7

ADVERBS AND PARTICLES

The words grouped together as adverbs are the most

diverse and heterogeneous category in Tumpisa Shoshone, as
they are in most languages. There are many different kinds of
adverbs, but they all seem to have two characteristics in
common : (1) they normally are uninflected; and (2) they
function as modifiers. Typically adverbs modify verbs and
other kinds of predicates, but some modify adjectives as well
as other adverbs, and some modify entire sentences or clauses.
Different types are distinguished by the various kinds of
adverbial notions they express. Adverbs may express notions
of time and aspect (7.1), place or location (7.2), manner or
process (7.3), and mood or attitude (7.4). There are also
adverbs that delimit (7.5), intensify (7.6), and emphasize
(7.7). Adverbs are also used to indicate negation,
affirmation, and interrogation (7.8).
Of course, adverbial notions are typically expressed by
adverbs, but in addition they may also be expressed by nouns
functioning as adverbials, especially nouns indicating time or
place. Postpositional phrases also productively express
adverbial notions, and so do several kinds of subordinate
clauses (see 5.3 and 5.4 on postpositional phrases and 8.2.1
on adverbial clauses). Little adverbial words are often
referred to grammatically as particles (e.g., "the negative
particle"). Interjections, though not technically adverbs,
are also discussed in this chapter (section 7.9).

298
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 299

7.1 TIME AND ASPECT

A good many adverbs express notions of time. Some

indicate when something happens (e.g., kuntu 'yesterday');
others indicate temporal notions in conjunction with aspectual
notions, such as frequency (e.g., noohimpe 'always') and
duration (e.g., noon 'awhile'). Even though there are quite a
few time adverbs, the subclass seems to be closed, novel
temporal notions being productively expressed primarily by
time adverbial clauses (see 8.2.1). A number of time adverbs
end in one of the three adverbial suffixes: -su, -ni, and
-wani.

TIME ADVERBS

awisu 'later'
imaa ~ nimaa 'tomorrow, morning'
imaasu 'early in the morning'
imaa yuwikka 'tomorrow night'
keesu(su) 'not yet'
kukkuntu(su) 'day before yesterday'
kuntu(su) 'yesterday'
kuntu tukwakka(su) 'last night'
miikka ~ miikkwa 'now, today'
munangkwa 'last year, year before'
noohimpe ~ noohompe 'always'
noon ~ nuun 'awhile' durative
pinnangkwasu imaa 'day after tomorrow'
pinnasu 'again, some more' repetitive
pue 'already, soon, now, ready, about to'
puesu(su) ~ puetusu 'long ago'
tahma '(in the) spring'
tahmani 'in the springtime'
tape , (in the) day'
tapeni 'at noon, in the afternoon'
tapewani 'in the daytime'
300 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

tatsa '(in the) summer'

tatsawani 'in the summertime'
tommo , (in the/for a) winter;
(for a) year'
tommono , (for a) year'
tomowani 'in the wintertime'
tukwanni '(at) night, last night; in the dark'
:::: tukwawani
ukwapasu 'once in a while, sometimes'
ukkwah 'at the time of; when, if'
upenisu 'right away; too quickly'
uku(su) 'already, now, after while'
ukusu ukkwah 'after while, a little later'
ukuttsi (ttsi) 'a little while ago'
yupani '(in the) fall, autumn'
yuwikka '(in the) evening, tonight'

A number of example sentences with time adverbs are given

in 1-12. Time adverbs typically occur either at the end of
the sentence (e.g., 2, 4, and 5), or in second position after
the first word in the sentence, which is usually the subject
or some other adverbial (e.g., 1, 6, 8, 9, and 12). Second
and final positions are the more neutral positions for time
adverbs. When they appear initially (e.g., 3, 7, 10, and
11), they are emphatic or contrastive.

(1) Nu imaa ko'epittunnuhi.

I tomorrow return-arrive-will
'I'll be back tomorrow.'

(2) Nuu tuupukkappuhantu kuntu ukkwah.

I was angry yesterday when
'I was mad (when it was) yesterday.'
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 301

(3) Miikka annappa u wlikkatungkutu'ih.

now each other-on it stack-will
'Now I'll stack them on top of each other.'

(4) Tammu piiya hipinna miikka.

we(inc) beer drink now
'We're drinking beer now. '

(5) Nummu sakkuh kahnikantu tatsawani.

we(exc) there dwell in the summertime
'We live there in the summertime. '

(6) Nummu tommo sukkwuh kahnikantu.

we(exc) winter there dwell
'We live there in the winter. '

(7) Noohimpe Pisippuh ka mi'atu sutu.

always Bishop to go that
'He always goes to Bishop.'

(8) Nummu noohompe sukkwuh kahnikantu.

we(exc) always there dwell
'We always live there.'

(9) Noowitsa noong katu u pantu nangkawih.

hopefully awhile sit it about talk
'Hopefully, he'll sit and talk about it awhile.'

(10) Pinnasu Tonia pittuhunnuha tammu hipittainna.

again Tony-O return-sub we(inc) get drunk
'If Tony comes back again, we'll get drunk.'

(11) Pue tukwanni naakinna.

already dark get
'It's already getting dark.'
302 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

(12) Noo ukwapasu mi'a. 'Maybe he walks sometimes. '

maybe sometimes walk

Time adverb proforms are pronominal adverbs that may

sUbstitute for more specific time adverbial expressions. The
pro forms are composed of one of the demonstrative-locative
bases su- or sa- (see 4.3) plus the postposition -~ 'time',
which is only used with the demonstrative-locative bases, not
on nouns or pronouns. The time pro forms may also take one of
the adverbial suffixes -su or -ni.

TIME PROFORMS 1

-pe'e(su) ~ -pe'eni 'time'

supe'e(su) ~ supe'eni 'that time; then'
sape'e(su) ~ supe'eni 'that time long ago; then'

The proforms apparently occur in the same positions as

regular time adverbs, and they are often used along with them.

(13) Supe'esu sutummu wihnu kawai yukwikwa.

that time those then rat-O go after
'Then that time they went after rats.'

(14 ) Nummu na'ungwatai supe'e wihnu.

we be rained on that time then
'We were rained on that time then. '

(15) Puesu sape'esu nummu pungkupaimmippuhantu.

long ago that time we(exc) horse-used to have
'Long ago at that time we used to have horses.'
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 303

(16) Nian nappu naappuhantu sukkwuh tutuaimmi sukkwuh

my father was there working there

uattuah ka, sape'esu ukkwah.

ranch at that time long ago at the time of

'My father was there working on a ranch at that

time long ago.'

7.2 PLACE ADVERBS

The most typical means in Tumpisa for expressing

adverbial notions of place are locative postpositional phrases
(see 5.4). However, a number of place adverbs also express
location, often along with direction. The postposition
nangkwa 'toward' is used semiproductively to form place
adverbs, somewhat like the suffix -ward(~) in English (e.g.,
tapenangwa 'eastward' < tape 'sun').

PLACE ADVERBS

aa 'in sight'
antappu 'elsewhere'
kappinnangkwa(tun) 'outside'
kwinaweppuh '(to the) north'
kwinawennangkwa(tun) 'northward'
maanangkwatun 'on the other side'
manakwappuh 'far away'
pa'an 'up, high'
pahannai 'down (towards place thought of) ,
pange 'up, high'
pittannangkwa 'southward'
pittannai 'southward'
pittappu '(to the) south'
pittsu'unangkwa 'straight downward, nadiral'
tapenangkwa 'eastward'
304 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

tape tukkwan , (in the) east'

tukunnangkwa 'upward'
tukunaa(ttsi) (ttsi) 'nearby'
(n)tunaa 'down (away from place thought of) ,
tupiinga 'in the middle'
unai 'over here, this way'

Place adverbs, like time adverbs, may occur initially in

the sentence (e.g., 17) or in second position (18-20), or
after the verb, though not necessarily in final position (cf.
21-22). When both time and place adverbs occur in the same
clause, the place adverbs are normally positioned closer to
the verb than the time adverbs (see 6, 8, 16, and 21).

(17) Kappinnangkwatu katunnuwitu hipittsittsi.

outside sit-around old lady
'The old lady sat around outside.'

(18) Isapaippu pange miatu u tu takuttiyaitaihwa.

coyote up going it through thirst-died
'Coyote going up through there died of thirst.'

(19) Nuu tupiinga happi. 'I'm lying in the middle.'

I middle lie-dur

(20) Paliina unai puu tosuwa'e!

Pauline this way emph face
'Pauline, face this way!

(21) Supe'e u yaakki pahannai sutu wihnu.

that time it bring down that then
'That time he brought it down then.'

(22) Sohopimpu rna nuu katutu notoppahe ntunaa.

cottonwood on I sitting climb down
'I was sitting on the cottonwood and climbed down.'
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 305

(23) Noo mi'a antappu noo mi'a, kee kahni ka

should go elsewhere should go not house at

katiikkantii!
sit-stv

'You should go elsewhere, you ought to go, and

don't sit by the house! '

Several different place adverb proforms may sUbstitute

for specific place adverbs or locative postpositional phrases.
Place adverb proforms are composed of one of the
demonstrative-locative bases plus one of four different
locative postpositional stems.

PLACE PRO FORMS

-kkuh ~ -kkih 'in a defined snecific area'

ikkih ~ sikkih 'right here'
ekkih ~ sekkih 'hereabouts'
akkuh ~ sakkuh 'there'
ukkuh ~ sukkuh 'there yonder out of sight'

-ne " ~ -nil! , in a loosely defined area out of sight'

ipi" ~ sipi" 'right here someplace'
epi " ~ sepi" 'hereabouts someplace'
ap e " ~ sape ll
'there someplace'
upe" ~ supe" 'there yonder someplace'

gan :::J na'an 'on, in, at an area'

hakapan :::J hakapa'an 'where'
(s)ipan :::J (s)ipa'an 'right here'
(s)epan :::J (s)epa'an 'here'
(s)apan :::J (s)apa'an 'there'
(s)upan :::J (s)upa'an 'there yonder'
306 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

-ttun ~ -ttuh (~ tun) 'through an area'

hakattuh 'where'
ittun ~ sittun 'through here'
ettun ~ settun 'through around here'
attun ~ sattun 'through there'
uttun ~ suttun 'through there yonder'

The two sterns -kkuh (~ -kkih) and -~ (~ -~) are only used
with the demonstrative-locative bases, never with nouns or
pronouns. The other two, pan (~ pa'an) and -ttun, are used
with nouns and pronouns, but in the case of -ttun, a slightly
different form, tun, is used with nouns and pronouns. As the
reader may have noticed, the variants of -kkuh and -~ with i
(i.e., - kkih and -~) are used with the demonstrative­
locative bases having front vowels. Pan may occur in its
other paradigmatic forms (e.g., pantun as in 26; see 5.4).
Place adverb proforms occur in the same positions as
other place adverbs.

(24) Aa akkuh sakkuh wunnu.

in sight there there stand-dur
'She is standing over there in sight.'

(25) Tammu tupanna yaakwantu'ih epetti

we(inc) pinenut-O go get-will hereabouts-emph

himpukatti kwinawennangkatunna.
someplace-emph northward

'We'll go get pinenuts here someplace up north!'

(26) Tukopoyo'ittsi pahannai ipantu napakkataihwa.

kingbird down here was killed
'Kingbird was killed down here. '
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 307

(27) sutu suttum mi'akoppuhantu.

that through there went-around
'He went around through there. '

(28) Usu supe'e ung kimmakippuh puu,

that is that time him come-sub emph

attu ung kimmakippuh puu.

there-through him come-sub emph

'It was then that he came, that he came through

there. '

There is a certain amount of agreement between

demonstrative subjects and pro form place adverbs. Generally
speaking, the demonstratives and pro forms must agree in terms
of their respective demonstrative-locative bases indicating
relative distance. For example, compare the sentences in 29;
29a-d are fine, but 2ge-f are thought to be odd, if not
ungrammatical, because the demonstratives and adverbs have
different demonstrative-locative bases.

(29) a. situ ikkih wunnu.

this right here stand-dur
'This one's standing right here.'

b. Setu sekkih wunnu.

this here stand-dur
'This one's standing here.'

c. Satu akkuh wunnu.

that there stand-dur
'That one's standing there.'
308 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

d. Sutu sukkuh wlinnu.

that yonder there yonder stand-dur
'That one's standing there yonder.'

e. ? Satu sekkih wilnnu.

that here stand-dur
'That one's standing here.'

f. ? Satu ukkuh wunnu.

that there yonder stand-dur
'That one's standing there yonder.'

7.3 MANNER ADVERBS

Adverbial notions of manner have to do with the way in

which an activity occurs or how it happens. Tumpisa Shoshone
has fairly rich grammatical mechanisms for expressing manner
and related processual notions. Instrumental prefixes
appended to many verbs (see 3.2.1.2 and 5.3) indicate not only
the instrument used in performing an activity, but also in
many cases the manner in which it is done. Postpositional
phrases are common means for expressing the way in which
something occurs. Those built on the two postpositions ni and
wa'e ~ wa'i express manner directly, and those built on ma
specify the instrument (see 5.3). In addition, there are a
number of manner adverbs indicating how something happens.

MANNER ADVERBS

anna" 'together'
annakkapan 'all together'
annamman 'together, with each other'
annappan 'on top of each other'
annappakangku 'equally, in equal parts'
antappu 'askew, different, weird, wrong; else'
attapusu 'different(ly) ,
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 309

himpin 'backward'
kee so'o 'not enough, insufficiently'
kee yawusu 'slowly, not fast'
kesanumu 'as intended, as planned, positively'
kutaan ~ kutaappuh 'hard, very'
muppeppu 'upside down, on one's belly'
nahman 'together (dual)'
nanakapan 'intermingled'
napakangku 'in half, equally'
pa'atami 'upside down, backward, on one's back'
pinnangkwa(su) 'last, behind'
so'o 'a lot, so much, too much, enough'
summisi 'same'
sumutuwasi 'all together'
sungkweppuh 'on one's side'
suupasu 'apart, separately, set off'
tokwi" 'right, correct (ly) , enough'
tuttsuppu(tuppu)h 'funny, strange (ly) , weird(ly)'
tsao(su) 'well, good'
upakattsi 'only a little'
upenisu 'too quickly, right away'
yawusu 'fast, quickly, in a hurry'
wukitukkwan 'back and forth sideways'

Adverbs of manner tend to occur immediately before the

verb (e.g., 30-36 and 38-43), or immediately before the verb
and a proclitic object pronoun (e.g., 37), and they seem to be
more closely connected with the verb than most other adverbs.

(30) Nuu tosakkahni annamma yuniinna.

I tent together put (pI)
'I'm putting (the pieces of) the tent together.'
310 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

(31) Atammupi annitaisu antappu happi.

car crashed-result askew lie-dur
'The car crashed and so is lying askew.'

(32) Nu ke so'o tukkatsunna.

I not enough eat-neg
'I didn't eat enough. '

(33) Atu wa'ippu nuhaikatutu tsao hupiatuki.

that woman making basket well sing
'That woman making baskets sings well. '

(34) Vu tokwi yukkwi. 'You're doing (it) right.'

you right do-dur

(35) Huuwattattsi wukitukkwa mi ' akomminna.

boat back and forth go-iterative
'The boat is going back and forth sideways.'

(36) Kesanumu tammu nanakapai naakkantu.

as intended we(inc) intermingled be-stv
'As intended, we are all intermingled.'

(37) Yawusu rna tukkahwa sutu. 'He ate it quickly. '

quickly it ate that

As with time and place adverbs, there are manner adverb

proforms. One manner proform, summi 'thus, so, that', is used
with verbs that indicate something about thinking and
speaking. In fact, a number of thinking and speaking verbs
nearly always occur with a manner adverbial of one form or
another (e.g., yukwi" ~ yukwi" 'say', suwa" 'want, think,
feel', suwai 'think about, intend'). If a specific adverb is
not overtly expressed, then summi seems to be virtually
obligatory.
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 311

(38) Sumuttu nia summi teewingkuppuhantu.

(some)one me thus told
'Someone told me something.'

(39) Setu otammani miattaisu summi yukwitu puu!

this old man went away thus saying emph
'This old man went away saying that! '

(40) Nuu summi suwainna.

I thus think about
'I'm thinking about (doing) something.'

Manner proforms used with verbs other than those

indicating notions of thinking and saying are composed of a
demonstrative-locative base plus one of the two postpositions
-nni or wa'e(su). (-Nni has the alternate form ni when used on
nouns and pronouns.) A number of active verbs also virtually
require some sort of manner adverb, or at least a manner
proform (e.g., nukwi" 'do, happen', yukwi" ~ yukwi" 'do, make,
go after, get').

MANNER PROFORMS

-nni ~ ni 'way, like, in the manner of'

hakani(yun) 'how (is it) i what'
inni ~ sinni 'this way, like this'
enni ~ senni 'this way, like this'
anni ~ sanni 'that way, like that'
unni ~ sunni 'that way, like that'

wa'e(su) 'same as, the same way as'

siwa'e(su) 'this very same way'
sewa'e(su) 'this same way'
sawa'e(su) 'that same way'
suwa'e(su) 'that same way'
312 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

Note the commonly occurring contractions:

sinni + nukwi" :> sinnukwi" 'do like this'

senni + nukwi" > sennukwi" 'do like this'
sanni + nukwi" > sannukwi" 'do like that'
sunni + nukwi" > sunnukwi" 'do like that'

(41) Kawa sunnukwi; enni uturnrni ma'omminna.

rat like that-do like this those-O push-iterative
'The rat did like that; he pushed them away like
this. '

(42) Nia sunni nukwingkuppuhantu sutu.

me that way do for-past that
'He did it (= that way) for me. '

(43) Hakani yukwinna uu?

how (= what) do you

Nuu sennukwikkatu, nuu numu natiingwanna.

I this way-do-sit I Indian learn

'What are you doing?'

'I'm sitting doing this (way); I'm learning Indian.'

(44) Siwa'e sutii yukwinna.

this-same way that do
'That one's doing (it) this same way. '

7.4 MODALS

Modal adverbs indicate the mood or attitude of the

speaker with respect to the certainty, probability, or
veracity of what is being said. Tumpisa Shoshone expresses
mood primarily with adverbs and has only a couple of modal
auxiliary verbs (e.g., suwan 'want, need' and -mmuih 'can't';
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 313

see 3.1.5 ), although mood is also expressed by several verbal

suffixes (e.g., -tuhantun obligative, -hi dubitative, and -kon
certaintive; see 3.1.1 and 3.1.3). The modal adverbs that
have been recorded are given below.

MODAL ADVERBS

hai 'possibly'
hiipinna 'definitely'
kian 'might, could'
mii 'it is said, they say' quotative
naahi 'might, may' dubitative
noo 'should, ought to' obligative
nootunga 'probably, maybe, perhaps'
nootunga ... kee 'probably not, maybe not'
noowitsa 'hopefully' optative
pinnawitsa 'hopefully' optative
suupa 'maybe, perhaps'
tokwisi 'really, truly; right (in agreement) ,
witsa 'possibly, might, would'

The quotative particle mii is normally used immediately

following direct quotes (e.g., 45) or after generally accepted
truths which people talk about (e.g., 46). The dubitative
modal naahi always follows the verb of the clause in which it
occurs (e.g., 47). The other modal adverbs typically occur in
sentence or clause initial position (e.g., 23, and 48-51), but
they may also occur in second position (e.g., 52-54) after the
subject or other adverbials.

(45) "Tuwittsi sepa'a pituhi," mii yukkwi.

young man here arrive quote say
'"A young man is arriving here, II it is said,
he said. '
314 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

(46) Tumpisakkatu kuttaa utuinna mii.

Death Valley-at-norn really be hot quote
'They say Death valley is really hot. '

(47) Nuu hipitu'ih naahi. 'I might drink.'

I drink-will might

(48) Pinnawitsa satummu mi'akwasu.

hopefully those go-away-result
'Hopefully, they'll go away.'

(49) Noo situ rna tukkappuh.

should this it eat-perf
'She should have eaten it.'

(50) Nootunga kee ko'esinai'ih sutu.

probably not return-neg-motion that
'He probably won't come back. '

(51) Suupa u kuttimmaa. 'Maybe he shot it.'

maybe it shot

(52) Uu ha tokwisi uu miattaihwantu'ih?

you Q really you go away-going to
'Are you really going to go away?'

(53) Hakani kiam mukuapa'i?

what could mind-have
'What (kind of) a mind could he have?'
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 315

(54) Hakatu witsa rna tiyoi umatunna ekka?

who possibly it send away rain-O this-Q

Hakatu witsa tuinahakantu rna tiyoi

whoever possibly rheumatism-have it send away

umatunna ekka.
rain-O this-o

'Who would possibly send the rain away?'

'Whoever has rheumatism would send the rain
away. ' [joke]

7.5 DELIMITERS

Delimiters are adverbs that explicitly indicate the scope

of what is being talked about. They may restrict the scope of
what is in focus or augment it (cf. 'only' versus 'also').

DELIMITERS

nanah 'just, only'

noo 'some, any' indefinite
pinna 'aforementioned'
pinnasu 'some more; again'
sampe 'some, any' indefinite
tunga :::: tungwa 'also, too'
utuku :::: utuu 'only, just'

Noo and sampe always occur in compounds with other stems,

either interrogative or adverbial. In these compounds, noo
always precedes the other stem, while sampe always follows it
(e.g., noohakatun and hakatu sampe, both meaning 'someone,
anyone, whoever' < hakatun 'who'; see 4.5 on indefinite
pronouns for more examples). Nanah also apparently only
occurs in compounds preceding other stems (e.g., nanahapantun
316 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

'intermingled' < kapan(tun) 'among'). I haven't recorded

enough examples of the other delimiters to determine with any
degree of certainty their normal positions of occurrence. In
the examples I have, utuku occurs immediately before the
entities in the sentence that it restricts in scope, while
tunga occurs after the entities it augments in scope.

(55) Katutu sutu pinna? Katutu sutU.

stay that aforementioned stay that
'The aforementioned stayed?' -­ 'He stayed.'

(56 ) Pinnasu tammu piiya ponookwantu'ih.

some more we(inc) beer fetch-go to
'We'll go get some more beer.
,

(57) Nu tupunippuhantu, setu utuku puu umanna.

I woke up this just emph rain
'I woke up, and it was just raining!'

(58) Antsippu u ma'i mi'ami'appuhantu,

Angie her with went around

kee sutu tunga puesun tunga? Numuppu ma'i tungwa.

not that also already also Indian with also

'He went around with Angie, isn't that also so,

also awhile back? He also was with Indians.'

7.6 INTENSIFIERS

Intensifiers amplify or diminish the effect of some

constituent in the sentence, especially the verb or predicate.
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 317

INTENSIFIERS

kenumuni 'really, very'

kutaan ~ kutaappuh 'really, very'
noosampe 'almost'
tataattsi(ttsi) 'a little (bit)'
tunaan 'too much, excessively, extremely'
tupitsi 'truly, really, very'

Intensifiers tend to be positioned immediately before the

verb (or stative predicate), as in 59-61. But, as 62 and 63
illustrate, they may be separated from the verb by the subject
and other adverbial constituents.

(59) Nurnrnu na'uma, sukkwuh nanumu kenumuni

we(exc) be rained on there relative really

na'umanna nummu.
be rained on we(exc)

'We were rained on, we relatives were really rained

on there. '

(60) Nu kuttaappuh uppuikkommi.

I very sleep-result-iterative
'I'm very sleepy (for some reason).'

(61) Tataattsi nuekkinna. 'It's blowing a little.'

a little blow-hither

(62) Nu noosampe pasakung katu naaha.

I almost bridge at be-stv
'I am almost at the bridge.'
318 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

(63) Tunaa nuu tuupukka'ippuhantu.

extremely I get angry-iterative-past
'I got extremely angry.'

(64) Sutu kuttaa yawusu nangkawih.

that really fast talk
'She talks really fast.'

More examples of intensifiers are found in section 6.5 of the

last chapter (e.g. 42-52).

7.7 EMPHATICS

Emphatics in Tumpisa are enclitic particles that express

strong rhetorical emphasis about the constituents that they
follow. They may indicate not only emphasis but also
contrastiveness and insistence.

EMPHATICS

-nnu'u used with V, Adj

pUll used with NP, N, Prn, Dem, clauses
ti used with N, Prn, Dem, Post
tsa used with N

How the emphatics differ from each other in meaning or

function is not clear. In my data they do not all occur with
the same kinds of constituents, but that may be due to a
lacuna in the data. Examples of each of the emphatics are
given in 65-75.

(65) Nuu ummi wuppaihwa-nnu'u!

I you-O slap emph
'I'm going to slap you!'
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 319

(66) TUkumpanapi puhipi-nnu'u!

sky blue emph
'The sky is (really) blue!'

(67) Tangummu utu puu!

man that emph
'What about that man?' 'And that man?'

(68) Nummu puu! 'What about us?' 'And us?'

we(exc) emph

(69) Supe'e kaakki yutsukomminna, usu puu ukkwah!

then crow fly-around that is emph time of
'Then crow flew all around, that's how it
was at that time! '

(70) satu sunni yukwitu naammaa puu!

that that way do was emph
'It really was that she would do (it) like that! '

(71 ) Mumm i appu ti utu satu!

your(pl) father emph that that
'That's you-all's father!'

(72) U kuppan ti epe-tti sutu!

her inside emph here-emph that
'That was inside of her here! '

(73 ) Nummu ti tunga mi'appuhantu tunaa ape himpuka!

we emph also went down there someplace
'We also went down there someplace. '

(74 ) Hakka no'apukkangkutai? Numi t'1. •l

whom impregnate-cmplt human-O emph
'Who did he [a dog] get pregnant?' -­ 'A human! '
320 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

(75) utummi summi yuingkunna punnam pii tsa, ...

them thus say to their own mother emph
'Their own mother said to them thus, •.. '

7.8 NEGATIVE, AFFIRMATIVE, AND INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES

Four adverbial particles have extremely important

functions in the grammar of Tumpisa Shoshone, since they
explicitly mark the crucial distinctions between negation,
affirmation, and interrogation.

kee ~ ke general negative 'no(t) , don't, didn't'

haa'a general affirmative 'yes, right'
ahaa general agreement 'uh-huh, right'
ha general interrogative

Kee appears in all negative clauses, with a long vowel if

emphatic or a short vowel if unemphatic. Haa'a marks explicit
affirmation of a proposition, and both haa'a and ahaa mark
explicit agreement with other discourse participants. Ha is
used in questions requiring a haa'a 'yes' or kee 'no' answer.
The general negative particle, kee, has already been
discussed and illustrated in chapter 2 (section 2.3.1), but a
little more is said about it here. When kee negates the
entire Clause, it typically occurs in second position
following the sUbject (e.g., 76-81) or another adverbial
(e.g., 82). If a constituent that normally does not occur in
initial position is fronted to the beginning of the sentence,
like the direct object in 83, then the negative particle
appears further towards the middle of the sentence, after both
the fronted constituent and the subject.

(76) Nu ke ti'iwasinna. 'I'm not afraid.'

I not be afraid-neg
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 321

(77) NU kee mi'asuwatsi. 'I don't want to go. '

I not go-want-neg

(78) Nu kee a punisi. 'I don't see it.'

I not it see-neg

(79) Nu kee sukkwa punitu. 'I didn't see that.'

I not that-O see-hab

(80) Tuttsappuh kee keetuttsinna.

dirt not disappear-neg
'The dirt won't come off.'

(81) sutungku kee teewingkutsinna etu un natapu.

those(dl) not tell this her uncle
'Those two, she and her uncle, didn't tell (her).'

(82) Nootunga ke u kuttisippuh.

maybe not it shoot-neg-perf
'Maybe he didn't shoot it.'

(83) Akka tangummi nUll kee tsao suwangkunna.

that-O man-O I not well feel [= like]
'That man I don't like.'

The negative particle may occur in clause-initial

position under a number of circumstances. For example, when
subjects are postposed to the end of the clause as in 84 and
85, kee is normally initial. When subjects have been elided,
then kee stands in initial position, as in the imperative in
88, or when the subjects are old information (e.g., 89 and
90). And finally, kee occasionally occurs in initial position
without any obvious reason (e.g., 86 and 87); perhaps in such
cases it is emphatic.
322 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

(84) Kee namokkuppuhkantu satu.

not money-have that
'He doesn't have any money. ,

(85 ) Kee mi'asinna sutu, sekkih sutu.

not go-neg that here that
'He didn't go, he's here.
,

(86) Kee nuu naaiyangwipitta pusikwatu.

not I handgame-O know-hab
'I don't know (how to play) handgame.'

(87) Kee nuu nangka pusikwa.

not I hear understand
'I don't understand (what I) hear.'

(88) Kee so'o nangkawihontu'ih!

not so much talk-indef-fut
'Don't talk so much! '

(89) Ke u punisihappuhantu. '(He) didn't see it.'

not it see-neg-stv-past

(90) Nummu sape namiangkutaippuhantu

we(exc) there were sent

kee nangkawitu ukkwah kee mitukkaannangkawitu

not speak-hab when not English-speak-hab

ukkwah, himpuka puu.

when somewhere emph

'We were sent there, there someplace, when (we)

didn't speak, when (we) didn't speak English.'
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 323

Tense and aspect marking on verbs in negative clauses is

somewhat different from that in declaratives. There is a
strong tendency for verbs in negative clauses to take either
the negative adverbial suffix -sin ~ -tsin or the final
habitual suffix -tun (e.g., the sentences in 76-82, 85-86, and
89-90; see 3.1.1 on tense and aspect verb suffixes and 3.1.3
on adverbial verb suffixes). Verbs with -sin (~ -tsin) alone
or with -sin (~ -tsin) plus the general aspect and tense
suffix -nna are interpreted as past or present imperfect,
meaning that the activity denoted by the verb has not occurred
yet (e.g., 76-78, 80-81, and 85). However, if -sin (~ -tsin)
is followed by the perfective suffix -Q£Yh or by the past
tense suffix -ppuhantun, then of course the interpretation is
completive or past (e.g., 82 and 89). Verbs in negative
clauses with (declarative) habitual -tun typically are
interpreted as past tense (!) rather than habitual (e.g., 79),
although they may have a habitual interpretation, given the
appropriate context (e.g., 86).
Nevertheless, despite the tendency for verbs in negative
clauses to take -sin (~ -tsin) or -tun, they are not obliged
to do so (e.g., 87 and 88).
When kee negates a particular constituent within the
clause, it occurs immediately before it, as in 91-93. In
fact, in many constructions of this kind kee has been
lexicalized, forming compounds with following stems (e.g., 92
and 93; see also the many compounds listed in the Tumpisa
Dictionary (Dayley 1989) under kee.

(91) Satu kee numukahontu wunnu.

that not moving stand-dur
'He's standing (still), not moving.'

(92) Keehiippuh tsoapittsi.

no-thing ghost
'There are no ghosts. ' 'Ghosts are nothing.'
324 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

(93) Nu keehinna punitu. 'I saw nothing.'

I no-thing-o see

The affirmative particles haa'a and ahaa apparently

always occur in sentence initial position, as illustrated in
94-97.

(94) Haa'a, nuu naaiyangwipitta pusikwatu.

yes I handgame-O know
'Yes, I know (how to play) handgame.'

(95) "Haa'a," mii ningwunu an nawiammu.

yes quot say(pl) her girls
, "Yes," her girls said.'

(96) Haa'a, nuu sukkwa tunakappuhantu.

yes I that-O tasted
'Yes, I tasted that.'

(97) "Ahaa," ningwunu sutummu. '''Uh-huh,'' they said. '

uh-huh say(pl) those

The interrogative particle ha virtually always occurs in

second position in the sentence, as an enclitic typically
after the subject (e.g., 98-103), but also after any other
constituent in initial position, such as the adverb in 104
(see other interrogative sentences containing ha in 2.3.2,
108-116) .

(98) Sutu ha un tukkwa? 'Is it under you?'

that Q you under

(99) Sutu ha kahni pa'a? 'Is it on the house?'

that Q house on
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 325

( 100) Uu ha utuinna? 'Are you hot?'

you Q be hot

( 101) satummu ha taona ka miakkwantu'ih?

those Q town to go-will
'Are they going to town?'

(102) Mungku ha pungki punikkammaa?

you(dl) Q horse-O saw
'Did you two see the horse?'

(103) Mummu ha namo'okoitsoimmaa?

you(pl) Q hand-washed
'Did you all wash your hands?'

(104) Epi ha urn pinnangkwa? 'Is it here behind you?'

here Q you behind

In questions, the past tense suffix -mmaah is used on verbs

much more frequently than the other past tense suffix
-ppuhantun, which is more common in declaratives.

7.9 INTERJECTIONS AND GREETINGS

As their name indicates, Interjections interject or

intrude into the discourse, and they normally express emotion.
They are usually isolated syntactically from other words and
phrases that may precede or follow them.

INTERJECTIONS

aa ~ 00 'Oh'
aha a 'Uh-huh'
ataa ~ atatata 'Ouch!'
~ attuttuttu 'Ouch! '
aattsaa ~ uuttsaa 'Nasty! Awful!'
326 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

awisii 'wait! '

ee 'Eh! '
haa 'Huh?'
huutiiti 'Wow! Amazing!'
tunaan 'Too much! That's going too far!'
unnuu 'Yuck! Disgusting! Danger! Watch out! '
yawu(sti) 'Hurry up! '

Despite the fact that they may be unconnected syntactically,

many interjections are important discourse markers or signals
that play an indispensable role in maintaining interaction in
conversations (see 10.6).
Greetings are formulaic expressions used in stereotypical
situations. They are often grammatically irregular or
defective in some way. Some greetings and their respective
possible responses follow.

GREETINGS

(105) Hakaniyu?
be how

Tsawinnuh.
be good

'How is it (going)?' 'Hi! Hello!'

-- 'It's o.k.'

(106 ) Hakaniyu uti? ~ uti hakaniyu puu?

be how you you be how emph

Nuti tsao nasungkwa'anna.

I well feel

Ntiti tsawinntih.
I be good
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 327

'How are you?'

'I feel fine.'
'I'm good. '

(107) Tsao tupuninna!

well wake up

Nuu tsao hapinnusi.

I well lay

Nuu tsao uppuinnusi.

I well slept

'Wake up well! ' 'Good morning!

'I lay well.'
'I slept well.'

(108) Kattu'ihantu!
sit-dur-iterative-stv
'(Come in and) sit awhile!'
[said when someone is approaching house]

(109) Nuu mi 'akwantu' ih

I go-going to
'I'm going to go away.' 'Goodbye. '

(110) Nuu noohimpe um puninnuhi.

I always you-o see-will
'I'll always see you.' 'See you (later).'

(111) Un nangkian nuhuttsi!

your ear's fat-diminutive
'Little fat of your ear!' 'Thank you! '
328 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

(112) Tsoapittsi napittatahangkuhanna, summi yukkwi!

ghost pmpr-behind-bare-cat-stv so say
'The ghost has her behind bared for (you),
so she says.'

The expression for 'thank you' (111) is primarily used in

Nevada, although known in Death Valley. The greeting about
the ghost (112) is primarily used among men--as one might
surmise.
A few other more or less formulaic expressions are given
in 113-122. They are important expressions about naming and
calling.

(113) a. Hakami natupinniahantu satu?

how be called that
'What's that called?'

b. "Tapettsi" natupinniahantu.
sun be called
'It's called "sun".'

(114) a. Etu hakami natupinnahantu?

this how be called
'What's this called?'

b. Etu "piiya" natupinniahantu.

this beer be called
'This is called "beer".'

(115) a. Hakami natupinniahantu mitukkaano?

how be called English
'What's it called in English?'

b. Coke natupinniahantu. 'It's called "Coke".'

be called
ADVERBS AND PARTICLES 329

(116) a. Hakami natupinniahantu house?

how be called
'How do they say "house"?'

b. "Kahni" natupinniahantu.
house be called
'It's called "house".'

(117) a. Hakami nihakantu? 'What's its name?'

how name-have

b. "Mokottsi" nihakantu. 'Its name is "bag".'

bag name-have

(118) a. Hakami nihakantu setu?

how name-have this
'What's this one's name?'

b. "Paa" nihakantu. 'Its name is "water". '

water name-have

(119 ) a. Hakami naniyahantu? 'How is it named?'

how be named

b. "Tapettsi" naniyahantu. 'It's named "sun".'

sun be named

(120) a. Uu hakami natupinniahantu?

you how be called
'What're you called?'

b. Nuu Jon natupinnianna. 'I'm called "Jon".'

I be called
330 TUMPISA SHOSHONE GRAMMAR

c. Nuu summi natupinniahantu "Memmi".

I thus be called Mamie
'I'm called "Mamie".'

(121) a. Uu hakami nihakantu? 'What's your name?'

you how name-have

b. Nuu "Memmi" nihakantu. 'My name is "Mamie".'

I Mamie name-have

(122) a. Hakami naniyahantu uu? 'What are you named?'

how be named you

b. Nuu summi naniyahanna Jon. 'I'm named "Jon".'

I thus be named

Note to Chapter 7

1. One might expect forms like *sipe'e and *sepe'e for 'this
time', but they do not occur. For 'this time' one could say
supe'e miikka, literally 'that time now'.