher energy state and then a return to a lower energy state accompanied by the
emission of a photon. If a light particle (photon) has an energy greater than the band gap energy,
then it can be absorbed and thereby raise an electron from the valence band up to the conduction
band across the forbidden energy gap. In this process of photoexcitation, the electron generally
has excess energy which it loses before coming to rest at the lowest energy in the conduction
band. At this point the electron energy eventually falls back down to the valence band. As this
happens, the energy it loses is converted back into a luminescent photon which is emitted from
the material. Thus the energy of the emitted photon is a direct measure of the band gap energy,
Eg. The process of photon excitation followed by photon emission is called photoluminescence

1.2.3 Reference

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