Bread Board, Transformer,

PCB, and Soldering

Electronics Engineering Work Practices (ECE101)
 Bread Board

A breadboard is a rectangular plastic board with a bunch of

tiny holes in it. These holes let you easily insert electronic
components to prototype (meaning to build and test an
early version of) an electronic circuit, like this one with a
battery, switch, resistor, and an LED (light-emitting diode).

The connections are not permanent, so it is easy

to remove a component if you make a mistake, or just start
over and do a new project. This makes breadboards great
for beginners who are new to electronics. You can use
breadboards to make all sorts of fun electronics projects,
from different types of robots or an electronic drum set, to
an electronic rain detector to help conserve water in a
garden, just to name a few.

Modern breadboards are made from plastic, and come in all

shapes, sizes, and even different colors. While larger and
smaller sizes are available, the most common sizes you will
probably see are "full-size," "half-size," and "mini"
breadboards. Most breadboards also come with tabs and
notches on the sides that allow you to snap multiple boards
together. However, a single half-sized breadboard is
sufficient for many beginner-level projects.
 Bread Board
The leads can fit into the breadboard because the inside of
a breadboard is made up of rows of tiny metal clips. This is
what the clips look like when they are removed from a
breadboard. When you press a component's lead into a
breadboard hole, one of these clips grabs onto it.

Most breadboards have some numbers, letters, and plus

and minus signs written on them. What does all that
mean? While their exact appearance might vary from
breadboard to breadboard, the general purpose is always
the same. These labels help you locate certain holes on the
breadboard so you can follow directions when building a
circuit.

Inside of the breadboard is made up of sets of five metal

clips. This means that each set of five holes forming a half-
row (columns A–E or columns F–J) is electrically
connected.
 Bread Board

Buses on opposite sides of the

breadboard are not connected to each
other. Typically, to make power and
ground available on both sides of the
breadboard, you would connect the buses
with jumper wires, like this. Make sure to
connect positive to positive and negative
to negative

Are all breadboards labeled the same

way?
Note that exact configurations might vary
from breadboard to breadboard. For
example, some breadboards have the
labels printed in "landscape" orientation
instead of "portrait" orientation. Some
breadboards have the buses broken in
half along the length of the breadboard
 Bread Board
What are jumper wires?
 Transformer
What is a Transformer?
A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The transmission
current is AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply voltage without a change
in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer works on basic principles
of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

Transformer Types
Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution sector,
transmission and electric energy consumption. There are various types of transformers which are
classified based on the following factors;
• Working voltage range.
• The medium used in the core.
• Winding arrangement.
• Installation location.
 Transformer
Based on Voltage Levels
Commonly used transformer type, depending upon voltage they are classified as:
• Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the power grid. The
secondary output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
• Step down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high voltage primary supply
to low voltage secondary output.
Based on the Medium of Core Used
In a transformer, we will find different types of cores that are used.
• Air core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary winding is through
the air. The coil or windings wound on the non-magnetic strip.
• Iron core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked together, which
provides a perfect linkage path to generate flux.
Based on the Winding Arrangement
• Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core. The primary
and secondary share the same coil. Auto also means “self” in language Greek.
Based on Install Location
• Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations as they are suitable for high
voltage application
• Distribution Transformer: Mostly used at distribution lanes for domestic purposes. They are
designed for carrying low voltages. It is very easy to install and characterized by low magnetic
losses.
 Transformer
Working Principle of a Transformer
The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.
There are usually two coils primary coil and secondary
coil on the transformer core. The core laminations are
joined in the form of strips. When an alternating
current pass through the primary coil it creates a
varying magnetic flux. As per faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux
induces an emf (electromotive force) in the secondary
coil which is linked to the core having a primary coil.
This is mutual induction.

Overall, a transformer carries the below operations:

• Transfer of electrical energy from circuit to another
• Transfer of electrical power through
electromagnetic induction
• Electric power transfer without any change in
frequency
• Two circuits are linked with mutual induction
 Transformer
The induced emf in the primary and secondary windings depends upon the
rate of change of flux linkage that is (N dϕ/dt). dϕ/dt is the change of flux and
is same for both the primary and secondary windings. The induced emf E1 in
the primary winding is proportional to the number of turns N1 of the primary
windings (E1 ∞ N1). Similarly induced emf in the secondary winding is
proportional to the number of turns on the secondary side (E2 ∞ N2).
Transformer Turn Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of primary to secondary turns.
N1
Turn Ratio =
N2
If N2 > N1 the transformer is called Step-up transformer.
And, if N2 < N1 the transformer is called Step-down transformer.
Transformation Ratio:
The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the
primary voltage. It is denoted by K.
E2 N2
K= =
E1 N1
As (E2 ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1)
 Transformer
The value of the power for an electric circuit is the value of the voltage by the value of the
current intensity. As in the case of an ideal transformer:

The value of the power in the primary is the same value for the power in the secondary we
have:

(input voltage on the primary coil) × (input current on the primary coil ) = (output voltage on
the secondary coil ) × (output current on the secondary coil)

This can be written as an equation:

Vp × Ip = Vs × Is

Applications Of Transformer
• The transformer transmits electrical energy through wires over long distances.
• Transformers with multiple secondary’s are used in radio and TV receivers which require
several different voltages.
• Transformers are used as voltage regulators.
 Transformer
Ex.1. The number of primary and secondary windings is 90 and 120 respectively. The secondary voltage is given by
310V, which determines the primary voltage.

Solution:

Given: Np = 90, Ns= 120, Vs = 310V

By using the transformer calculation formula, we get:

Vp/Vs=Np/Ns; Vp=Ns/Np x VS

VP= 90/120 x 310; Hence, Vp = 232.5 volt

Ex.2. The number of primary and secondary windings is 110 and 240, respectively. The primary voltage is given by
300V, which determines the secondary voltage.

Solution:

Given: Ns = 110, Ns = 240, Vp = 300V

The transformer formula is given by

Vp × Vs = Np × Ns; Vs = NsNp×Vp

Vs = 240/ 110 x 300

Vs = 654.5 volts
 Centre Tapped Transformer
• A Centre Tapped transformer works in more or less the same way as a usual transformer. The difference
lies in just the fact that its secondary winding is divided into two parts, so two individual voltages can be
acquired across the two-line ends.

• The internal process is the same, which is when an alternating current is supplied to the primary winding
of the transformer it creates a magnetic flux in the core, and when the secondary winding is brought near,
an alternating magnetic flux is also induced in the secondary winding as the flux flows through the
ferromagnetic iron core and changes its direction with each and every cycle of the alternating current. In
this way an alternating current also flows through the two halves of the secondary winding of the
transformer and flows to the external circuit.

• When an additional wire is connected across the exact middle point of the secondary winding of a
transformer, it is called a center tapped transformer. The wire is adjusted such that it falls in the exact
middle point of the secondary winding and is thus at zero volts, forming the neutral point for the winding.
This is called the “center tap” and this thing allows the transformer to provide two separate output
voltages which are equal in magnitude, but opposite in polarity to each other. In this way, we can also use
a number of turn ratios from such a transformer.
 Centre Tapped Transformer
Difference between a Normal and a Center Tapped Transformer

The primary difference that is evident here is that a normal transformer provides you with only one voltage,
for example, say 240 V. But a center tapped transformer will provide you with two voltages each of 240/ 2
i.e. 120 V, so that we can drive two independent circuits.
 Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)
What's a PCB?

• Printed circuit board is the most common name but may also be called "printed wiring
boards" or "printed wiring cards". Before the advent of the PCB circuits were constructed
through a laborious process of point-to-point wiring. This led to frequent failures at wire
junctions and short circuits when wire insulation began to age and crack.

• A significant advance was the development of wire wrapping, where a small gauge wire is
literally wrapped around a post at each connection point, creating a gas-tight connection
which is highly durable and easily changeable (See the figure below).
 Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)
What's a PCB?

• As electronics moved from vacuum tubes and relays to silicon and integrated circuits, the
size and cost of electronic components began to decrease. Electronics became more
prevalent in consumer goods, and the pressure to reduce the size and manufacturing costs of
electronic products drove manufacturers to look for better solutions. Thus, was born the
PCB.
• PCB is a board that has lines and pads that connect various points together. In the picture
below, there are traces that electrically connect the various connectors and components to
each other. A PCB allows signals and power to be routed between physical devices.
• Solder is the metal that makes the electrical connections between the surface of the PCB
and the electronic components. Being metal, solder also serves as a strong mechanical
adhesive.
 Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)
Composition of PCB

• A PCB is sort of like a layer cake or lasagna- there are alternating layers of different
materials which are laminated together with heat and adhesive such that the result is a
single object.

FR4
• The base material, or substrate, is usually fiberglass. Historically, the most common
designator for this fiberglass is "FR4". This solid core gives the PCB its rigidity and
thickness. There are also flexible PCBs built on flexible high-temperature plastic. You will
find many different thickness PCBs.
 Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)
Composition of PCB

• Cheaper PCBs and perf boards (shown below) will be made

with other materials such as epoxies or phenolics which lack
the durability of FR4 but are much less expensive. These types
of substrates are also typically found in low-end consumer
electronics.

Copper
• The next layer is a thin copper foil, which is laminated to the
board with heat and adhesive. On common, double-sided PCBs,
copper is applied to both sides of the substrate. In lower cost
electronic gadgets, the PCB may have copper on only one side.

• The copper thickness can vary and is specified by weight, in

ounces per square foot. Most PCBs have 1 ounce of copper per
square foot but some PCBs that handle very high power may
use 2- or 3-ounce copper. Each ounce per square translates to
about 35 micrometers or 1.4 thousandths of an inch of
thickness of copper.
 Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)
Composition of PCB

Soldermask
• The layer on top of the copper foil is called the
soldermask layer. This layer gives the PCB its green
(or, red) color. It is overlaid onto the copper layer to
insulate the copper traces from accidental contact with
other metal, solder, or conductive bits. This layer helps
the user to solder to the correct places and prevent
solder jumpers.
• In the example below, the green solder mask is applied
to most of the PCB, covering up the small traces but
leaving the silver rings and SMD pads exposed so they
can be soldered to.
• Soldermask is most commonly green in color but nearly
any color is possible.
 Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)
Composition of PCB

Silkscreen
• The white silkscreen layer is applied on top of the
soldermask layer. The silkscreen adds letters, numbers,
and symbols to the PCB that allow for easier assembly
and indicators for humans to better understand the
board. We often use silkscreen labels to indicate what
the function of each pin or LED.
• Silkscreen is most commonly white, but any ink color
can be used. Black, gray, red, and even yellow
silkscreen colors are widely available; it is, however,
uncommon to see more than one color on a single
board.
 Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)
Universal PCB
• A universal PCB, also known as a prototype PCB is a circuit board used in the design stage for
testing out ideas and for the verification of system concepts. This universal PCB is important
in the manufacture of new PCB-compatible devices and machines.

• They are so crucial in helping manufacturers perfect the function of the PCBs before going
into large-scale production, to avoid a waste of resources and time. Another important use of a
prototype PCB is the manufacture of single electronic device units.

• Most are made from glass fiber as opposed to phenolic paper which gives off a brown color
associated with those brown circuit boards. This is because glass fiber is more durable, and as
such, more economic. Some manufacturers typically have their circuit board holes tinned to
forestall oxidation and make soldering easier.
 Soldering
What is Soldering?
• If you were to take apart any electronic device that contains a circuit board, you’ll see the
components are attached using soldering techniques. Soldering is the process of joining two or
more electronic parts together by melting solder around the connection. Solder is a metal alloy
and when it cools it creates a strong electrical bond between the parts. Even though soldering
can create a permanent connection, it can also be reversed using a desoldering tool as
described below.
 Soldering
Soldering Tools

• Soldering Iron: A soldering iron is a hand tool that plugs into a standard 230V AC outlet
and heats up in order to melt solder around electrical connections. This is one of the most
important tools used in soldering and it can come in a few variations such as pen or gun
form. Most soldering irons have interchangeable tips that can be used for different
soldering applications. Be very cautious when using any type of soldering iron
because it can heat up to 896° F which is extremely hot.
 Soldering
Soldering Tools

Soldering Iron Tips: At the end of most soldering irons is an interchangeable part known as
a soldering tip. There are many variations of this tip and they come in a wide variety of
shapes and sizes. Each tip is used for a specific purpose and offers a distinct advantage over
another. The most common tips you will use in electronics projects are the conical tip and
the chisel tip.
• Conical Tip – Used in precision electronics soldering because of the fine tip. Because of
its pointed end, it’s able to deliver heat to smaller areas without affecting its
surroundings.
• Chisel Tip – This tip is well-suited to soldering wires or other larger components
because of its broad flat tip.
 Soldering
Soldering Tools

Brass or Conventional Sponge:

Using a sponge will help to keep the soldering iron tip clean by removing the oxidation that
forms. Tips with oxidation will tend to turn black and not accept solder as it did when it was
new. You could use a conventional wet sponge, but this tends to shorten the lifespan of the
tip due to expansion and contraction. Also, a wet sponge will drop the temperature of the tip
temporarily when wiped. A better alternative is to use a brass sponge as shown on the left.
 Soldering
Soldering Tools

Soldering Iron Stand:

• A soldering iron stand is very basic but very useful and
handy to have. This stand helps prevent the hot iron tip from
coming in contact with flammable materials or causing
accidental injury to your hand. Most soldering stations come
with this built in and also include a sponge or brass sponge
for cleaning the tip.

Solder
• Solder is a metal alloy material that is melted to create a
permanent bond between electrical parts. Inside the solder
core is a material known as flux which helps improve
electrical contact and its mechanical strength.
• For electronics soldering, the most used type is lead-free
rosin core solder. This type of solder is usually made up of a
Tin/Copper alloy. You can also use leaded 60/40 (60% tin,
40% lead) rosin core solder but it’s becoming less popular
due to health concerns. If you do use lead solder, make
sure you have proper ventilation and that you wash your
hands after use.
 Soldering
Soldering Tools

Soldering Safety:
• Soldering irons can reach temperatures of 800° F so it’s very important to know where
your iron is always. We always recommend you use a soldering iron stand to help prevent
accidental burns or damage.
• Make sure you are soldering in a well-ventilated area. When solder is heated, there are
fumes released that are harmful to your eyes and lungs. It’s recommended to use a fume
extractor which is a fan with a charcoal filter that absorbs the harmful solder smoke you
can visit sites like Integrated Air Systems for air filtration systems.
• It’s always a good idea to wear protective eye wear in case of accidental splashes of hot
solder. Lastly, make sure to wash your hands when done soldering especially if using lead
solder.
 Soldering
Tinning The Tip
Before you can start soldering, you need to prep your soldering iron by tinning the tip with
solder. This process will help improve the heat transfer from the iron to the item you’re
soldering. Tinning will also help to protect the tip and reduce wear.
Step 1: Begin by making sure the tip is attached to the iron and screwed tightly in place.
Step 2: Turn on your soldering iron and let it heat up. If you have a soldering station with an
adjustable temp control, set it to 400° C/ 752° F.
Step 3: Wipe the tip of the soldering iron on a damp wet sponge to clean it. Wait a few
seconds to let the tip heat up again before proceeding to step 4.
Step 4: Hold the soldering iron in one hand and solder in the other. Touch the solder to the tip
of the iron and make sure the solder flows evenly around the tip.

You should tin the tip of your iron before and after each soldering session to extend its life.
Eventually, every tip will wear out and will need replacing when it becomes rough or pitted.
 Soldering
How To Solder
Step 1: Mount the Component – Begin by inserting the leads of the LED into the holes of
the circuit board. Flip the board over and bend the leads outward at a 45° angle. This will help
the component make a better connection with the copper pad and prevent it from falling out
while soldering.
Step 2: Heat the Joint – Turn your soldering iron on and wait for heat up. Now, touch the tip
of the iron to the copper pad and the resistor lead at the same time. You need to hold the
soldering iron in place for 3-4 seconds in order to heat the pad and the lead.
Step 3: Apply Solder to Joint – Continue holding the soldering iron on the copper pad and
the lead and touch your solder to the joint.

IMPORTANT – Don’t touch the solder directly to the tip of the iron. You want the joint to be
hot enough to melt the solder when it’s touched. If the joint is too cold, it will form a bad
connection.

Step 4: Snip the Leads – Remove the soldering iron and let the solder cool down naturally.
Don’t blow on the solder as this will cause a bad joint. Once cool, you can snip the extra wire
from leads.
A proper solder joint is smooth, shiny and looks like a volcano or cone shape. You want just
enough solder to cover the entire joint but not too much, so it becomes a ball or spills to a
nearby lead or joint.
 Soldering
How To Solder Wires

• Now it’s time to show you how to solder wires together.

For this process, it’s recommended to use helping hands
or other type of clamp device. Begin by removing the
insulation from the ends of both wires you are soldering
together. If the wire is stranded, twist the strands
together with your fingers.
• Make sure your soldering iron is fully heated and touch
the tip to the end of one of the wires. Hold it on the
wire for 3-4 seconds.
• Keep the iron in place and touch the solder to the wire
until it’s fully coated. Repeat this process on the other
wire.
• Hold the two tinned wires on top of each other and
touch the soldering iron to both wires. This process
should melt the solder and coat both wires evenly.
• Remove the soldering iron and wait a few seconds to let
the soldered connection cool and harden. Use heat
shrink to cover the connection.
 Desoldering
• The good thing about using solder is the fact that it
can be removed easily in a technique known as
desoldering. This comes in handy if you need to
remove a component or make a correction to your
electronic circuit.
• To desolder a joint, you will need solder wick which
is also known as desoldering braid.
• Step 1 – Place a piece of the desoldering braid on
top of the joint/solder you want removed.
• Step 2 – Heat your soldering iron and touch the tip
to the top of the braid. This will heat the solder
below which will then be absorbed into the
desoldering braid. You can now remove the braid to
see the solder has been extracted and removed. Be
careful touching the braid when you are heating it
because it will get hot.
 Desoldering
Optional :

• If you have a lot of solder, you want removed, you may want to use a device called a
solder sucker. This is a handheld mechanical vacuum that sucks up hot solder with a
press of a button.
• To use, press the plunger down at the end of the solder sucker. Heat the joint with your
soldering iron and place the tip of the solder sucker over the hot solder. Press the release
button to suck up the liquid solder. In order to empty the solder sucker, press down on the
plunger.