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Review

Millimeter wave traveling wave tubes for

the 21st Century
Claudio Paoloni  , Diana Gamzina , Rosa Letizia , Yuan Zheng &
Neville C. Luhmann Jr.
Pages 567-603 | Received 09 Sep 2020, Accepted 07 Nov 2020, Published online: 20 Dec 2020

 Cite this article  https://doi.org/10.1080/09205071.2020.1848643

 Full Article  Figures & data  References  Citations  Metrics

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Abstract Formulae display: ?

Traveling wave tubes are rapidly evolving to provide unprecedented power level in
comparison to solid state devices in the millimeter waves region of the spectrum (80–
300 GHz) thus enabling a wide range of applications.

Wireless communications, imaging, plasma diagnostics, healthcare and many others

will gain substantial features if high power at millimeter waves would be available
from compact sources.

The development of fabrication technologies is proving crucial for introducing new

topologies and structures for millimeter wave vacuum electronic devices, compatible

In this article

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This review paper will provide an overview of the principles, evolution and state of the
art of one of the most widely utilized vacuum electronic device, the traveling wave
tube (TWT). The wide band, high gain features of TWTs make those devices the most
promising solutions for high power at millimeter waves and THz frequencies.
 KEYWORDS: Traveling wave tubes millimeter waves backward wave oscillators vacuum electronics

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1. Introduction

Microwave vacuum electron devices or microwave “tubes” utilize free electrons in a

vacuum to convert energy from a dc power source to an RF signal. There exist a wide
variety of microwave tubes including triodes, linear beam devices, crossed field
devices, periodic beam devices, gyro devices, forward wave devices, and backward
wave devices, as well as fast wave and slow wave devices. In the following, these
terms will be briefly referred to the references for more details [1–5]. Most microwave
vacuum tubes fit into more than one of these categories.

The energy conversion or “interaction” process differs markedly among microwave

tubes. However, explanations of the various interactions all employ one or more of
the following terms: electron bunching, linear velocity modulation, angular velocity
modulation, and phase focusing [6]. Bunching refers to creating higher density groups
of electrons as in triode vacuum tubes [1]. Linear velocity modulation refers to
changing the electron energy along the propagation direction of the electron beam as
in a linear beam device while angular velocity modulation refers to changing the
energy of electrons azimuthally in a plane perpendicular to a steady magnetic field as
in gyro-devices. Phase focusing refers to increasing or decreasing the coupling of
electrons according to their positions and drifts as in M-type (crossed field) devices
and peniotrons.

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linear beam devices,Journal of Electromagnetic
electrons amplify rf Waves
fieldsand Applications
through List of Issues
loss of kinetic energy. In
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these devices, an electron stream, formed and accelerated by an electron gun, is
injected into an interaction region. Here, while drifting in relatively rectilinear motion,
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the electrons form bunches in the retarding field of a wave which is on, or inside, a
nearby structure. As the electrons give up energy, the rf wave amplitude increases.

Perhaps the most successful microwave and millimeter wave amplifier has been the
traveling wave tube (TWT). In traveling-wave tubes (TWTs), the electron stream moves
in the field of a traveling electromagnetic wave whose phase velocity is slowed to the
beam velocity by e.g. helices, coupled cavities, or ring bar and ring loop. When the
velocities are approximately equal, the rf wave amplifies.

The paper aims to be a comprehensive review of the state of the art of millimeter
wave TWTs, with a mention to Backward Wave Oscillators (BWOs) that belongs to the
TWT family.

The paper starts with the description of the main applications of TWTs followed from
an overview on the working mechanisms. The historical evolution of TWTs from helix
to more advanced configuration is introduces. A section on advanced fabrication
technology will inform on the fabrication challenges of millimeter wave TWT. Finally, a
review of the main interaction structures will be proposed, supported by the most
interesting examples of fabricated millimeter wave TWTs.

2. TWT applications

Although the TWT was invented by Kompfner in 1942, this device remains an integral
constituent of satellite communication systems, electronic countermeasures, and
radar systems [7–11]. The success of TWTs can be attributed to their wide
instantaneous bandwidth (greater than three octaves have been achieved in some
devices), high gain (up to 70 dB), and light weight (typically 2–200 lbs.). Operating
frequencies are typically from 1 to 200 GHz with pulsed power levels in the 0.1–3 MW
range (nominal 10% duty) and CW levels in the 10 W–20 kW range. As noted later,

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THz.
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The output power TWTs can provide is at least one or two orders of magnitude higher
than any existing solid state power amplifier. This makes TWTs the enabling devices
for a number of fundamental applications, mentioned above. So far, TWTs at
frequency higher than 90 GHz are not yet in the market, but their availability will
permit a number of new applications.

Transmitters in satellite communications systems are mostly powered by TWTs. In

addition to the high power, TWTs are relatively unaffected by radiation and harsh
thermal conditions, making them highly reliable as required in the space
environment. Currently, the maximum operating frequency for space TWTs is about
70 GHz. However, it is already envisaged the use of E-band (71–86 GHz) for very high
data rate satellite communications [12].

The use of TWTs in wireless communications is gaining interest for the opportunity to
exploit the spectrum above 90 GHz. More than 100 GHz bandwidth is available
between 90 and 300 GHz. This permits 10s gigabit per second data rate. The main
obstacle for the use of this frequency range is the high atmospheric and rain
attenuation and the available transmission power of millimeter solid state devices
that limits the transmission range to very short distance or needs very high gain
antennas, with significant difficulty of alignment and sway. The development of
wireless systems based on the use of TWTs are in progress for enabling point-to-
multipoint, multigigabit per second data distribution that will provide an affordable
replacement of fiber over wide areas, with substantial cost reduction.

Plasma diagnostics of microturbulence in nuclear fusion reactors is an application

that would benefit from the availability of high power THz sources. The
nonperturbative diagnostic is based on collective Thompson scattering. So far, only
bulky and low power laser sources are available. Backward wave oscillators are the
ideal radiation source for this application. An international collaboration is working to
produce a 0.346 THz BWO [13].

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millimeter waves permit high resolution and stand-off imaging. A novel application
where TWTs are pivotal is the ViSAR (Video Synthetic Aperture Radar) at 235 GHz [14].
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It is able to penetrate clouds and works in all-weather conditions providing high

resolution imaging. A TWT with 50 W of average power at long duty cycles across the
entire band of operation is used [14].

TWTs are also the power amplifier of a wide range of electronic countermeasures,
typically at frequency below 40 GHz.

TWTs are enabling amplifiers for well-established and future applications, making
possible the exploitation of the millimeter wave spectrum.

Figure 1 shows the broad range of performance achievable by TWTs and other
vacuum electron devices up to 300 GHz. It demonstrates the relevance of TWTs as
enabling devices for the applications described.

Figure 1. State of the art for TWT performance [15] (references in the figures can be
found in the original paper).

Display full size

New fabrication tools and technologies as well as modeling tools and new
applications are fueling a renaissance in high frequency TWTs and BWOs.

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A simple picture of TWT amplification is obtained by considering a group of electrons Settings

approaching a retarding field. The electrons will lose kinetic energy and gain potential
energy, thereby adding energy to the retarding field. If the electron density increases
sufficiently during this process, the space charge fields also add to the retarding field.
In a TWT, groups of electrons undergo similar energy changes in the retarding portion
of an RF field traveling inside the device. This leads to amplification of the RF field.

To better understand the physical picture of the TWT interaction, consider Figure 2.
which illustrates the case of a wave propagating along a helix through which an
electron beam is assumed to propagate. Although the wave propagates at essentially
the speed of light along the helix, its effective forward velocity is sufficiently slow (as
determined by the helix pitch) to synchronously interact with the electron beam
traveling at uo ≈ 0.1c. Figure 2 also schematically illustrates the variation in the axial
electric field strength of a continuous bunching process. Due to the negative charge of
electrons, positive (negative) Ez results in a force to the left (right). This leads to
bunching about the positions indicated by B in Figure 2. This also leads to a larger
number of electrons in the region of the decelerating fields (position B) as compared
to the accelerating field.

Figure 2. Schematic illustration of the interaction between an electron beam and a

wave propagating along a helix.

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At the entrance to the helix, the electrons have a drift velocity slightly greater than the
phase velocity of the rf wave and bunch near the nodes of the electric field. The
electrons traveling through the helix continuously drift toward the decelerating
electric field, causing an increase in wave amplitude. As the field amplitude increases,
the bunching process becomes stronger leading to a reinforcement in wave
amplitude and exponential growth below saturation.

As we shall see in the following, there are currently two major types of traveling wave
tubes in active use: helix TWTs and coupled cavity TWTs, although a variety of other
circuits such as folded waveguides, corrugated waveguide, ring-bar, grating, and
ladder configurations are either employed in specialized applications or are under
investigation for millimeter wave TWTs. [16–21] The former has essentially continuous
interaction while the latter has interaction only in the cavity gaps. In all cases, the slow
wave circuit has a phase velocity less than the velocity of light in order to
synchronously interact with the electron beam and is a forward wave (phase and
group velocity in the same direction as shown in Figure 3). Figure 4 displays sketches
of commonly employed slow wave circuits in commercial TWTs. The particular choice
of SWS depends upon a number of criteria including operating frequency, bandwidth,
peak and average output power, and gain. The broadest bandwidth is obtained with
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will discussed in the following, unfortunately, helix SWS cannot be used above 60–70
GHz due to difficulty of fabrication.
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Figure 3. Schematic illustration of the dispersion relation for a slow wave circuit.

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Figure 4. Common commercial TWT slow wave circuits.

Display full size

The application of the above criteria to the tape helix structure reveals a number of its
natural advantages. Perhaps the most important advantage of the helix structure lies
in its broad bandwidth which is due to the low dispersion of the circuit. This property
is essential to its use in communications and electronic countermeasures (ECM)
applications as well as wide bandwidth laboratory amplifier usage.

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small heat capacity of the structure provides a significant limitation on the power
handling capability. However, there are additional constraints which should be
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understood. First, we must employ electron beams which only partially fill the helix
tunnel in order to help suppress backward wave oscillations [24]. This, therefore,
results in a limitation on beam current due to space charge forces for a given beam
voltage. Simply increasing the beam voltage is not a viable solution since this requires
that the helix pitch angle be increased to maintain synchronism. This results in a
decrease in the interaction impedance for the forward mode thereby decreasing the
efficiency. In addition, the relative impedance at the spatial harmonic is increased,
thereby leading to increased susceptibility to backward wave oscillations.
Consequently, most helix tubes have tended to operate with beam voltages of <10 kV.
Although limited in power output capability, the helix TWT plays an important role in
many applications, particularly telecommunications where the development history is
reviewed in [7]. Table 1 displays typical parameters of helix TWTs used for satellite
down-link applications.

Table 1. Representative performance characteristics of space

TWTs. 
Download CSV Display Table

Here, it should be noted that approximately 90% of the world market is shared
between L-3 Harris (US) and Thales (France).

An interesting usage of helix TWTs has been in the so-called microwave power
module (MPM) and millimeter wave power module (MMPM) [25]. This hybrid device
combines the best features of solid-state device technology with that of vacuum
electron devices. Specifically, the MPM consists of a low noise, solid-state MMIC
preamplifier, a TWT vacuum power tube booster, a solid-state equalizer, and
integrated power conditioner (IPC). Here, the solid state device provides the low noise
input and initial gain while the TWT provides the final 20 dB gain. The small size and

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The development of the approach has moved from the 2–18 GHz microwave region to
the upper millimeter wave region up to G-band (230 GHz) [26]. Table 2 below displays
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the performance characteristics of most relevant MMPMs.

Table 2. Performance characteristics of MMPMs.

Download CSV Display Table


As mentioned in the preceding, the helix structure is not suitable for high power
operation due to its limited heat dissipation capability. In addition, the high beam
voltages required for high power tube operation result in the evolution of the helix to
a more open structure. Consequently, an increased fraction of the field energy is
stored in high order spatial harmonics thereby degrading the interaction efficiency.
The concomitant reduction in impedance and propensity toward backward wave
oscillations lead to serious operating difficulties although some techniques such as
the use of resonant loss have led to stable operation at increased beam voltage and
power [33]. Using such techniques and modern computational tools, it has been
possible to increase the operating voltage to ∼17–20 kV and the output power of K/Ka
band and Q-band helix TWTs to the hundreds of watt level [34–37]. The above
limitations motivated the development of so-called helix derived circuits (see Figure 2)
which partially ameliorate the situation, albeit at a cost in bandwidth among other
problems. The ring-bar circuits tend to produce higher power (up to 200 kW peak and
10 kW average in UHF and L-Bands) with kW levels obtained at Ka-band [38]. Here, the
phase velocities considerably exceed those of the simple tape helix with up to ≈ 0.4–
0.5 c (where c is the velocity of light).

A related interaction structure is the Tunnel Ladder circuit [39,40] which grew out of
the Karp Circuit [37–42] which is a ridged waveguide whose broad wall contains an
array of transverse slots. In the baseband of this circuit, the electrons alternately see
a strong field and a weak field as they pass, respectively, over a slot and over the
metal between the slots, making spatial harmonic operation possible.

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oscillations lead to serious operating difficulties for the tape helix TWT which were
only partially ameliorated by the helix-derived circuits. This, therefore, led to the
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development of coupled cavity slow wave tubes shown schematically in Figure 4 and
which comprise the majority of current high power tubes despite their relatively
narrow bandwidth. Basically, these can be thought of as derivations from series
lumped LC element bandpass filters. The coupled cavity structure possesses a
number of attractive attributes. Of particular importance is the fact that the radial
heat conduction is greatly facilitated by the metal webs which serve as the cavity
walls. In addition, the shape of the structure is quite compatible with periodic
permanent magnet (ppm) focusing and the assembly, although tedious, is relatively
straightforward due to the symmetry. Finally, although inferior to the helix structure,
coupled cavities provide moderate bandwidth (∼ 2%–30%) as well as reasonable
interaction efficiencies and mode structure.

Coupled cavity TWTs (CCTWTs) have found service in the 1–100 GHz region with the
lower limit set by the availability of alternative sources which are more cost effective.
The upper limit is primarily set by machining and fabrication difficulties. As an
example of the dimensions involved, the beam hole diameter in a 94 GHz tube is ∼
0.508 mm which is to be compared to the 0.1524 mm diameter of a human hair.
Therefore, this necessitated the development of manufacturing processes which
maintained tolerances of a few microns for the success of the early millimeter wave
CCTWT developments. Bandwidths of coupled cavity tubes range from the order of a
few percent up to ∼ 43%. However, as we shall see, attaining bandwidths of even 30%
requires a number of design compromises. Peak powers have ranged from ∼ 100 W
to 0.5–10 MW [43,44]. The latter is not a hard limit and has resulted somewhat from
the fact that the applications requiring high power have been able to be satisfied
using narrowband amplifiers such as klystrons. Beam voltages have tended to be in
the range of 8 kV to 85 kV. The lower limit arises because the cavity period decreases
with decreasing beam voltage. The high frequency limitation arises both because the
bandwidth decreases with increasing beam voltage and also because many
applications preclude the use of high voltage. Finally, saturated tube gains up to ∼ 60
dB are typical. This could be further increased, if necessary, by increasing the number

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feedback induced oscillations would also be increased.
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The peak power limitation in coupled cavity tubes depends somewhat upon the space
harmonic used for operation. Lower space harmonics require higher beam velocities
to achieve synchronism and generate higher interaction efficiencies because of their
higher interaction impedance. Since higher beam velocities also typically permit
higher output powers, CCTWTs operating in a forward fundamental mode are found
to produce powers about an order of magnitude above the peak powers from
CCTWTs operating in a forward first-space-harmonic mode. At X-band, a 500 kW
cloverleaf TWT [45] and a 1.2 MW centipede TWT [46] with high power, X-band tubes
which produce between 100 and 125 kW (as also advertised in older sales brochures
of Hughes Aircraft Co., Litton Industries, and Varian Associates). Table 3 displays the
operating performance of representative currently available coupled cavity TWTs
(Figure 4).

Table 3. Operating characteristics of currently available coupled

cavity TWTs. 
Download CSV Display Table

4. Backward wave oscillators operation and state of the art

Backward wave oscillators (BWOs) are similar to the TWTs discussed in the preceding
section in that they employ a slow wave structure and a traveling wave interaction.
However, they differ in one major respect. Specifically, the electrons interact with a
backward wave rather than a forward wave (see Figure 3). As we shall see, this makes
possible the operation of extremely broadband voltage tuned oscillators. A simple
physical picture indicating the mechanisms responsible for the internal feedback of
the BWO was developed by Heffner [47] and is illustrated in Figure 5. Here, an
electron beam is assumed to propagate at near the synchronous velocity close to the

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phase advance of the wave is taken to be that of the electron beam propagation
direction so that the energy flow on the circuit is opposite the beam drift. As with the
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TWT, the electric field of the circuit wave causes a velocity modulation of the beam
electrons. Following a phase delay of π/2, this manifests itself as a current modulation
which undergoes a phase delay of βeL, where βe is the beam propagation constant as
it travels a distance L equal to the circuit length. An additional phase delay of π/2
occurs as the current modulation excites the circuit electric field. Energy propagation
along the circuit then undergoes a phase advance of βL due to the backward wave
nature of the wave. In order to have feedback oscillations, one requires an integral
multiple of 2π for the phase shift.

Figure 5. The feedback loop of a backward-wave tube.

Display full size

Historically, these devices have found extensive application as low to moderate power
(≈1–300 mW) swept sources from the microwave to submillimeter wave region. There
are both crossed field BWOs (sometimes referred to as M-type) and linear beam
BWOs or O-type BWOs. Since the majority of the millimeter wave devices currently in
use are of the latter type, the discussion shall be primarily restricted to them. These
are also sometimes referred to as carcinotrons which was the trade name for BWOs
manufactured by Thomson – CSF (In December 2000, renamed Thales). There are a
number of excellent references concerning the principles of operation of BWOs as
well as their design. The text by Gewartowski and Watson [1] provides a sound
foundation for calculating BWO start oscillation and the connection to the TWT
formalism described in the preceding subsection. Theoretical analyses of BWOs

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Heffner [47]; Johnson [48]; Grow and Watkins [49]; and Karp [50]. Construction details
and performance data for some early BWOs operating in the 1–12 GHz region are
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provided in the paper by Palluel and Goldberger [51]. Information concerning

millimeter wave BWOs can be found in the chapter by Kantorowicz and Palluel [52]. In
addition, an excellent discussion of high power millimeter wave BWOs is contained in
the chapter by Forster [53].

For many years, a major market for BWOs was in laboratory sweep oscillators up to
200 GHz. However, advances in solid state technology including active amplifiers and
frequency multipliers have essentially eliminated that market. What remained was
service as local oscillators in submillimeter wave astronomy, spectroscopy
instruments, and as swept probe sources in plasma diagnostics [53–54].

Throughout the years up to 2000, the two main producers of BWOs were Thomson-
CSF in France and Istok in Russia with tubes operating up to 1 THz, albeit at relatively
low power (mW to W depending on frequency) with limited lifetime (200–2000 hrs.).
The Thomson-CSF tubes employed a vane type circuit [51,54,65]. The major problem
with the vane type circuit is that the fundamental mode is a forward wave. The
forward wave nature of the circuit necessitates operation with the first spatial
harmonic with its attendant sharply reduced interaction impedance leading to higher
required beam voltages and reduced efficiency. However, this shortcoming was in
large part offset by the ease of machining fabrication and inspection for the vane
structure. Figure 6 displays the output power versus operating frequency for the
Thomson-CSF family of millimeter wave BWOs. Here, it is useful to review the features
of the 1 THz tube which reveals the challenges and limitations also relevant for TWTs
at the same frequency [54]. The vane type slow wave structure is shown in Figure 7
for the 1 THz Carcinotron.

Figure 6. Output power versus frequency for Thomson-CSF MMBWO family [54].

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Figure 7. Vane type slow wave structure for 850–1000 GHz Carcinotron [65].

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The THz carcinotron employed the same basic fabrication and design techniques as
their preceding tubes although severely pushing the limits of the technology of the
time [66]. This tube utilized a 500 µm diameter M-type cathode with the cathode
emission densities potentially reaching 18 A/cm2. However, some of the emission
appeared to come from the edges and sidewall of the cathode thereby relaxing this

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the electron beam was
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compressed to 50 µm diameter for passage through the 55 µm beam slot shown in
Figure 7. The cathode voltage was designed to vary between 4 and 10 kV over the
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operating frequency range of the tube. As shown in Figure 7, the slow wave structure
consisted of 350 vanes of uniform height with 15 vanes at both the input and output
ends serving as matching sections. For comparison purposes, the lower frequency
tubes had uniform sections of 200 vanes. The slow wave structure was milled out of
copper using a 20 µm cutting wheel.

THz BWOs were also developed by the Istok company in Russia and are still produced
and sold [67]. As shown in Figure 8, the approach differs from that adopted by
Thomson-CSF. Here, instead of a circular cathode and large compression ratio, a
rectangular cathode operating at high current density produces an electron beam
which passes through a beam scraper which carves out the portion of the electron
beam which would otherwise impinge upon the fragile slow wave circuit pintles. In the
simplest embodiment, there is no beam compression thereby requiring cathode
current densities as high as possible consistent with acceptable, albeit limited,
lifetime. Figure 9(a) displays the Istok submillimeter wave BWO performance
characteristics with a photograph of the 900–1100 GHz shown in Figure 9(b).

Figure 8. Istok submillimeter wave BWO schematic.

Display full size

Figure 9. (a) Istok submillimeter wave BWO performance characteristics (b)

Photograph of Istok submillimeter wave BWO OB-83 (frequency band 900-1100 GHz,
mass <250 g) [67].

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As noted in [67], the demand for, and hence development activity on, high frequency
BWOs, similar statements apply to the Thomson-CSF carcinotrons, has significantly
declined. This is attributable to the size and weight of the magnet, power
consumption, lifetime, and the challenges in fabricating such tiny and delicate
structures with the tools previously available.

4.1. Millimeter wave and THz TWTs

The evolution from helix TWTs to new concept TWTs at millimeter waves is fostered
by the use of new technologies and processes. The substantial amount of research
and production of microwave TWTs described in the previous sections has been a
fundamental stage for their evolution. The scope of this section is to describe the
latest advancements in TWT technology.

Manufacturing processes have to respond to the accuracy and dimensions that the
short wavelength at millimeter wave frequency require. Electron optics need a
miniaturization approach to assure electron beams are of small diameter and well
confined.

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dimensions dictated by the wavelength and fabrication technologies. The most
relevant millimeter wave SWSs and their implementation in TWTs, applicable also to
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BWOs, will be discussed.

4.2. Microfabrication technologies

One of the reasons for the slow development of mm-wave TWTs is the fabrication
challenge that interaction or slow wave structures pose. The scaling down of
dimensions at the increasing frequency brings the dimensions to the limit of
conventional machining. High tolerance, extreme surface finishing, and flatness are
only some of the parameters that have to be ensured for a high quality fabrication. As
described in the following, most of the SWSs at millimeter waves have to be built in
two halves, adding a further challenge in high precision alignment.

In the following, the principles of the most common microfabrication processes used
for SWSs production are described. Further details can be found in the literature [68].

4.2.1. LIGA

LIGA is a German acronym for Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung

(Lithography, Electroplating, and Molding) [69]. It is a lithographic microfabrication
process based on the use of thick photoresists (SU-8, PPMA, or KPRM) that produce
high aspect ratio molds for growing copper structures by electroforming.

The LIGA process permits one to obtain sizes of features not achievable by CNC
milling or other techniques, with high quality surface finishing.

Two different LIGA processes are available depending on the size of the minimum
features: Deep X-ray LIGA (PPMA) and UV-LIGA (SU-8, KRPM) [70].

Deep X-ray LIGA uses metal masks and PMMA (Poly(methyl methacrylate)) photoresist
exposed to X-rays produced by a synchrotron light source. Aspect ratios up to 100:1
can be achieved. The first double corrugated waveguide at 1 THz realized by Deep X-
ray LIGA is shown in Figure 10. The pillar section is 20*20 microns and the height is 60

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microns All Journals
[70]. Journal
The process of Electromagnetic
is quite expensiveWaves
and and
notApplications List ofsince
widely available Issuesit requires
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a synchrotron light source.
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Figure 10. Detail of DCW at 1THz realized by Deep X-ray LIGA. Pillar section is 20 × 20
microns, height 70 micron [70].

Display full size

UV-LIGA, in contrast to Deep-X-ray LIGA, is an affordable process. The resist is

exposed by an ultraviolet (UV) light available in normal mask aligners. Two different
photoresists can be used, SU-8 and KMPR. SU-8, surely the most widely used for
millimeter wave SWSs, provides higher quality molding, but it is very difficult to
remove at the end of the process. KMPR is easier to remove, but it is limited in the
achievable aspect-ratio. The maximum aspect ratio allowed by UV-LIGA is about 20:1,
sufficient for most of the SWSs. Two examples of UV-LIGA SWSs are shown in Figure
11(a) shows a 1 THz folded waveguide [71,72], while Figure 11(b) shows the pillars of a
300 GHz double corrugated waveguide [73] (the pillar section is 70 × 70 microns).

Figure 11. (a) 0.67 THz folded waveguide [72]; (b) 300 GHz double corrugated
waveguide (pillars section 70 × 70 microns) [73].

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Note the high quality of the metal surfaces. Other examples of LIGA fabrication are
reported in [74–78] including the SU-8 removal process, and cold tests on different
slow wave structures in the millimeter wave band.
4.2.2. High precision CNC milling

CNC (Computer Numerical Control) milling is the typical fabrication technique for
metal parts. However, when the size of the features, as in millimeter wave SWS,
approaches the 100 micron level and the surface roughness needs to be in the range
of tens of nanometers, the process become very challenging and high end equipment
is needed. The quality of fabrication is a function of the accuracy and resolution of the
positioning and the availability of suitable toolings and high spindle speed (higher
than 20,000 rpm) [79–83]. High-end CNC mills available in the market provide
resolution of about 100 nm. At the top of the scale, there is the DMG Mori Seiki
NN1000 developmental nano-CNC mill, available at the University of California Davis,
that has a movement position accuracy of 1 nm/100 mm and a repeatability of 5
nm/100 mm. The spindle currently employed in the machine has a maximum speed
of 50,000 r/min [80].

Tooling are of high importance for the size and the quality of the surfaces. The most
suitable for high precision machining are coated carbide and diamond tooling. The
minimum size available is 76 um diameter, that poses substantial material and use
challenege.

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produce List to
SWSs up of Issues
0.346 THz
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(Figure 12). The shown 0.346 THz double staggered grating structure is surely close to
the limit of the CNC milling technology. It consists of two identical halves that have to
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be assembled with high precision alignment.

Figure 12. Detail of 0.346 THz Double Staggered Grating (a) 346-GHz compact BWO
shown with 6-in ruler for scale. (b) Cold test circuit structures. (c) SEM image of the
DSG circuit cavities.

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Commercial high end CNC milling is also used for SWS at lower frequency that do not
need the level of accuracy above described.

Figure 13 shows two SWSs produced by a commercial high speed CNC milling
(Primacon) with better than 1 micron accuracy. Figure 13(a) shows a 92–95 GHz folded
waveguide, specifically one of the two identical halves that once assembled formed
the closed waveguide [82]. Figure 13(b) shows a 140 GHz double corrugated
waveguide [83].

Figure 13. (a) High precision CNC milling (a) W-band Folded Waveguide [82] and (b) D-
band double corrugated waveguide [83].

Display full size

4.2.3. Micro diffusion bonding

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The All Journals
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first step of theand
fullApplications List of Issues
fabrication process of a SWS. As
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mentioned above, millimeter wave SWSs are usually built in two halves to be
assembled. The assembly has to be vacuum tight to maintain the high vacuum level
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needed for the functioning of the TWT (better than 10−8 Torr). Diffusion bonding is a
process that permits one to assemble two or more metal parts by rebuilding the
atomic bonding at the contact surface [84]. This is achieved by applying a high
pressure to the two halves to assemble by a specific holder. The holder is then baked
at a temperature close to the melting point of the metal. The combination of
temperature and pressure recreates the atomic bonding between the contact
surfaces. The resulting bond is vacuum tight.

4.3. Electron optics

The electron optics is the subsystem that permits the generation and collection of a
confined electron beam with given shape and electrical parameters. The electron
optics include the electron gun, the magnetic focusing system, and the collector. In
this section, only the electron gun will be discussed since it is the most complex
constituent of the electron optics and linked to the TWT performance. Details on the
magnetic focusing system and collector can be found in literature.

Figure 14. Example of circuit blocks and diffusion bonding: 220-GHz DSG [81].

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The Pierce electron gun is the most used configuration, built to generate a cylindrical
electron beam to interact with a helix SWS. It has been demonstrated to be suitable to
produce electron beams with 20 micron radius (Figure 15) [70]. The focusing of
cylindrical electron beams is well established by using periodic permanent magnet
systems.

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Schematic Journal
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forApplications List of Issues
1 THz BWA [70].
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Recently, in response to the use of slow wave structure with a wide interaction field
distribution, and the need to increase the current while maintaining a low current
density, electron guns to produce electron beams with rectangular section (sheet
electron beam) were realized (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Measured beam profile for with the nanoscale tungsten scandate cathode.
The measured aspect ratio is 12.5:1, the maximum current density (dark red color on
this plot) is 438 A/cm2 [88].

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The advantage of sheet electron beams is their wider cross section that well matches
the field distribution in corrugated “like” SWSs, usually distributed over a wide region
closed to the corrugations. The main challenge of a sheet electron beam is to design
→ →
the magnetic focusing system. Sheet beams suffer the diocotron E × H effect, that
brings a rotation of the beam and a critical level of impingement of electrons with the
metal structure.

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the length Journal
of the beam of Electromagnetic
transmission Waves
tunnel is and Applications
increased, List of focusing
a periodic Issues
Volume 35, Issue 5 Millimeter wave traveling wave tubes for ....
magnetic field, rather than a uniform one, has been presented as a method to avoid
kinking and filamentation instability [85]. Concurrently, by adopting a periodic
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permanent magnet (PPM) focusing system, the volume of the VED can shrink into the
cm3 range and the weight can be reduced to less than 10 pounds for THz frequency
band operation. Previous work on this subject mainly focused on analytic studies to
understand the interaction mechanism and theoretical modeling to design magnetic
lens structures [86,87].

Several works related to the transport of gun-emitted sheet beams have been
reported in recent years. An offset PCM structure developed by UC Davis has been
employed in a W-band sheet beam klystron (WSBK) and the 90 A/cm2 beam achieved
99% transmission with RF [89] (Figure 17). The focusing system for the WSBK is an
offset periodic permanent magnet (PPM) which provides the appropriate vertical
focusing force by periodic pole pieces and supplies the horizontal focusing force by
the offset iron pieces.

Figure 17. W-band sheet beam klystron (WSBK).

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The closed PCM focusing system adopts enclosed construction; it is rarely employed
in high gain, moderate average power devices due to its restriction on space
availability for the cooling channels of a liquid thermal management system. The

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magneticList of Issues
(PCM) focusing
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system employed in W band tube sets the horizontal focusing magnet part at the
fringe of the PCM poles. In addition, the width of the whole magnet is limited due to
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the requisite strength of the y-direction magnetic field. Consequently, the practical
finite width of the traditional PCM will cause the tilt phenomenon in the beam mid-
plane off the magnet array mid-plane which will deteriorate the beam transmission. A
novel PCM-QM magnet has been presented to solve the abovementioned problems.

Figure 18 shows the transverse section and 3D beam transport model, including the
main circuit block and the novel PCM-TQM structure, of the prototype 220 GHz / 263
GHz SBTWT amplifier [90]. This hybrid PCM-TQM focusing system can provide vertical
direction (y-z plane) focusing by the PCM part and, simultaneously, confine the
horizontal plane dispersion tendency of the sheet beam by the independent TQM
part. Compared with the traditional PCM focusing system, the PCM-TQM focusing
system has several advantages: First of all, this kind of PCM-TQM eliminates the width
limitation of the traditional PCM focusing system by placing the TQM poles on the
top/bottom surface of the PCM part. Consequently, this kind of system can be
compatible with a wider PCM part. Secondly, since the sheet beam gun is usually
designed with different compression ratios in the vertical and horizontal planes, this
can cause the vertical and horizontal beam waists to occur at different axial positions.
This advanced PCM-TQM focusing system can produce magnetic focusing field
matching of the vertical and horizontal beam transport separately, since the TQM is
independent from the PCM part. Finally, each independent QM stack can provide
adjustment capability by sliding on the top face of the PCM part along the broken line,
shown in Figure 18, which can provide the PCM-TQM the ability to match the
transversal focusing field with the varying beam current density. Furthermore, it
provides the possibility of further adjustments to compensate for the inevitable
magnet stack remanence variations and alignment issues after magnet assembly.
Employing this PCM-TQM focusing system, the 263 GHz SBTWT achieves a 99.7% ‘no
RF’ and a 97.6% ‘with RF’ beam transmission rate verified by CST-PS. Those results
prove that this kind of structure has potential to benefit other sheet beam devices in
the millimetre and sub-millimeter wave regimes.

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SBTWT amplifier [90] schematic and fabrication.
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4.4. Interaction structures for millimeter wave TWTs

Interaction structures or slow wave structures are the core of both TWTs, and
similarly BWOs. They ensure the transfer of energy from the electron beam to the RF
field. The quality of the energy transfer is measured by the interaction impedance [1].

As discussed, helix and coupled cavity [2] SWSs typically used at microwaves have
high interaction impedance. However, when the frequency increases above 60–70
GHz, the fabrication of those interaction structures is not feasible. Different
interaction structures suitable for millimeter wave TWTs have been conceived to be
fabricated with by the technology processes described in the previous section.

In the following, the most interesting interaction structures for millimeter wave TWTs,
the folded waveguide, the double staggered grating, and the double corrugated
waveguide, will be described including their application in state-of-the-art TWTs.
Other SWSs have been proposed, such as meander lines [91–98] or planar helices [

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4.4.1. Folded waveguide

The folded waveguide (FWG) is a rectangular waveguide folded in a serpentine shape

(Figure 19(a)) to reduce the axial phase velocity of the EM wave to have synchronism
with the electron beam [100–102]. The single cell of an FWG SWS is shown in Figure 19
(b). It consists of a bent waveguide with a circular beam tunnel. Compared with the
helix slow wave structure, the FWG has narrower bandwidth, lower interaction
impedance, but can provide higher average power handling capability since it is a full
metal structure. The coupler to the flange is very easy to design with very good
matching. The equivalent circuit model of the FWG SWSs is comparatively simple and
the reflection in the structure is small. The Pierce gain theory [16] is a good
approximation to predict the gain feature of the FWG.

Figure 19. Folded Wave Guide SWS (a) W-band copper sample, (b) schematic.

Display full size

In the attempt to improve the interaction impedance, some modified types of FWG
SWSs have been proposed, such as the ridge-loaded FWG SWS (Figure 20) [103–108].
This topology has wider bandwidth, but also strengthens the longitudinal electric field
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complex geometric structure increases the manufacturing challenge at the increase of
the frequency. To further simplify the fabrication of the FWG SWSs, and mitigate the
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ohmic losses, the Sine waveguide has been proposed for wideband, high-power
terahertz TWTs (Figure 19(b)). It supports a sheet beam [109–113]. The interaction
impedance of the sine waveguide SWS is low compared to a conventional FWG
leading to a longer beam-wave interaction circuit, which will bring a challenge to the
electron optical system.

Figure 20. Modified FWG SWSs: (a) ridge-loaded [103]; (b) sine waveguide [110].

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Usually, an FWG is designed to work with beam voltage in the range of 10–20 kV. The
Folded Waveguide is the most widely used among the SWSs at millimeter and sub-THz
frequencies. This is due to the easy design, good coupling, wide band, and relatively
high interaction impedance. However, the fabrication has to be done in two identical
halves (both by LIGA or CNC milling) that are then bonded in a single block. The
alignment of the two halves has to be highly accurate, otherwise the electromagnetic
properties could be degraded. As an example (Figure 21), about 10 micron
misalignment between the two halves (a) in a 92–95 GHz FWG generates a stop band
at about 94 GHz (b), making the FWG not usable [82]. The improvement of the
alignment accuracy permitted to remove the rejection band.

Figure 21. 94 GHz Folded waveguide: (a) misalignment model; (b) stop band due to
misalignment [82].

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In the following, the most relevant FWG TWTs from 80 GHz to about 1 THz will be
described, highlighting the variety of performance and approaches.
4.4.2. Folded waveguide TWTs below 100 GHz

Three FWG TWTs will be described below 100 GHz; some more were produced. A W-
band (88–92 GHz) FWG TWT was presented in [97] with 38 dBm output power (Figure
22).

Figure 22. W-band TWT: (a) TWT, (b) Output power [97].

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A modified FWG, the ridge-loaded FWG, built by CNC milling (Figure 23), was used for
a W-band TWT that produced 25 W over the 93.1–94.8 GHz band [103]. It is notable
that output powers up to 100 W are reported, considering that solid state GaN PA can
provide a few Watts for the most advanced amplifiers.

Figure 23. Ridge-loaded FWG, output power and gain [103].

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A 91–101 GHz pulsed FWG TWTproduced 100 W output power with 6.7 GHz
bandwidth and over 33 dB saturated gain at 20% duty cycle. The FWG was built by the
LIGA process [114].
4.4.3. Folded waveguide TWTs in the range 100–220 GHz

The range above 100 GHz is gaining interest for wireless communications. A 140-GHz
FWG TWT with an increased beam tunnel to improve the output power was reported
in [115]. The TWT was designed to produce more than 80 W output power (Figure 24).
The first experimental prototype provided output power of 1.6 W with a gain of 25 dB.

Figure 24. Simulated Gain and output power of 140 GHz FWG TWT with increased
beam tunnel [115].

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A D-band FWG TWT with 7.3W, 25.3 dB gain, and 3 GHz bandwidth at 140.3 GHz center
frequency is reported in [116] (Figure 25). The short length of the interaction section is
noteworthy. The FWG was built by CNC machining.

Figure 25. (a) Realized TWT, (b) Gain and output power [116].

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To increase the power, a 220 GHz TWT was based on a folded waveguide circuit array
with five FWGs coupled together (Figure 26(a)) to achieve about 180 W. It required a
multi-beam (5) cathode and high aspect-ratio planar permanent magnet (Figure 26(b))
[117].

Figure 26. (a) 5-Folded waveguide circuit; (b) 5 beam cathode and [117].

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The UV-LIGA process was used to manufacture the FWG for 220-GHz TWT with 0.2 W
output power in the band 212–221 GHz at 0.1% duty cycle (Figure 27) [118].

Figure 27. (a) LIGA FWG, (b) realized TWT [118].

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A 220 GHz FWG TWT was presented in [119] with instantaneous 3 dB bandwidth of
8.8 GHz, and 350 mW peak power and about 16 dB gain (Figure 27). 15.7 kV beam
voltage was used.

A different configuration of FWG TWT based on third harmonic amplification

demonstrated 500 mW in the band 171.4–182.8 GHz (Figure 28). The harmonic
amplification is obtained by two sections of FWG. The first section amplifies the input
signal at 43.5–45.5 GHz that is then multiplied by three by a second FWG section at
130.5–136.5 GHz [120].

Figure 28. (a) FWG circuit with two sections at different frequency. (b) realized TWT,
the input flange at Q-band and the output flange at D-band [120].

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4.4.4. Folded waveguide TWT above 220 GHz

Above 220 GHz, the most advanced configurations of FWG TWT were reported
touching the threshold of 1 THz [121–124]. The fabrication of the FWG, due to the very
short wavelength (below 1.5 mm) is mostly performed by LIGA. Some samples were
built by CNC milling utilizing nano CNC milling and tooling in the range of 100-micron
diameter.

A FWG circuit realized by utilizing deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) and copper plating
(Figure 29(a)) was used in a 233 GHz TWT (Figure 29(b)) demonstrating an output
power greater than 50 W over a 2.4 GHz instantaneous bandwidth (Figure 29(c)) [122].

Figure 29. Details of the (a) FWG, (b) cross-section of the TWT and (c) output power as
function of frequency [122].

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FWG TWT (Figure 30(a))
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providing a peak output power of 32 W (Figure 30(b)) [26]. The TWT was designed to
be integrated into an (Microwave Power Module) MPM for VISAR applications [14].
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Figure 30. (a) G-band FWG TWT rendering and (b) measured output power [26].

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A 320 GHz FWG TWT has been fabricated with an FWG realized by high speed high
precision milling machining (details in Figure 31(a,b)). The TWT (Figure 31(c)) achieved
130 mW of maximum output power and 19.6 dB gain at 318.24 GHz (Figure 31(d)) [
123].

Figure 31. (a) Brazed high-frequency system including FWG, pole pieces, RF windows,
and anode. (b) FWG half structure fabricated by the high-speed precision milling
technology. (c) 0.32-THz FWG TWT [123].

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on an FWG Waves
TWT and Applications
driven List of Issues
by a solid-state power
Volume 35, Issue 5 Millimeter wave traveling wave tubes for ....
amplifier (SSPA) has produced more than 100 mW with 21.5 dB gain in the 0.640–
0.685 THz range in a bread-board demonstration. The TWT is based on a folded
Σ
Settings

waveguide slow-wave circuit built by DRIE [124]. An 850 GHz FWG vacuum tube
demonstrated 50 mW of output power in the band 0.835–0.842 THz and 39.4 mW at
0.850 THz [21].

The 1 THz FWG TWT reported in [19] is the highest frequency TWT measured. It was
built by a high precision OFHC- copper electroplated folded waveguide (FWG) made
by 2-level, deep reactive-ion etching (DRIE) of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers (Figure
32(a)). The waveguide dimensions are in the order of tens of microns. The TWT (Figure
32(b)) demonstrated 29 mW power at 1.03 THz with 20 dB of saturated gain (Figure 32
(c)).

Figure 32. (a) SEM image of a FWG halve after Cu plating, prior to bonding, (b) 1.03
THz TWT [19], (c) output power measured at different beam voltage.

Display full size

The magnetic focusing of the last three FWG TWTs described was provided by
permanent magnet solenoid.

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Finally, Journals Journal of Electromagnetic
of such a wide range Waves
of and
FWG Applications List of Issuesthe FWG as
TWTs demonstrates
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a very flexible SWS. Most of the prototypes presented were a first trial; further
improvements are expected in the future.
Σ
Settings

4.4.5. Double staggered waveguide

In early 2001, based on the previous analytic analysis of the rippled waveguide [125],
the planar microfabricated sheet beam traveling-wave tube (TWT) amplifiers have
been designed to satisfy the need for high-frequency, high-power sources of
advanced radar and communication systems above 100 GHz, with peak powers of
several hundred watts, and bandwidths of up to 10% [126]. As shown in the Figure 33,
this structure consists of a rectangular waveguide including a rectangular grating
leading to EM wave diffraction. This SWS supports a sheet beam permitting the use of
a high beam current with a low beam current density, due to the wide cross section.
The sheet beam can be focused by a periodically cusped magnetic system [127]. In
order to improve the beam-wave interaction efficiency by increasing the coupling
impedance, a planar ridge waveguide was investigated Figure 34(a) [126]. Further
improvements were obtained by the double staggered grating (DSG) SWS, shown in
Figure 34(b), in terms of ultra-wide operation frequency band [128–131].

Figure 33. Planar Grating SWS [126].

Display full size

Figure 34. (a) Rectangular Grating Waveguide [125], (b) double staggered waveguide.

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Display full size

The DSG can be fabricated both by CNC milling and LIGA. A DSG was fabricated by
LIGA using KRPM photoresist to operate in the frequency range 214–266 GHz [85].
The RF measurements demonstrated excellent RF transmission with insertion loss
fluctuating between 5 and 10 dB and the return loss fluctuating by + 3 dB around 7.5
dB [132]. To improve the electrical behavior, the Nano-CNC milling has been used to
manufacture the DSG [79]. The cold test results showed 5 dB insertion loss and −10
dB return loss in the 200–265 GHz range. A 220-GHz Sheet Beam TWT amplifier,
employing a Nano-CNC DSG circuit (Figure 35(a)), developed under the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) HiFIVE program, provides more than 24
dB gain over the frequency range of 207–221 GHz, for 20.9 kV beam voltage (Figure 35
(b)). In the high-gain operation mode, with 21.8 kV beam voltage, over 30 dB of gain
was measured over the frequency range of 197–202 GHz [80].

Figure 35. (a) 220 GHz DGS TWT, (b) output power [79].

Display full size

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29.11.2023, 17:37 Full article: Millimeter wave traveling wave tubes for the 21st Century

4.4.6.
Home Double corrugated
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Σ
The double corrugated waveguide (DCW) was conceived for the first 1 THz backward Settings

wave tube realized in the frame of the OPTHER project [70]. The challenge of the
project, due to the short wavelength, was to find an SWS able to support a cylindrical
beam and feasible by micromachining. The only available solution was the structure
used in the carcinotron [45], but its low interaction property allows very low gain and
power.

The core of the DCW consists of two rows of parallel pillars in a rectangular
waveguide. It was discovered that if two pillars are close to each other and have small
cross-section, a quasi-round electric field is established between the two pillars
(Figure 36). The space between the two rows is the beam channel. The beam axis
position needs to be optimized depending on the DCW size and frequency. The mode
propagating in the DCW is a hybrid TE10. Of great importance is the design of the
coupler to provide the best match with the TE10 mode at the flanges. The DCW
demonstrated up to 2 Ω interaction impedance up to 1 THz. This value permits a good
interaction beam-wave at that frequency. The fabrication of the DCW (pillar
dimensions 20 × 20 × 60 microns) was performed by deep-X-ray LIGA [70].

Figure 36. DCW Field distribution (a) side, (b) front, (c) top.

Display full size

The DCW was built for many different frequency bands, from 30 GHz to 1 THz by
different micromachining processes, such as CNC milling [134,135], and UV LIGA [73]
(Figure 37). In all the cases, it has demonstrated very good dispersion and interaction
impedance. The flexibility of the DCW permitted the use of different coupler
topologies depending on the fabrication process (e.g. LIGA does not permit the

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Home
tapering ofAllthe
Journals Journal
height of of Electromagnetic
pillars). A Backward Waves
Wave andAmplifier
Applicationsat 1 THz
List ofwas
Issues
built by
Volume 35, Issue 5 Millimeter wave traveling wave tubes for ....
using the first 1 THz DCW realized by deep-Xray LIGA [70] (Figure 38).
Σ
Settings

Figure 37. DCW at different frequencies (a) 1THz [70], (b) 0.346 THz [13], (c) 94 GHz, (d)
34 GHz [134].

Display full size

Figure 38. 1 THz Backward Wave Amplifier; (a) realization, (b) schematic [70].

Display full size

A number of projects are in progress to implement the DCW in traveling wave tubes
and backward wave oscillators at millimeter waves [136,137].

5. Conclusions

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29.11.2023, 17:37 Full article: Millimeter wave traveling wave tubes for the 21st Century

Home andAll
TWTs, inJournals Journal ofelectronics
general vacuum Electromagnetic Waves and
devices Applications waves,
at millimeter List ofare
Issues
in a phase
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of rapid evolution from the traditional microwave helix TWTs to innovative topologies,
born to overcome the fabrication challenges that the short wavelength at millimeter
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Settings

wave poses. This review paper has covered the major advancements in the field,
including new fabrication processes and topologies and provided the fundamental
background to appreciate the technological steps and the state of the art of
millimeter waves and THz TWT. The road for a commercialization and wide use of
millimeter wave TWT starts to be defined. Applications in many fields, such as wireless
communications, plasma diagnostics, security, non-destructive product inspection,
healthcare, will benefit of their high output power over a wide bandwidth above 100
GHz, so far not available. The relevant progress of the last years and the huge effort
worldwide will bring substantial progress in year to come, revolutionizing the oldest
electronic device technology.

Acknowledgements

The work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and
innovation programs under grant agreement no 762119, from EPSRC DLINK – D-band
Wireless Link with Fibre Data Rate grant EP/S009620/1 in the UK, and from DOE DE-
FG02-99ER54518 and DE-FG02-99ER54531 in the US.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Correction Statement

This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact
the academic content of the article.

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This work was supported by Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
[grant number EP/S009620/1]; Horizon 2020 Framework Programme [grant number
762119]; DOE [grant number DE-FG02-99ER54518,DE-FG02-99ER54531].

Notes on contributors

Claudio Paoloni

Claudio Paoloni, since 2012, has been Cockcroft Chair with the
Engineering Department, Lancaster University, U.K. Since 2015, he has
been the Head of Engineering Department. He is member at large of the
Board of Governor of the IEEE Electron Devices Society and Chair of the
IEEE EDS Vacuum Electronics Technical Committee (2017 - present). He is
Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. He was Guest Editor for
the 2014 Special Issue of Transaction on Electron Devices on V acuum
Electronics. He is coordinator of two European Commission Horizon 2020
projects, TWEETHER and ULTRAWAVE. He is author of more than 230
articles in journals and international conferences in the field of sub-THz
vacuum electronic devices and wireless communications.

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29.11.2023, 17:37 Full article: Millimeter wave traveling wave tubes for the 21st Century

Diana Gamzina
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Volume 35, Issue 5 Millimeter wave traveling wave tubes for ....
Dr Diana Gamzina joined SLAC in January of 2017; she was at the UC Davis
Σ
millimeter-wave research group for over 8 years prior to that leading Settings

research and development programs in millimeter wave and terahertz

vacuum electronics. At SLAC, she has focused on development of
advanced materials for vacuum electron devices. Her expertise includes
mechanics of materials’ interaction with electromagnetic waves, micro to
nano scale as well as additive material synthesis techniques, high current
density nano-composite cathodes, and multiscale thermo-mechanical
design and analysis. Enabling design driven material microstructure for
the next generation of RF vacuum electronic devices is her personal
career goal.

Rosa Letizia

Rosa Letizia received the Laurea degree in Electronic Engineering from

the Polytechnic of Bari, Bari, Italy, and the Ph.D. degree in computational
photonics from the University of Leeds, Leeds, U.K., in 2005 and 2009,
respectively. In 2011, she joined the Engineering Department, Lancaster
University, Lancaster, U.K., and the Cockcroft Institute of Accelerator
Science and Technology, Warrington, U.K., where she has been a Senior
Lecturer since 2019. In 2019, she was the recipient of the Senior Research
Fellowship from The Leverhulme Trust and Royal Academy of Engineering.
She is an IEEE Senior Member and serves as an associate editor for the
IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices.

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Yuan Zheng
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Yuan Zheng received the B.S. (2010), and Ph. D. (2016) degree in vacuum
Σ
electronics from the University of Electronic Science and Technology of Settings

China, Chengdu, China. After graduation, he joined the Davis MM-wave

Research Center in 2016 as a Post-Doc scholar. He is now a project
scientist in UC Davis mm-Wave Research Group focusing on sheet beam
high-power millimeter-wave devices, including SB-TWTs, SB-BWOs and SB-
klystrons.

Neville C. Luhmann

Neville C. Luhmann Jr. was awarded the Ph.D. in Physics at University of

Maryland, College Park, (1972). He is Professor, Electrical and Computer
Engineering Department, University of California, Davis (1993-Present). He
was Professor, Department of Applied Science, University of California,
Davis (1993 – 2011) and Professor at Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of California, Los Angeles (1981–1993). He has published
approximately 392 papers in archival journals, 375 proceedings articles,
and 18 books and chapters, and 1086 conference presentations. He is
Fellow of the American Physical Society, Fellow of the Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineering, Recipient of the IEEE Plasma Science and
Applications Committee (PSAC) Award for Outstanding Contributions to
the Field of Plasma Science, He was awarded the Kenneth J. Button Award
for "Recognition of Outstanding Contributions to the Science of the
Electromagnetic Spectrum" 2005. This is administered by The Institute of
Physics (London). He is UC Davis Distinguished Professor.

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