Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

Module-1
Introduction
Operating States of Power System:

The objective of the control strategy is to generate and distribute power in an interconnected system
as economically and reliably as possible while maintaining the frequency and voltage within
permissible limits. Changes in real power mainly affect the system frequency. The system operation is
governed by equality and inequality constraints. Equality constraints are power balance between
generation and load. Inequality constraints set the limits on different operating parameters such as
voltage, generation limits, currents etc. DyLiacco , Fink and Carlson have classified a system operation
into five states. The System states are,
1. Normal state
2. Alert state
3. Emergency state
4. In extremis state
5. Restorative state

Normal state:
 In this state, the equality constraints and inequality constraints are satisfied.
 A system is said to be in normal if both load and operating constraints are satisfied.
 It is one in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all the operating
constraints without any equipment being overloaded.
 The reserve margins are sufficient to provide security for normal stresses.

Alert state:
 In this state, the equality constraints and inequality constraints are satisfied.
 The reserve margins are reduced.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
 When the system security level falls below a certain level or the probability of disturbance
increases, the system may be in alert state.
 If severe disturbance occurs, the system will push into emergency state.
 To bring back the system to secure state, preventive control action is carried out.
Emergency state:
 The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are violated,
but the load constraint is satisfied.
 Due to severe disturbances, the system may enter an emergency state.
 This is because of imbalance between generation and loads.
 In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged.
 The system will return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective
actions, disconnection of faulted section or load sharing.
 Some strong control measures such as direct or indirect load shedding, generation shedding,
shunt capacitor or reactor switching, network splitting can be taken on time.

Extremis state:
 When the system is in emergency, if no proper corrective action is taken in time, then it goes
to either emergency state or extremis state.
 Equality and inequality constraints are violated.
 The generation and load demands do not match.
 In this regard neither the load or nor the operating constraint is satisfied.
 Also the generating units are strained beyond their capacity.
 So emergency control action is done to bring back the system state either to the emergency
state or normal state otherwise total grid collapse occurs.

Restorative state:
 From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure state. The latter
is a slow process.
 Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back to alert state and then to the secure
state.
 This is done using restorative control action.

Operating States of Power System:

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
Objectives of Control:

 The system must be able to meet the continually changing load demand for active and reactive
power.
 The power quality should meet certain standards with regard to frequency, amplitude and wave
shape of generated voltage and level of reliability.
 The system should supply energy at a minimum cost.
 To achieve the above objectives, we have several levels of controls that are integrated in a
complex way.
 The generators are provided essentially with excitation control, to keep the voltage and reactive
power at the desired levels, and with prime mover control, to maintain the frequency and real
power at the desired levels.
 The prime mover control is concerned with regulation of the speed, and the controls are for the
associated parameters such as water discharge quantity, boiler pressure, temperature, flows,
etc.
 Power system stabilizers are used to damp oscillations of the generator following a disturbance.
 The system generation control maintains the required active power balance in the system. The
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) is responsible for maintaining this balance, which in turn
is required to hold the frequency around the nominal value.
 The transmission controls include power and voltage control devices, which help maintain the
voltage levels within limits, maintain system stability, protect the system and result in reliable
operation of the system.
 The control devices are tap changing transformers, Flexible AC Transmission (FACTS)
controllers, shunt reactors, shunt capacitors, phase shifting transformers controls
 Distribution level controls such as capacitors, wave shaping circuits, etc., are used to provide
quality power to the consumer.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
Key Concepts of Reliable Operation:
The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) has proposed seven key concepts for
reliable operation of the power system. These are:
Balance the generation and the load: The load on the power system is dynamic and changing all the
time. The production by the generators must be scheduled to meet this constantly changing load. The
AGCs are used to match the generation with the demand.
Balance reactive power generation and demand: This balance is required to maintain the scheduled
voltages. Reactive power sources are generators and capacitor banks. They must be constantly adjusted
to maintain the voltages at all levels, within permissible range, to protect the equipment.
Ensure thermal limits are not exceeded: The heating limits of the overhead lines must not be
exceeded; otherwise, the lines will sag into the objects given below.
Maintain system stability: If a system loses stability, the grid may face a total collapse. The stability
limits will specify the maximum power that can be transferred over the lines.
Meet N – 1 reliability criteria: This means that the system should remain operational and secure even
after the loss of the largest generator in the system. (N is the number of generators, N - 1 indicates loss
of one generator).
Plan, design and maintain to operate reliably: The planning, design and maintenance should be such
that the system should be operated reliably and within safe limits at all times
Prepare for emergencies: In spite of thorough planning and good design, emergencies such as weather
fluctuations, operator error, software failure, equipment failure, etc., can occur. Operators must be
trained to prepare for such emergencies.
Preventive and Emergency Controls:
Preventive control is meant to keep the system in the normal state or bring it back to the normal state
from the alert state. Automatic controls are provided for frequency and voltage control.
Preventive control measures commonly used are as follows:
1. Rescheduling of active power generated by various units, to match the changing load.
2. Scan-up of generation units and providing adequate spinning reserve.
3. Switching of shunt elements for reactive power control. This will help maintain the voltage
within desired limits.
4. Change of reference points of controllable devices such as FACTs controllers, phase-shifting
transformers, etc.
5. Change in the voltage reference points of generators and voltage control devices.
6. Change of substation configuration, like bus-bar splitting, etc.
Emergency control measures are taken to stop worsening of the situation, prevent
degradation of the system and cascading failure effects and to bring back the system to the
alert state.
Some of the common emergency control measures are as follows:
1. Tripping of generators.
2. Load shedding.
3. Fast valving or fast water diversion which leads to a fast reduction in generation.
4. Controlled disconnection of interconnected systems to prevent spreading of frequency
problems.
5. Controlled islanding to create local generation-load balance.
6. Blocking of tap changers of transformers.
7. Fast HVDC power transfer control.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
8. Application of braking resistors.

Energy Management Centers:

The control of the modern power system is extremely complex and Modern energy management
centers are embedded a number of functions.
They comprise both hardware and software to monitor and control the system, Monitoring is fully
automated and Controlling is a combination of automated and manual operations.
The functions of energy Center can be divided into three subsystem blocks as follows
 The dispatch subsystem: This subsystem would involve the functions of unit commitment,
economic dispatch, automatic generation control and demand forecasting.
 Data subsystem: This subsystem is essentially for data acquisition and processing. It contains
the units of SCADA, state estimation and all the associated alarms and displays.
 Security subsystem: This subsystem is basically to oversee the secure operation of the power
system. The functions included are security monitoring, contingency analysis, decision on control
actions based on the state of the system, such as preventive control / emergency control / restorative
control, etc.
The hierarchical control can be broadly classified into three levels:
Level 1: Load forecasting, unit commitment and trading (longer duration)
Level 2: Economic dispatch, optimal power flow, Interchange evaluation (duration 5
10 min)
Level3:Automatic generation control, voltage control, state estimation (time in seconds)
Level 1 functions require statistical data and hence probabilistic methods are used. The results of level
1 are used in level 2 and level 3 functions. These are mainly deterministic in nature.
Major components of Energy Centers:
1. SCADA: The SCADA system consists of two subsystems - the supervisory control and the data
acquisition.
The supervisory subsystem is responsible for:
(a) display at the central location, the status of circuit breakers and other devices such as tap changers,
capacitor switching, generator voltage regulators
(b) facilitating remote tripping of breakers, tap changing of transformers, etc. The dispatcher at the
control centre will initiate actions to switch circuit breakers, change taps, etc.
The data acquisition subsystem consists of the Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) to interface the power
system instrumentation with the control devices and interface communication channels (wireless
communication and Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems) and control center.
2. Computers: Modern computers are having immense capabilities in terms of memory and speed.
The structure of energy management centres has changed with advent of fast computing facilities.
Since the applications are crucial, redundancy is built in the hardware. Different schemes are available
for backup.
The main functions of the computing facilities at the control centre are as follows:
• Real-time monitoring and control
• User interface
• Operating studies
• Maintenance and testing
• Simulation studies

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
3. User interface: The user interface consists of consoles, data loggers, display units and screen
projections to alert operators. Since there is extensive interaction with human beings, modern interfaces
use techniques of animation and extensive graphics to make it more user friendly.
4. Application software: This section is to implement the various functions discussed, namely, Unit
Commitment (UC), economic dispatch, state estimation, optimal power flow, contingency analysis,
etc.
Supervisory Control and Data acquisition (SCADA):
 It is a combination of supervisory control and data acquisition, along with the associated
telemetry.
 They are used to control equipment which is geographically dispersed.
 It consists of both hardware and software.
 SCADA is only for supervisory control and does not include a full control system.
 In electric power systems, most supervisory systems are meant to provide operators with
sufficient information and control capabilities to operate the power system in a safe and
secure manner.
 It includes Supervisory Control System, Telemetry, Data Acquisition.

Supervisory Control System:

The intention of supervisory control is to control a specific device to make it perform in accordance
with a directed action. Some typical supervisory systems used in power systems are:

1. SCADA: A SCADA system performs traditional operations of data acquisition and control
functions, including a limited amount of record keeping and data reporting.
2. SCADA / AGC: It is similar to SCADA, except that AGC capabilities are included to
calculate the area control error, monitor system frequency and tie-line interchanges, and
perform economic dispatch.
3. EMS: Energy management systems incorporate all features of SCADA and also includes
other computations, such as load flows, state estimation, contingency analysis, etc.
4. DMS: Distribution management systems are meant to monitor and control distribution
feeder loads.
5. LMS: Load management system is meant to manage the peak load and is useful for,
demand side management.
6. AMR: Automatic meter reading is incorporated into LM systems.

Telemetry: Telemetry refers to the technique used in transmitting and receiving information or data
over a medium. Typical data in a power system are the measurements of voltage, power flows, circuit
breaker status, etc. The information is transmitted over a medium, such as cable, telephone, internet or
radio. The information can come from multiple locations.

Data Acquisition: It refers to the method used to access and control the information or data from the
equipment that is being controlled or monitored.

Definition of SCADA: A collection of equipment that will provide an operator at remote location with
enough information to determine the status of a particular piece of a equipment or entire substation
and cause actions to take place regarding the equipment or network.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
 SCADA system collect information from site of the equipment and transfers the data to central
computer facility.
 It displays the information to the operator which helps to control the entire system.
 The sites contain either remote terminal unit(RTU) or programmable logic controller(PLC)
which controls local actuators and monitor the sensors.
 The communication equipment will allow transfer of information or data from RTU/PLC to
central control unit which has MTU (Master Terminal Unit).
 The communication may be via telephone, satellite or radio cable.
 The software of the SCADA is programmed to tell the system what to monitor, what are the
operating ranges, when to initiate alarms, controls etc.
 Some sites may consist of IED (intelligent electronic devices) which are smart sensors and can
communicate directly with MTU.
 Other components are HMI that allows the operator to monitor the state of process under
control, modify control settings if necessary.

Major Components of SCADA System: The major components of a SCADA system are
classified as:
1. Field instrumentation --- sensors and actuators generate the analog and digital signals that are
monitored by the remote station.
2. Remote stations --- Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) is a computer with good interfacing for
communication and flexible programmability, Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), which
controls local actuators and monitor sensors with good programmability.
3. Communication network --- RS-232/RS-442/RS-485, dial-up telephone lines or dedicated
landline, microwave, satellite, X.25 packet protocols and radio via trunked/VHF/UHF and
Ethernet
4. Central Monitoring Station (CMS) --- the master unit of a SCADA system with a man machine
interface (MMI) or human-machine interface (HMI) program, mimic diagram of the whole
system or plant displayed on screen for the operator, display of RTUs with present I/O reading,
window for alarms and trending display
5. Software --- Proprietary and open types based on real-time database (RTDB).

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

The figure shown above is a simple SCADA system with a single computer, which represents the
simplest configuration of SCADA with a single computer.

 The computer receives data from remote terminal units through the communication interface.
 One or more CRT terminals for display is controlled by operators. With this system, it is
possible to execute supervisory control commands and request the display of data in
alphanumerical formats
 The I/O SCADA programming is used to change the supervisory software.
 In the basic SCADA system, all the data and programs are stored in the main memory.
Remote Terminal Unit for Power System SCADA:
 A remote terminal unit (RTU) is a microprocessor-controlled electronic device that interfaces
objects in the physical world to a distributed control system or SCADA (supervisory control
and data acquisition) system by transmitting telemetry data to a master system, and by using
messages from the master supervisory system to control connected objects.
 Other terms that may be used for RTU are remote telemetry unit and remote tele control unit.
The RTU mainly consists of:

1. Analog input card: This module accepts analog voltage and current inputs for
transmission through the A/D converter to the main processor.
2. Status input card: This is responsible for collection, processing and reporting of
various types of contact inputs for the RTU.
3. Control input card: RTU control commands are handled by this module.
4. Central processing unit: This contains a powerful processor to handle data collection
and delivery to host computers, run local automation algorithms and maintain
reliability in a substation.
A Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) is a crucial component in a Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) system for power systems. It serves as an interface between field devices
and the SCADA master station, enabling remote monitoring and control of various aspects of
the power system.
Here's how an RTU functions within a power system SCADA:
1. Data Acquisition: The RTU collects data from various sensors, meters, and other field devices
located throughout the power system. These devices might include voltage and current sensors,
temperature sensors, breaker status sensors, and so on.
2. Data Processing: Once the RTU collects data from the field devices, it processes the
information according to predefined algorithms and logic. This may involve performing

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
calculations, applying control strategies, and executing specific tasks based on the received
data.
3. Communication: The RTU communicates with the SCADA master station over a
communication network. This network can be wired (such as RS-485, Ethernet) or wireless
(such as radio frequency, cellular). The RTU sends collected data to the master station and
receives commands and instructions from the master station for remote control purposes.
4. Control Functions: The RTU can execute control functions based on commands received from
the SCADA master station. This may involve remotely operating circuit breakers, switches,
relays, and other control devices to manage the power system, restore service after outages, and
optimize operations.
5. Alarm and Event Reporting: The RTU monitors the health and status of field devices and
detects abnormal conditions or events within the power system. It generates alarms and event
notifications in response to these conditions, which are transmitted to the SCADA master
station for operator awareness and response.
6. Local Processing and Backup: In some cases, RTUs are designed to perform local processing
and control functions even if the connection to the SCADA master station is lost. This ensures
continued monitoring and control of the power system in case of communication failures.
Overall, the RTU plays a critical role in modern power system SCADA architectures by
enabling efficient monitoring, control, and management of electrical grids and substations. It
enhances reliability, safety, and operational efficiency by providing real-time visibility and
control capabilities to system operators.
Common Communication Channels for SCADA in Power Systems:
 Power Line Carrier Communication: The power lines are used to carry the communication.
This channel is common, has a simple technique, is easy to maintain and cheap. It is used for
speech and data transmission.
 Microwave Communication: The frequency range is from 1 GHz to 1000 GHz. A choice of 10
GHz would limit the transmission distance to 5 miles. The main advantage is that the data
carrying capacity is high due to the large bandwidth and the data are totally protected from
noise.
 Fiber-Optic Communication: This is becoming very popular in the power sector because of the
wide bandwidth and high transmission rate over long distances. It produces no emission outside
the cable and is nor affected by external radiation, and hence preferred where security is an
issue.
 Satellite Communication: Satellite communications for SCADA networks form a reliable
alternative to traditional methods. The benefits include broadcast networks (wherein
multiple stations can receive a single message), cost effectiveness when compared to
landlines or radio towers, highly reliable with world-wide coverage and easy to integrate
with RTUs.
Application in Power System:
 Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electric utilities use SCADA systems
to detect current flow and line voltage, to monitor the operation of circuit breakers, and to take
sections of the power grid online or offline.
 Water and sewage: State and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and regulate
water flow, reservoir levels, pipe pressure and other factors.
 Buildings, facilities and environments: Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC,

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
refrigeration units, lighting and entry systems.
 Manufacturing: SCADA systems manage parts inventories for just-in-time manufacturing,
regulate industrial automation and robots, and monitor process and quality control.
 Mass transit: Transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trams and
trolley buses; to automate traffic signals for rail systems; to track and locate trains and buses;
and to control railroad crossing gates.
 Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out-of-order
signals.
Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED) in SCADA:
 Intelligent Electronic Devices abbreviated as IED is defined as devices that have single or
multiple microprocessors integrated within it.
 Its main purpose involves the transmission or reception of data or control signals to or from an
external device.
 The external device in consideration with the whole system can be transducers, relays, control
units, etc.
 Devices like microprocessor-based voltage regulators, protection relays, circuit breaker
controllers, etc. that can serially communicate with other devices in the network are known as
Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED).
 It finds extensive use in power system automation for the purpose of monitoring, protecting,
communicating, controlling, metering, etc.
 IEDs offer various appreciable factors as discussed above like protection and metering with
excellent computing power.
It can also record a sequence of events that is useful in post-event analysis and fault recognition, and
waveform recording along with measuring the power quality.

Let us now understand the operation of each building block separately in sequence.
 Auxiliary Power Supply: An auxiliary power supply or source is basically an electric power
supplied by a backup alternate source other than the primary main source. Power supply used
by IEDs is in the range between 15 to 150 volts in the case of DC. While 110 to 140 Volts
when AC.
 Analog Inputs: In relays, inputs are provided by the current transformer and potential
transformers. However, IEDs may have sensor inputs.
 Digital Inputs: Digital inputs provided to the IEDs may be some sort of commands or any
status information. Some of these need potential free contacts while some understand with the
consideration of logic 0 or logic 1 as negative voltage and positive voltage respectively.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
 Analog Outputs: Generally, transducers are used to get the output from the IEDs which is
programmable type.
 Digital Outputs: In the case of digital outputs, the potential contacts can be normally open,
normally closed, or solid-state contacts.
 It is to be noted that IEDs offer quick real-time data transferring and receiving ability by
utilizing multiple ports.
 Some auxiliary functions are also offered by IEDs which are as follows:
 Monitoring: It monitors self and external circuits along with checking the real-time
synchronization of the events that are occurring.
 Data Accessing: IEDs can access the data present locally as well as the one which is present
at distant substations.
 Testing and Analysis: It has certain software tools used for the purpose of testing, reporting,
and fault analysis.
Classification of SCADA system:
1. Single Master Station Configurations
a. Single master station and single RTU
b. Single master station and multiple RTUs
c. Single master station with multiple RTUs in multidrop circuit.
2. Multiple Master Station Configurations
a. Single dual ported RTU, radial circuit
b. Multiple RTUs, multidrop circuit
c. Multiple master stations, multiple single ported RTUs
d. Multiple master stations, multiple dual ported RTUs.
3. Combination Systems
These are a combination of master stations and sub-master stations.
4. Systems with Gateway Connections
With the prolific use of Ethernet, gateway connections have become popular.
5. Networked Systems
Drastic technological advancements in networking have made such systems popular.
They use WAN/LAN for networking, through routers.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SGBIT, Belagavi.

 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SGBIT, Belagavi.

 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SGBIT, Belagavi.

 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SGBIT, Belagavi.