AQA GCSE Physics specification (8463)

For GCSE exams in 2018 onwards

The page numbers shown in the right–hand column refer to the

new GCSE Physics for You, Fifth Edition (978–019–837571–5) Page numbers

Your name:

Work needed for Higher Tier only is shown by: (HT only)

4.1 Energy
Energy changes in a system, and the ways energy is
4.1.1
stored before and after such changes
4.1.1.1 Energy stores and systems
A system is an object or group of objects.
There are changes in the way energy is stored when a system changes.
Students should be able to describe all the changes involved in the way energy
is stored when a system changes, for common situations. For example:
• an object projected upwards 11, 37, 92, 103,
• a moving object hitting an obstacle 112, 113, 122
• an object accelerated by a constant force
• a vehicle slowing down
• bringing water to a boil in an electric kettle.
Throughout this section on Energy students should be able to calculate the
changes in energy involved when a system is changed by:
• heating
37, 101, 272
• work done by forces
• work done when a current flows

Use calculations to show on a common scale how the overall energy in a

system is redistributed when the system is changed 101, 272, 37, 273

4.1.1.2 Changes in energy

Students should be able to calculate the amount of energy associated with a
moving object, a stretched spring and an object raised above ground level 113, 67, 112

The kinetic energy of a moving object can be calculated using the equation:
2
Kinetic energy = 0.5 x mass x speed
1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 113
kinetic energy, Ek, in joules, J
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
speed, v, in metres per second, m/s

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The amount of elastic potential energy stored in a stretched spring can be
calculated using the equation:
2
elastic potential energy = 0.5 x spring constant x extension
1
𝐸𝑒 = 𝑘 𝑒2 67
2
(assuming the limit of proportionality has not been exceeded)
elastic potential energy, Ee, in joules, J
spring constant, k, in newtons per metre, N/m
extension, e, in metres, m

The amount of gravitational potential energy gained by an object raised above

ground level can be calculated using the equation:
g.p.e. = mass × gravitational field strength × height
� 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ �
112
gravitational potential energy, Ep, in joules, J
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg
(In any calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be given)
height, h, in metres, m

4.1.1.3 Energy changes in systems

The amount of energy stored in or released from a system as its temperature
changes can be calculated using the equation:

change in thermal energy = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature change

37
[ ∆E = m c ∆θ ]
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
specific heat capacity, c, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius, J/kg °C
temperature change, ∆θ, in degrees Celsius, °C
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy required to
raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance by one degree Celsius

4.1.1.4 Power
Power is defined as the rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which
work is done
power = energy transferred
time
𝐸
�𝑃 = �
𝑡 114–115

power = work done

time
𝑊
�𝑃 = �
𝑡

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power, P, in watts, W
energy transferred, E, in joules, J
time, t, in seconds, s
work done, W, in joules, J 114–115
An energy transfer of 1 joule per second is equal to a power of 1 watt
Students should be able to give examples that illustrate the definition of power
eg comparing two electric motors that both lift the same weight through the
same height but one does it faster than the other

4.1.2 Conservation and dissipation of energy

4.1.2.1 Energy transfers in a system

Energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated, but cannot be created
or destroyed
Students should be able to describe with examples where there are energy
transfers in a closed system, that there is no net change to the total energy 11, 102–108
Students should be able to describe, with examples, how in all system changes
energy is dissipated, so that it is stored in less useful ways. This energy is
often described as being ‘wasted’

Students should be able to explain ways of reducing unwanted energy

transfers, for example through lubrication and the use of thermal insulation
The higher the thermal conductivity of a material the higher the rate of energy
transfer by conduction across the material
12, 41–43, 85
Students should be able to describe how the rate of cooling of a building is
affected by the thickness and thermal conductivity of its walls.
Students do not need to know the definition of thermal conductivity

4.1.2.2 Efficiency
The energy efficiency for any energy transfer can be calculated using the
equation:

efficiency = useful output energy transfer

total input energy transfer

106–108, 120
Efficiency may also be calculated using the equation:

efficiency = useful power output

total power input
Students may be required to calculate or use efficiency values as a decimal or
as a percentage

(HT only) Students should be able to describe ways to increase the efficiency
of an intended energy transfer 106–108, 120

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4.1.3 National and global energy resources
The main energy resources available for use on Earth include: fossil fuels
(coal, oil and gas), nuclear fuel, bio-fuel, wind, hydro-electricity, geothermal,
the tides, the Sun and water waves
A renewable energy resource is one that is being (or can be) replenished as it
is used
The uses of energy resources include: transport, electricity generation and
heating
Students should be able to:
13–15, 105,
• describe the main energy sources available
107–110
• distinguish between energy resources that are renewable and
• energy resources that are non–renewable
• compare ways that different energy resources are used, the uses
• understand why some energy resources are more reliable than others
• describe the environmental impact arising from the use of different
energy resources
• explain patterns and trends in the use of energy resources
Descriptions of how energy resources are used to generate electricity are not
required
Students should be able to:
• consider the environmental issues that may arise from the use of
different energy resources
• show that science has the ability to identify environmental issues arising 110–111
from the use of energy resources but not always the power to deal with
the issues because of political, social, ethical or economic
considerations
4.2 Electricity

4.2.1 Current, potential difference and resistance

4.2.1.1 Standard circuit diagram symbols

Circuit diagrams use standard symbols

254, 256, 258–259,

261, 275, 322–323,
325–326

Students should be able to draw and interpret circuit diagrams

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4.2.1.2 Electrical charge and current
For electrical charge to flow through a closed circuit the circuit must include a
254, 258, 266
source of potential difference
Electric current is a flow of electrical charge. The size of the electric current is
the rate of flow of electrical charge. Charge flow, current and time are linked by
the equation:
charge flow = current x time
266
[Q = I t]
charge flow, Q, in coulombs, C
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
time, t, in seconds, s
256
A current has the same value at any point in a single closed loop

4.2.1.3 Current, resistance and potential difference

The current (I) through a component depends on both the resistance (R) of the
component and the potential difference (V) across the component. The greater
the resistance of the component the smaller the current for a given potential
difference (pd) across the component
259
Questions will be set using the term potential difference. Students will gain
credit for the correct use of either potential difference or voltage

Current, potential difference or resistance can be calculated using the

equation:
potential difference = current x resistance
[V = I R] 259
potential difference, V, in volts, V
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
resistance, R, in ohms, Ω

4.2.1.4 Resistors
Students should be able to explain that, for some resistors, the value of R
remains constant but that in others it can change as the current changes

The current through an ohmic conductor (at a constant temperature) is directly

proportional to the potential difference across the resistor. This means that the
resistance remains constant as the current changes

261, 265, 322

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The resistance of components such as lamps, diodes, thermistors and LDRs is
not constant; it changes with the current through the component
The resistance of a filament lamp increases as the temperature of the filament
increases

261, 265, 322

The current through a diode flows in one direction only. The diode has a very
high resistance in the reverse direction

The resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature increases

The applications of thermistors in circuits eg a thermostat is required 325–326
The resistance of an LDR decreases as light intensity increases

The application of LDRs in circuits eg switching lights on when it gets dark is

required
Students should be able to:
• explain the design and use of a circuit to measure the resistance of a 261, 265,
component by measuring the current through, and potential difference 325–326,
across, the component
• draw an appropriate circuit diagram using correct circuit symbols

Students should be able to use graphs to explore whether circuit elements are
linear or non–linear and relate the curves produced to their function and
265
properties

4.2.2 Series and parallel circuits

There are two ways of joining electrical components, in series and in parallel.
Some circuits include both series and parallel parts
For components connected in series:
• there is the same current through each component 256, 262
• the total potential difference of the power supply is shared between the
components
• the total resistance of two components is the sum of the resistance of
each component.
Rtotal = R1 + R2 262
resistance, R, in ohms, Ω

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For components connected in parallel:
• the potential difference across each component is the same
• the total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents
through the separate components
• the total resistance of two resistors is less than the resistance of the
smallest individual resistor. 257, 263–264,
Students should be able to: 269, 325–326
• use circuit diagrams to construct and check series and parallel circuits
that include a variety of common circuit components
• describe the difference between series and parallel circuits
• explain qualitatively why adding resistors in series increases the total
resistance whilst adding resistors in parallel decreases the total
resistance
• explain the design and use of dc series circuits for measurement and
testing purposes
• calculate the currents, potential differences and resistances in dc series
circuits
• solve problems for circuits which include resistors in series using the
concept of equivalent resistance
Students are not required to calculate the total resistance of two resistors
joined in parallel

4.2.3 Domestic uses and safety

4.2.3.1 Direct and alternating potential difference

Mains electricity is an ac supply. In the United Kingdom the domestic electricity
supply has a frequency of 50 Hz and is about 230 V
254, 274, 305, 323
Students should be able to explain the difference between direct and
alternating potential difference

4.2.3.2 Mains electricity

Most electrical appliances are connected to the mains using three-core cable
The insulation covering each wire is colour coded for easy identification:
live wire – brown
neutral wire – blue
earth wire – green and yellow stripes
The live wire carries the alternating potential difference from the supply. The
neutral wire completes the circuit. The earth wire is a safety wire to stop the
appliance becoming live 274 –276, 305
The potential difference between the live wire and earth (0 V) is about 230 V.
The neutral wire is at, or close to, earth potential (0 V). The earth wire is at 0 V,
it only carries a current if there is a fault
Students should be able to explain:
• that a live wire may be dangerous even when a switch in the mains
circuit is open
• the dangers of providing any connection between the live wire and earth

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4.2.4 Energy transfers

4.2.4.1 Power
Students should be able to explain how the power transfer in any circuit device
is related to the potential difference across it and the current through it, and to
the energy changes over time:
power = potential difference x current
[P = V I]
2 272
power = current x resistance
2
[P = I R]
power, P, in watts, W
potential difference, V, in volts, V
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
resistance, R, in ohms, Ω

4.2.4.2 Energy transfers in everyday appliances

Everyday electrical appliances are designed to bring about energy transfers
The amount of energy an appliance transfers depends on how long the
appliance is switched on for and the power of the appliance
Students should be able to describe how different domestic appliances transfer
energy from batteries or ac mains to the kinetic energy of electric motors or the
energy of heating devices 104–105, 270

Work is done when charge flows in a circuit

The amount of energy transferred by electrical work can be calculated using
the equation:
energy transferred = power x time
[E=Pt]

energy transferred = charge flow x potential difference

[E=QV]
267, 272,
energy transferred, E, in joules, J
power, P, in watts, W
time, t, in seconds, s
charge flow, Q, in coulombs, C
potential difference, V, in volts, V

Students should be able to explain how the power of a circuit device is related
to:
• the potential difference across it and the current through it
• the energy transferred over a given time
273–274
Students should be able to describe, with examples, the relationship between
the power ratings for domestic electrical appliances and the changes in stored
energy when they are in use

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4.2.4.3 The National Grid
The National Grid is a system of cables and transformers linking power stations
to consumers
Electrical power is transferred from power stations to consumers using the
National Grid
104, 309,
Step-up transformers are used to increase the potential difference from the
335–336
power station to the transmission cables then step-down transformers are used
to decrease, to a much lower value, the potential difference for domestic use
Students should be able to explain why the National Grid system is an efficient
way to transfer energy

4.2.5 Static electricity (physics only)

4.2.5.1 Static charge

When certain insulating materials are rubbed against each other they become
electrically charged. Negatively charged electrons are rubbed off one material
and on to the other. The material that gains electrons becomes negatively
charged. The material that loses electrons is left with an equal positive charge
When two electrically charged objects are brought close together they exert a
force on each other. Two objects that carry the same type of charge repel. Two
objects that carry different types of charge attract. Attraction and repulsion
between two charged objects are examples of non-contact force
245–247, 249
Students should be able to:
• describe the production of static electricity, and sparking, by rubbing
surfaces
• describe evidence that charged objects exert forces of attraction or
repulsion on one another when not in contact
• explain how the transfer of electrons between objects can explain the
phenomena of static electricity

4.2.5.2 Electric fields

A charged object creates an electric field around itself. The electric field is
strongest close to the charged object. The further away from the charged
object, the weaker the field
A second charged object placed in the field experiences a force. The force gets
stronger as the distance between the objects decreases.
Students should be able to: 248–249
• draw the electric field pattern for an isolated charged sphere
• explain the concept of an electric field
• explain how the concept of an electric field helps to explain the non-
contact force between charged objects as well as other electrostatic
phenomena such as sparking

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4.3 Particle model of matter

4.3.1 Changes of state and the particle model

4.3.1.1 Density of materials

The density of a material is defined by the equation:
density = mass
volume
𝑚
�𝜌 = � 74
𝑉
density, ρ, in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
volume, V, in metres cubed, m3
The particle model can be used to explain 17, 18, 20
• the different states of matter
• differences in density
Students should be able to recognise/draw simple diagrams to model the
difference between solids, liquids and gases 20

Students should be able to explain the differences in density between the

different states of matter in terms of the arrangement of atoms or molecules 17, 18, 20

4.3.1.2 Changes of state

Students should be able to describe how, when substances change state (melt,
freeze, boil, evaporate, condense or sublimate), mass is conserved
53, 55, 56
Changes of state are physical changes which differ from chemical changes
because the material recovers its original properties if the change is reversed

4.3.2 Internal energy and energy transfers

4.3.2.1 Internal energy

Energy is stored inside a system by the particles (atoms and molecules) that
make up the system. This is called internal energy
Internal energy is the total kinetic energy and potential energy of all the
particles (atoms and molecules) that make up a system 35, 37, 55
Heating changes the energy stored within the system by increasing the energy
of the particles that make up the system. This either raises the temperature of
the system or produces a change of state

4.3.2.2 Temperature changes in a system and specific heat capacity

If the temperature of the system increases, the increase in temperature
depends on the mass of the substance heated, the type of material and the
energy input to the system
The following equation applies:
37
change in thermal energy = mass x specific heat capacity x temperature change
[∆E = m c ∆θ]
change in thermal energy, ∆E, in joules, J

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mass, m, in kilograms, kg
specific heat capacity, c, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius, J/kg °C
temperature change, ∆θ, in degrees Celsius, °C
37
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy required to
raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance by one degree Celsius

4.3.2.3 Changes of heat and specific latent heat

If a change of state happens:
The energy needed for a substance to change state is called latent heat. When
a change of state occurs, the energy supplied changes the energy stored
(internal energy) but not the temperature
The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of energy required to
change the state of one kilogram of the substance with no change in
temperature
53–55
energy for a change of state = mass x specific latent heat
[E=mL]
energy, E, in joules, J
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
specific latent heat, L, in joules per kilogram, J/kg
specific latent heat of fusion – change of state from solid to liquid
specific latent heat of vaporisation – change of state from liquid to vapour

Students should be able to distinguish between specific heat capacity and

specific latent heat 37, 54–55

4.3.3 Particle model and pressure

4.3.3.1 Particle motion in gases

The molecules of a gas are in constant random motion. The temperature of the
gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules
Changing the temperature of a gas, held at constant volume, changes the
pressure exerted by the gas
18, 32, 34
Students should be able to:
• explain how the motion of the molecules in a gas is related to both its
temperature and its pressure
• explain qualitatively the relation between the temperature of a gas and
its pressure at constant volume
4.3.3.2 Pressure in a gas (Physics only)

A gas can be compressed or expanded by pressure changes. The pressure

produces a net force at right angles to the wall of the gas container (or any 29, 77, 83
surface)
Students should be able to use the particle model to explain how increasing the
volume in which a gas is contained, at constant temperature, can lead to a
decrease in pressure
For a fixed mass of gas held at a constant temperature:
29, 34
pressure x volume = constant
[ p V = constant ]

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pressure, p, in pascals, Pa
volume, V, in metres cubed, m3
Students should be able to calculate the change in the pressure of a gas or the
33
volume of a gas (a fixed mass held at constant temperature) when either the
pressure or volume is increased or decreased

4.3.3.3 Increasing the pressure of a gas (physics only) (HT only)

Work is the transfer of energy by a force
101
Doing work on a gas increases the internal energy of the gas and can cause an
increase in the temperature of the gas 33

Students should be able to explain how, in a given situation eg a bicycle pump,

doing work on an enclosed gas leads to an increase in the temperature of the 33, 34
gas

4.4 Atomic structure

4.4.1 Atoms and isotopes

4.4.1.1 The structure of an atom

Atoms are very small, having a radius of about 1 x 10-10 metres.
The basic structure of an atom is a positively charged nucleus composed of
both protons and neutrons surrounded by negatively charged electrons
The radius of a nucleus is less than 1/10 000 of the radius of an atom. Most of
the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus
342–343
The electrons are arranged at different distances from the nucleus (different
energy levels). The electron arrangements may change with the absorption of
electromagnetic radiation (move further from the nucleus; a higher energy
level) or by the emission of electromagnetic radiation (move closer to the
nucleus; a lower energy level)

4.4.1.2 Mass number, atomic number and isotopes

In an atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in the
nucleus. Atoms have no overall electrical charge.
All atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons. The
number of protons in an atom of an element is called its atomic number. 342–343
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called its mass number
Atoms can be represented as shown in this example:
Mass number 23 Na
Atomic number 11
250, 338, 350
Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons; these
atoms are called isotopes of that element
Atoms turn into positive ions if they lose one or more outer electron(s)
Students should be able to relate differences between isotopes to differences
343
in conventional representations of their identities, charges and masses

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 The development of the model of the atom (common content
4.4.1.3
with chemistry)
New experimental evidence may lead to a scientific model being changed or
replaced. Before the discovery of the electron, atoms were thought to be tiny
spheres that could not be divided. The discovery of the electron led to the plum
pudding model of the atom. The plum pudding model suggested that the atom
is a ball of positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it. The results
from the alpha particle scattering experiment led to the conclusion that the
mass of an atom was concentrated at the centre (nucleus) and that the nucleus
was charged. This nuclear model replaced the plum pudding model.
342–343, 376
Niels Bohr adapted the nuclear model by suggesting that electrons orbit the
nucleus at specific distances. The theoretical calculations of Bohr agreed with
experimental observations. Later experiments led to the idea that the positive
charge of any nucleus could be subdivided into a whole number of smaller
particles, each particle having the same amount of positive charge. The name
proton was given to these particles. The experimental work of James Chadwick
provided the evidence to show the existence of neutrons within the nucleus.
This was about 20 years after the nucleus became an accepted scientific idea.

Students should be able to describe:

Why the new evidence from the scattering experiment led to a change in the
atomic model
The difference between the plum pudding model of the atom and the nuclear 342
model of the atom
Details of experimental work supporting the Bohr model are not required
Details of Chadwick’s experimental work are not required

4.4.2 Atoms and nuclear radiation

4.4.2.1 Radioactive decay and nuclear radiation

Some atomic nuclei are unstable. The nucleus gives out radiation as it changes
to become more stable. This is a random process called radioactive decay
Activity is the rate at which a source of unstable nuclei decays. Activity is
measured in becquerel (Bq)
Count–rate is the number of decays recorded each second by a detector (eg
Geiger–Muller tube)
339, 344–345
The nuclear radiation emitted may be:
• an alpha particle (α) – this consists of two neutrons and two protons, it
is the same as a helium nucleus
• a beta particle (β) – a high speed electron ejected from the nucleus as a
neutron turns into a proton
• a gamma ray (γ) – electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus
• a neutron (n)

Required knowledge of the properties of alpha particles, beta particles and

gamma rays is limited to their penetration through materials, their range in air
and ionising power 340–341,
346–347, 354
Students should be able to apply their knowledge to the uses of radiation and
evaluate the best sources of radiation to use in a given situation

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4.4.2.2 Nuclear equations

Nuclear equations are used to represent radioactive decay. In a nuclear

equation an alpha particle may be represented by the symbol:
4 He and a beta particle by the symbol: 0 e
2 –1

The emission of the different types of nuclear radiation may cause a change in
the mass and /or the charge of the nucleus. For example:

So alpha decay causes both the mass and charge of the nucleus to decrease
346

So beta decay does not cause the mass of the nucleus to change but does
cause the charge of the nucleus to increase
Students are not required to recall these two examples
Students should be able to use the names and symbols of common nuclei and
particles to write balanced equations that show single alpha (α) and beta (β)
decay. This is limited to balancing the atomic numbers and mass numbers. The
identification of daughter elements from such decays is not required
The emission of a gamma ray does not cause the mass or the charge of the
nucleus to change
4.4.2.3 Half–lives and the random nature of radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is random
The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for the number of nuclei 344
of the isotope in a sample to halve, or the time it takes for the count rate (or
activity) from a sample containing the isotope to fall to half its initial level
Students should be able to explain the concept of half-life and how it is related
344
to the random nature of radioactive decay
Students should be able to determine the half-life of a radioactive isotope from 344, 353,
given information 355–357
(HT only) Students should be able to calculate the net decline, expressed as a
344, 353
ratio, in a radioactive emission after a given number of half-lives
4.4.2.4 Radioactive contamination
Radioactive contamination is the unwanted presence of materials containing
radioactive atoms on other materials. The hazard from contamination is due to
the decay of the contaminating atoms. The type of radiation emitted affects the
level of hazard 351
Irradiation is the process of exposing an object to nuclear radiation. The
irradiated object does not become radioactive
Students should be able to compare the hazards associated with
351
contamination and irradiation
Suitable precautions must be taken to protect against any hazard that the
338, 346, 351
radioactive source used in the process of irradiation may present
Students should understand that it is important for the findings of studies into
the effects of radiation on humans to be published and shared with other 349–350, 359
scientists so that the findings can be checked by peer review
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 Hazards and uses of radioactive emissions and of
4.4.3
background radiation (physics only)
4.4.3.1 Background radiation
Background radiation is around us all of the time. It comes from:
• natural sources such as rocks and cosmic rays from space
• man–made sources such as the fallout from nuclear weapons testing
and nuclear accidents 340, 351
The level of background radiation and radiation dose may be affected by
occupation and/or location
Radiation dose is measured in sieverts (Sv)
1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv) 351
Students will not need to recall the unit of radiation dose
4.4.3.2 Different half–lives of radioactive isotopes
Radioactive isotopes have a very wide range of half-life values. Students
should be able to explain why the hazards associated with radioactive material 344, 346–347, 351
differ according to the half-life involved
4.4.3.3 Uses of nuclear radiation
Nuclear radiations are used in medicine for the:
• exploration of internal organs
• control or destruction of unwanted tissue
Students should be able to: 214, 218, 346–347,
• describe and evaluate the uses of nuclear radiations for exploration of 354
internal organs, and for control or destruction of unwanted tissue
• evaluate the perceived risks of using nuclear radiations in relation to
given data and consequences
4.4.4 Nuclear fission and fusion (physics only)

4.4.4.1 Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large and unstable nucleus (eg uranium or
plutonium)
Spontaneous fission is rare. Usually, for fission to occur the unstable nucleus
must first absorb a neutron
The nucleus undergoing fission splits into two smaller nuclei, roughly equal in
size, and emits two or three neutrons plus gamma rays. Energy is released by
the fission reaction
348–349
All of the fission products have kinetic energy. The neutrons may go on to start
a chain reaction
The chain reaction is controlled in a nuclear reactor to control the energy
released. The explosion caused by a nuclear weapon is caused by an
uncontrolled chain reaction
Students should be able to draw/interpret diagrams representing nuclear
fission and how a chain reaction may occur
4.4.4.2 Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the joining of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. In this
160, 349
process some of the mass may be converted into the energy of radiation

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4.5 Forces

4.5.1 Forces and their interactions

4.5.1.1 Scalar and vector quantities

Scalar quantities have magnitude only
Vector quantities have magnitude and an associated direction
88
A vector quantity may be represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow
represents the magnitude, and the direction of the arrow the direction of the
vector quantity
4.5.1.2 Contact and non–contact forces
A force is a push or pull that acts on an object due to the interaction with
another object. All forces between objects are either:
• contact forces – the objects are physically touching
• non-contact forces – the objects are physically separated
Examples of contact forces include friction, air resistance, tension and normal 65, 85, 93, 135,
contact force 245, 286
Examples of non-contact forces are gravitational force, electrostatic force and
magnetic force
Force is a vector quantity
88, 90
Students should be able to describe the interaction between pairs of objects
which produce a force on each object. The forces to be represented as vectors
4.5.1.3 Gravity
Weight is the force acting on an object due to gravity. The force of gravity close
to the Earth is due to the gravitational field around the Earth
135
The weight of an object depends on the gravitational field strength at the point
where the object is
The weight of an object can be calculated using the equation:
weight = mass x gravitational field strength
[W = m g] 67, 135

weight, W, in newtons, N
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg
(in any calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be given)
The weight of an object may be considered to act at a single point referred to 96
as the object’s ‘centre of mass’

The weight of an object and the mass of an object are directly proportional
67
Weight is measured using a calibrated spring-balance (a newtonmeter)
394
Students should recognise and be able to use the symbol for proportionality, ∝

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4.5.1.4 Resultant forces
A number of forces acting on an object may be replaced by a single force that
has the same effect as all the original forces acting together. This single force
is called the resultant force
Students should be able to calculate the resultant of two forces that act in a
straight line 69, 88, 90
(HT only) Students should be able to:
• describe examples of the forces acting on an isolated object or system
• use free body diagrams to describe qualitatively examples where
several forces lead to a resultant force on an object, including balanced
forces when the resultant force is zero.
(HT only) A single force can be resolved into two components acting at right
angles to each other. The two component forces together have the same effect
as the single force 88–89
(HT only) Students should be able to use vector diagrams to illustrate
resolution of forces, equilibrium situations and determine the resultant of two
forces, to include both magnitude and direction (scale drawings only)
4.5.2 Work done and energy transfer
When a force causes an object to move through a distance work is done on the
object. So a force does work on an object when the force causes a 101
displacement of the object
The work done by a force on an object can be calculated using the equation:
work done = force x distance moved along the line of action of the force
[W = F s]
101
work done, W, in joules, J
force, F, in newtons, N
distance, s, in metres

One joule of work is done when a force of one newton causes a displacement
of one metre
1 joule = 1 newton-metre 101, 103–104
Students should be able to describe the energy transfer involved when work is
done
Students should be able to convert between newton–metres and joules
101
Work done against the frictional forces acting on an object causes a
85
rise in the temperature of the object

4.5.3 Forces and elasticity

Students should be able to:
• give examples of the forces involved in stretching, bending or
compressing an object
65, 66
• explain why, to change the shape of an object (by stretching, bending
or compressing), more than one force has to be applied – this is limited
to stationary objects only
• describe the difference between elastic deformation and inelastic
deformation caused by stretching forces

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 The extension of an elastic object, such as a spring, is directly proportional to
the force applied, provided that the limit of proportionality is not exceeded 66
force = spring constant x extension
[F=ke]
66
force, F, in newtons, N
spring constant, k, in newtons per metre, N/m
extension, e, in metres, m
This relationship also applies to the compression of an elastic object, where ‘e’ 73
would be the compression of the object
A force that stretches (or compresses) a spring does work and elastic potential
energy is stored in the spring. Provided the spring is not inelastically deformed,
67
the work done on the spring and the elastic potential energy stored are equal
Students should be able to:
• describe the difference between a linear and non–linear relationship
between force and extension
• calculate a spring constant in linear cases 66
• interpret data from an investigation of the relationship between force
and extension
• calculate work done in stretching (or compressing) a spring (up to the
limit of proportionality) using the equation:
2
elastic potential energy = 0.5 x spring constant x extension 67
1
� 𝐸𝑒 = 𝑘 𝑒2 �
2

Students should be able to calculate relevant values of stored energy and

67
energy transfers
4.5.4 Moments, levers and gears (physics only)
A force or a system of forces may cause an object to rotate
Students should be able to describe examples in which forces cause rotation
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of the force. The size of the
moment is defined by the equation:
moment of a force = force x distance
[M=Fd] 94–97
moment of a force, M, in newton-metres, Nm
force, F, in newtons, N
distance, d, is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of
the force, in metres, m
If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the
total anticlockwise moment about that pivot
Students should be able to calculate the size of a force, or its distance from a
pivot, acting on an object that is balanced
A simple lever and a simple gear system can both be used to transmit the 121–122
rotational effects of forces
Students should be able to explain how levers and gears transmit the rotational
effects of forces

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4.5.5 Pressure and pressure differences in fluids (physics only)

4.5.5.1 Pressure in a fluid

4.5.5.1.1 Pressure in a fluid 1

A fluid can be either a liquid or a gas
The pressure in fluids causes a force normal (at right angles) to any surface
The pressure at the surface of a fluid can be calculated using the equation:
pressure = force normal to a surface
area of that surface
77–79
𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴
pressure, p, in pascals, Pa
force, F, in newtons, N
area, A, in metres squared, m2
4.5.5.1.2 Pressure in a fluid 2 (HT only)
The pressure due to a column of liquid can be calculated using the equation:
Pressure = height of the column x density of the liquid x gravitational field strength
[p=h ρg]
pressure, p, in pascals, Pa
height of the column, h, in metres, m
78
density, ρ, in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3
gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg
(in any calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be given)
Students should be able to explain why, in a liquid, pressure at a point
increases with the height of the column of liquid above that point and with the
density of the liquid
Students should be able to calculate the differences in pressure at different
depths in a liquid 78
A partially (or totally) submerged object experiences a greater pressure on the
bottom surface than on the top surface. This creates a resultant force upwards.
This force is called the upthrust
79–81
Students should be able to describe the factors which influence floating and
sinking
4.5.5.2 Atmospheric pressure
The atmosphere is a thin layer (relative to the size of the Earth) of air round the
Earth. The atmosphere gets less dense with increasing altitude. Air molecules
colliding with a surface create atmospheric pressure. The number of air
molecules (and so the weight of air) above a surface decreases as the height
of the surface above ground level increases. So as height increases there is
always less air above a surface than there is at a lower height. So atmospheric 78, 83
pressure decreases with an increase in height.
Students should be able to:
• describe a simple model of the Earth’s atmosphere and of atmospheric
pressure
• explain why atmospheric pressure varies with height above a surface

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4.5.6 Forces and motion

4.5.6.1 Describing motion along a line

4.5.6.1.1 Distance and displacement

Distance is how far an object moves. Distance does not involve direction.
Distance is a scalar quantity
Displacement includes both the distance an object moves, measured in a
straight line from the start point to the finish point and the direction of that 88, 130
straight line. Displacement is a vector quantity
Students should be able to express a displacement in terms of both the
magnitude and direction

4.5.6.1.2 Speed
Speed does not involve direction. Speed is a scalar quantity
The speed of a moving object is rarely constant. When people walk, run or
travel in a car their speed is constantly changing
The speed at which a person can walk, run or cycle depends on many factors
including: age, terrain, fitness and distance travelled
Typical values may be taken as: 88, 126, 137
walking ~1.5 m/s running ~3 m/s cycling ~6 m/s
Students should be able to recall typical values of speed for a person walking,
running and cycling as well as the typical values of speed for different types of
transportation systems
It is not only moving objects that have varying speed. The speed of sound and
the speed of the wind also vary
231
A typical value for the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s

Students should be able to make measurements of distance and time and then
calculate speeds of objects
For an object moving at constant speed the distance travelled in a specific time
can be calculated using the equation:
126
distance travelled = speed × time = vt
distance, s, in metres, m
speed, v, in metres per second, m/s
time, t, in seconds, s

Students should be able to calculate average speed for non–uniform motion 126

4.5.6.1.3 Velocity
The velocity of an object is its speed in a given direction. Velocity is a vector
quantity
Students should be able to explain the vector-scalar distinction as it applies to 88, 126
displacement, distance, velocity and speed
(HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively, with examples, that 70–71
motion in a circle involves constant speed but changing velocity

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4.5.6.1.4 The distance–time relationship
If an object moves along a straight line, the distance travelled can be
represented by a distance-time graph
The speed of an object can be calculated from the gradient of its distance-time
graph
(HT only) If an object is accelerating, its speed at any particular time can be
determined by drawing a tangent and measuring the gradient of the distance- 130
time graph at that time
Students should be able to draw distance-time graphs from measurements and
extract and interpret lines and slopes of distance-time graphs, translating
information between graphical and numerical form
Students should be able to determine speed from a distance-time graph

4.5.6.1.5 Acceleration
The average acceleration of an object can be calculated using the equation:
acceleration = change in velocity
time taken
∆𝑣
�𝑎 = �
𝑡 126, 137
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
change in velocity, ∆v, in metres per second, m/s
time, t, in seconds, s
An object that slows down is decelerating. Students should be able to estimate
the magnitude of everyday accelerations

The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a velocity-

time graph
(HT only) The distance travelled by an object (or displacement of an object)
128–129, 93, 139
can be calculated from the area under a velocity-time graph
Students should be able to:
• draw velocity-time graphs from measurements and interpret lines and
slopes to determine acceleration
• (HT only) interpret enclosed areas in velocity-time graphs to determine
distance travelled (or displacement)
• (HT only) measure, when appropriate, the area under a velocity-time 395
graph by counting squares
The following equation applies to uniform acceleration:
(final velocity)2 – (initial velocity)2 = 2 x acceleration x distance
[ v2 – u2 = 2 a s ] 131
final velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s
initial velocity, u, in metres per second, m/s
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
distance, s, in metres, m
Near the Earth’s surface any object falling freely under gravity has an 135
acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2

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An object falling through a fluid initially accelerates due to the force of gravity.
Eventually the resultant force will be zero and the object will move at its
terminal velocity
(Physics only) Students should be able to: 90, 93
• draw and interpret velocity-time graphs for objects that reach terminal
velocity
• interpret the changing motion in terms of the forces acting

4.5.6.2 Forces, accelerations and Newton's Laws of motion

4.5.6.2.1 Newton's First Law

Newton’s First Law:
If the resultant force acting on an object is zero and:
• the object is stationary, the object remains stationary
• the object is moving, the object continues to move at the same speed
and in the same direction. So the object continues to move at the same 69, 90
velocity
So, when a vehicle travels at a steady speed the resistive forces balance the
driving force. So, the velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object will only
change if a resultant force is acting on the object
Students should be able to apply Newton’s First Law to explain the motion of
objects moving with a uniform velocity and objects where the speed and/or
direction changes
(HT only) The tendency of objects to continue in their state of rest or of uniform 68
motion is called inertia
4.5.6.2.2 Newton's Second Law
Newton’s Second Law:
The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on the
object, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object
As an equation: resultant force = mass x acceleration F =ma 134–135
force, F, in newtons, N
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
(HT only) Students should be able to explain that:
• inertial mass is a measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of
68
an object
• inertial mass is defined as the ratio of force over acceleration
Students should be able to estimate the speed, accelerations and forces
involved in large accelerations for everyday road transport 134, 137
Students should recognise and be able to use the symbol that indicates 394
an approximate value or approximate answer,~
4.5.6.2.3 Newton's Third Law
Newton’s Third Law:
Whenever two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal
and opposite 86–87
Students should be able to apply Newton’s Third Law to examples of
equilibrium situations

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4.5.6.3 Forces and braking

4.5.6.3.1 Stopping distance

The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of the distance the vehicle travels
during the driver’s reaction time (thinking distance) and the distance it travels
under the braking force (braking distance). For a given braking force the
greater the speed of the vehicle, the greater the stopping distance 92
(Physics only) Students should be able to estimate how the distance for a
vehicle to make an emergency stop varies over a range of speeds typical for
that vehicle
(Physics only) Students will be required to interpret graphs relating speed to
92
stopping distance for a range of vehicles
4.5.6.3.2 Reaction time
Reaction times vary from person to person. Typical values range from 0.2 s to
0.9 s
A driver’s reaction time can be affected by tiredness, drugs and alcohol.
Distractions may also affect a driver’s ability to react
Students should be able to:
136, 92
• explain methods used to measure human reaction times and recall
typical results
• interpret and evaluate measurements from simple methods to measure
the different reaction times of students
• evaluate the effect of various factors on thinking distance based on
given data
4.5.6.3.3 Factors affecting braking distance 1
The braking distance of a vehicle can be affected by adverse road and weather
conditions and poor condition of the vehicle
Adverse road conditions include wet or icy conditions. Poor condition of the
vehicle is limited to the vehicle's brakes or tyres
92
Students should be able to:
• explain the factors which affect the distance required for road transport
vehicles to come to rest in emergencies, and the implications for safety
• estimate how the distance required for road vehicles to stop in an
emergency varies over a range of typical speeds
4.5.6.3.4 Factors affecting braking distance 2
When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, work done by the friction
force between the brakes and the wheel reduces the kinetic energy of the
vehicle and the temperature of the brakes increases
The greater the speed of a vehicle the greater the braking force needed to 92
stop the vehicle in a certain distance
The greater the braking force the greater the deceleration of the vehicle. Large
142
decelerations may lead to brakes overheating and/or loss of control
Students should be able to:
• explain the dangers caused by large decelerations
• (HT only) estimate the forces involved in the deceleration of road 90, 137
vehicles in typical situations on a public road

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4.5.7 Momentum (HT only)

4.5.7.1 Momentum is a property of moving objects

Momentum is defined by the equation:
momentum = mass x velocity
p = mv 140
momentum, p, in kilograms metre per second, kg m/s
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s
4.5.7.2 Conservation of a momentum
In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total
momentum after the event
This is called conservation of momentum
141
Students should be able to use the concept of momentum as a model to:
• describe and explain examples of momentum in an event, such as a
collision 142
• (physics only) complete calculations involving an event, such as the
collision of two objects
4.5.7.3 Changes in momentum (physics only)
When a force acts on an object that is moving, or able to move, a change in
momentum occurs
𝑣−𝑢
The equations F = m × a and 𝑎=
𝑡
𝑚∆𝑣 140
combine to give the equation �𝐹 = �
∆𝑡

where m ∆v = change in momentum ie force equals the rate of change of

momentum

Students should be able to explain safety features such as: air bags, seat belts,
gymnasium crash mats, cycle helmets and cushioned surfaces for playgrounds 142
with reference to the concept of rate of change of momentum

Students should be able to apply equations relating force, mass, velocity and
acceleration to explain how the changes involved are inter-related 134, 140

4.6 Waves

4.6.1 Waves in air, fluids and solids

4.6.1.1 Transverse and longitudinal waves

Waves may be either transverse or longitudinal
The ripples on a water surface are an example of a transverse wave
Longitudinal waves show areas of compression and rarefaction. Sound waves
170, 229, 150
travelling through air are longitudinal
Students should be able to describe the difference between longitudinal and
transverse waves

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Students should be able to describe evidence that, for both ripples on a water
surface and sound waves in air, it is the wave and not the water or air itself that 170
travels
4.6.1.2 Properties of waves
Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their amplitude,
wavelength, frequency and period
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of a point on a wave
away from its undisturbed position
171
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the
equivalent point on the adjacent wave
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point each second
1
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
1
�𝑇 = �
𝑓
171
period, T, in seconds, s
frequency, f, in hertz, Hz
The wave speed is the speed at which the energy is transferred (or the wave
moves) through the medium

All waves obey the wave equation:

wave speed = frequency x wavelength
[v = f 𝜆]
wave speed, v, in metres per second, m/s
frequency, f, in hertz, Hz
171
wavelength, λ, in metres, m
Students should be able to:
• identify amplitude and wavelength from given diagrams
• describe a method to measure the speed of sound waves in air
• describe a method to measure the speed of ripples on a water surface

(Physics only) Students should be able to show how changes in velocity,

frequency and wavelength, in transmission of sound waves from one medium 171–172, 231
to another, are inter-related

4.6.1.3 Reflection of waves (physics only)

Waves can be reflected at the boundary between two different materials
Waves can be absorbed or transmitted at the boundary between two different 180–182, 188–189
materials
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the reflection of
a wave at a surface 172, 180–182,
Students should be able to describe the effects of reflection, transmission and 230, 233
absorption of waves at material interfaces

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4.6.1.4 Sound waves (physics only) (HT only)
Sound waves can travel through solids causing vibrations in the solid 231
Within the ear, sound waves cause the ear drum and other parts to vibrate
which causes the sensation of sound. The conversion of sound waves to
vibrations of solids works over a limited frequency range. This restricts the
limits of human hearing
229, 234
Students should be able to:
• describe, with examples, processes which convert wave disturbances
between sound waves and vibrations in solids. Examples may include
the effect of sound waves on the ear drum
• explain why such processes only work over a limited frequency range
and the relevance of this to human hearing
Students should know that the range of normal human hearing is from 20 Hz to
20 kHz
4.6.1.5 Waves for detection and exploration (physics only) (HT only)
Students should be able to explain in qualitative terms, how the differences in
velocity, absorption and reflection between different types of wave in solids and 214–217, 223,
liquids can be used both for detection and exploration of structures which are 232–233
hidden from direct observation
Ultrasound waves have a frequency higher than the upper limit of hearing for
humans. Ultrasound waves are partially reflected when they meet a boundary 232–233
between two different media. The time taken for the reflections to reach a
detector can be used to determine how far away such a boundary is. This
allows ultrasound waves to be used for both medical and industrial imaging
Seismic waves are produced by earthquakes. P–waves are longitudinal,
150–151
seismic waves. P-waves travel at different speeds through solids and liquids.
S-waves are transverse, seismic waves. S-waves cannot travel through a
liquid. P-waves and S-waves provide evidence for the structure and size of the
Earth’s core
Echo sounding, using high frequency sound waves is used to detect objects in 230
deep water and measure water depth
Students should be aware that the study of seismic waves provided new
evidence that led to discoveries about parts of the Earth which are not directly 150–151
observable
4.6.2 Electromagnetic waves

4.6.2.1 Types of electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that transfer energy from the
source of the waves to an absorber
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum and all types of
211–213
electromagnetic wave travel at the same velocity through a vacuum (space) or
air
The waves that form the electromagnetic spectrum are grouped in terms of
their wavelength and their frequency. Going from long to short wavelength (or
from low to high frequency) the groups are: radio, microwave, infrared, visible
light (red to violet), ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays

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 211–213

214
Our eyes only detect visible light and so detect a limited range of
electromagnetic waves
214–218
Students should be able to give examples that illustrate the transfer of energy
by electromagnetic waves

4.6.2.2 Properties of electromagnetic waves 1

(HT only) Different substances may absorb, transmit, refract or reflect
electromagnetic waves in ways that vary with wavelength 210–219, 223–225
(HT only) Some effects, for example refraction, are due to the difference in
velocity of the waves in different substances 189
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the refraction of 188–189
a wave at the boundary between two different media

(HT only) Students should be able to use wave front diagrams to explain
refraction in terms of the change of speed that happens when a wave travels 172
from one medium to a different medium

4.6.2.3 Properties of electromagnetic waves 2

(HT only) Radio waves can be produced by oscillations in electrical circuits
(HT only) When radio waves are absorbed they may create an alternating
current with the same frequency as the radio wave itself, so radio waves can 215, 221, 333
themselves induce oscillations in an electrical circuit
Changes in atoms and the nuclei of atoms can result in electromagnetic waves 343, 345
being generated or absorbed over a wide frequency range. Gamma rays
originate from changes in the nucleus of an atom

Ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous effects on
human body tissue. The effects depend on the type of radiation and the size of
the dose. Radiation dose (in sieverts) is a measure of the risk of harm resulting 218, 351
from an exposure of the body to the radiation

1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv)

Students will not be required to recall the unit of radiation dose
Students should be able to draw conclusions from given data about the risks
and consequences of exposure to radiation 351, 346,
Ultraviolet waves can cause skin to age prematurely and increase the risk of
skin cancer. X-rays and gamma rays are ionising radiation that can cause the
mutation of genes and cancer

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4.6.2.4 Uses and applications of electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic waves have many practical applications. For example:
• radio waves – television and radio
• microwaves – satellite communications, cooking food
212–223, 333,
• infrared – electrical heaters, cooking food, infrared cameras
346–347
• visible light – fibre optic communications
• ultraviolet – energy efficient lamps, sun tanning
• X-rays and gamma rays – medical imaging and treatments
(HT only) Students should be able to give brief explanations why each type of 212–223, 333,
electromagnetic wave is suitable for the practical application 346–347
4.6.2.5 Lenses (physics only)
A lens forms an image by refracting light. In a convex lens, parallel rays of light
are brought to a focus at the principal focus. The distance from the lens to the
principal focus is called the focal length. Ray diagrams are used to show the
formation of images by convex and concave lenses 198–201
The image produced by a convex lens can be either real or virtual. The image
produced by a concave lens is always virtual
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the similarities
and differences between convex and concave lenses
The magnification produced by a lens can be calculated using the equation:
magnification = image height 199
object height
Magnification is a ratio and so has no units
Image height and object height should both be measured in either mm or cm
In ray diagrams a convex lens will be represented by:
200–201
A concave lens will be represented by:
4.6.2.6 Visible light (physics only)
Each colour within the visible light spectrum has its own narrow band of
wavelength and frequency 207, 208, 210
Reflection from a smooth surface in a single direction is called specular
183
reflection. Reflection from a rough surface causes scattering: this is called
diffuse reflection
Colour filters work by absorbing certain wavelengths (and colour) and
transmitting other wavelengths (and colour)
The colour of an opaque object is determined by which wavelengths of light are 224–225
more strongly reflected. Wavelengths that are not reflected are absorbed. If all
wavelengths are reflected equally the object appears white. If all wavelengths
are absorbed the objects appears black
Objects that transmit light are either transparent or translucent
Students should be able to explain:
• how the colour of an object is related to the differential absorption, trans–
mission and reflection of different wavelengths of light by the object
• the effect of viewing objects through filters or the effect on light of
passing through filters
• why an opaque object has a particular colour

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4.6.3 Black body radiation (physics only)

4.6.3.1 Emission and absorption of infrared radiation

All bodies (objects), no matter what temperature, emit and absorb infrared
radiation. The hotter the body, the more infrared radiation it radiates in a given
time
48, 219
A perfect black body is an object that absorbs all of the radiation incident on it.
A black body does not reflect or transmit any radiation. Since a good absorber
is also a good emitter, a perfect black body would be the best possible emitter

4.6.3.2 Perfect black bodies and radiation

Students should be able to explain:
• that all bodies (objects) emit radiation
• that the intensity and wavelength distribution of any emission depends
on the temperature of the body
(HT only) A body at constant temperature is absorbing radiation at the same
rate as it is emitting radiation. The temperature of a body increases when the
48, 219
body absorbs radiation faster than it emits radiation
(HT only) The temperature of the Earth depends on many factors including: the 111
rates of absorption and emission of radiation, reflection of radiation into space
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how the temperature of a body is
related to the balance between incoming radiation absorbed and radiation
emitted, using everyday examples to illustrate this balance, and the example of
the factors which determine the temperature of the Earth

(HT only) Students should be able to use information, or draw/ interpret

diagrams to show how radiation affects the temperature of the Earth’s surface
111, 219
and atmosphere

4.7 Magnetism and electromagnetism

Permanent and induced magnetism, magnetic forces and
4.7.1
fields
4.7.1.1 Poles of a magnet
The poles of a magnet are the places where the magnetic forces are strongest.
When two magnets are brought close together they exert a force on each
other. Two like poles repel each other. Two unlike poles attract each other.
Attraction and repulsion between two magnetic poles are examples of non–
contact force
A permanent magnet produces its own magnetic field. An induced magnet is a
material that becomes a magnet when it is placed in a magnetic field. Induced 286, 289
magnetism always causes a force of attraction. When removed from the
magnetic field an induced magnet loses most/all of its magnetism quickly
Students should be able to describe:
• the attraction and repulsion between unlike and like poles for
permanent magnets
• the difference between permanent and induced magnets.

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4.7.1.2 Magnetic fields
The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a
magnetic material (iron, steel, cobalt and nickel) is called the magnetic field
The force between a magnet and a magnetic material is always one of
attraction
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the distance from the magnet.
The field is strongest at the poles of the magnet
The direction of the magnetic field at any point is given by the direction of the
force that would act on another north pole placed at that point. The direction of
a magnetic field line is from the north (seeking) pole of a magnet to the south
(seeking) pole of the magnet 286, 288
A magnetic compass contains a small bar magnet. The Earth has a magnetic
field. The compass needle points in the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field
Students should be able to:
• describe how to plot the magnetic field pattern of a magnet using a
compass
• draw the magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet showing how strength
and direction change from one point to another
• explain how the behaviour of a magnetic compass is related to
evidence that the core of the Earth must be magnetic
•

4.7.2 The motor effect

4.7.2.1 Electromagnetism
When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced
around the wire. The strength of the magnetic field depends on the current
through the wire and the distance from the wire
Shaping a wire to form a solenoid increases the strength of the magnetic field
created by a current through the wire. The magnetic field inside a solenoid is
strong and uniform
The magnetic field around a solenoid has a similar shape to that of a bar
magnet. Adding an iron core increases the strength of the magnetic field of a 292–293
solenoid. An electromagnet is a solenoid with an iron core
Students should be able to:
• describe how the magnetic effect of a current can be demonstrated
• draw the magnetic field pattern for a straight wire carrying a current and
for a solenoid (showing the direction of the field)
• explain how a solenoid arrangement can increase the magnetic effect
of the current

(Physics only) Students should be able to interpret diagrams of

electromagnetic devices in order to explain how they work 294–295

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4.7.2.2 Fleming's left–hand rule (HT only)
When a conductor carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field the magnet
producing the field and the conductor exert a force on each other. This is called
the motor effect
Students should be able to show that Fleming's left-hand rule represents the
296–297
relative orientation of the force, the current in the conductor and the magnetic
field
Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the size of the force on
the conductor
For a conductor at right angles to a magnetic field and carrying a current:
force = magnetic flux density x current x length
[F=BI1]
297
force, F, in newtons, N
magnetic flux density, B, in tesla, T
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
length, l, in metres, m

4.7.2.3 Electric motors (HT only)

A coil of wire carrying a current in a magnetic field tends to rotate. This is the
basis of an electric motor
298–299
Students should be able to explain how the force on a conductor in a magnetic
field causes the rotation of the coil in an electric motor
4.7.2.4 Loudspeakers (physics only) (HT only)
Loudspeakers and headphones use the motor effect to convert variations in
current in electrical circuits to the pressure variations in sound waves
295, 297
Students should be able to explain how a moving-coil loudspeaker and
headphones work
Induced potential, transformers and the National Grid
4.7.3
(physics only) (HT only)
4.7.3.1 Induced potential (HT only)
If an electrical conductor moves relative to a magnetic field or if there is a
change in the magnetic field around a conductor, a potential difference is
induced across the ends of the conductor. If the conductor is part of a complete
circuit, a current is induced in the conductor. This is called the generator effect
An induced current generates a magnetic field that opposes the original
change, either the movement of the conductor or the change in magnetic field
Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the size of the induced 302–303, 313
potential difference/induced current
Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the direction of the
induced potential difference/induced current
Students should be able to apply the principles of the generator effect in a
given context

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4.7.3.2 Uses of the generator effect (HT only)
The generator effect is used in an alternator to generate ac and in a dynamo to
generate dc
Students should be able to:
• explain how the generator effect is used in an alternator to generate ac 304–306
and in a dynamo to generate dc
• draw/interpret graphs of potential difference generated in the coil
against time
4.7.3.3 Microphones (HT only)
Microphones use the generator effect to convert the pressure variations in
sound waves into variations in current in electrical circuits
307
Students should be able to explain how a moving–coil microphone works

4.7.3.4 Transformers (HT only)

A basic transformer consists of a primary coil and a secondary coil wound on
an iron core
Iron is used as it is easily magnetized
Knowledge of laminations and eddy currents in the core is not required. 307–309
The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and secondary coils of
a transformer Vp and Vs depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each
coil, np and ns
𝑣𝑝 𝑛𝑝
[𝑣 = 𝑛𝑠
]
𝑠

potential difference, Vp and Vs in volts, V

In a step–up transformer Vs > V 308–309
In a step–down transformer Vs < Vp
If transformers were 100% efficient, the electrical power output would equal the
electrical power input
Vs x Is = Vp x Ip
Where Vs x Is is the power output (secondary coil) and Vp x Ip is the power
input (primary coil)
power input and output, in watts, W 308
Students should be able to:
• explain how the effect of an alternating current in one coil in inducing a
current in another is used in transformers
• explain how the ratio of the potential differences across the two coils
depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each
• calculate the current drawn from the input supply to provide a particular
power output
307–309, 311
• apply the equation linking the p.d.s and number of turns in the two coils
of a transformer to the currents and the power transfer involved, and
relate these to the advantages of power transmission at high potential
differences

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4.8 Space physics (physics only)
Solar system; stability of orbital motions; satellites
4.8.1
(physics only)
4.8.1.1 Our solar system
Within our solar system there is one star, the Sun, plus the eight planets and
the dwarf planets that orbit around the Sun. Natural satellites, the moons that
orbit planets, are also part of the solar system
Our solar system is a small part of the Milky Way galaxy
The Sun was formed from a cloud of dust and gas (nebula) pulled together by
gravitational attraction 153–156, 161
Students should be able to explain:
• how, at the start of a star's life cycle, the dust and gas drawn together
by gravity causes fusion reactions
• that fusion reactions lead to an equilibrium between the gravitational
collapse of a star and the expansion of a star due to fusion energy
4.8.1.2 The life cycle of a star
A star goes through a life cycle. The life cycle is determined by the size of the
star
Students should be able to describe the life cycle of a star:
• the size of the Sun
• much more massive than the Sun

160–161

Fusion processes in stars produce all of the naturally occurring elements.

Elements heavier than iron are produced in a supernova
The explosion of a massive star (supernova) distributes the elements
throughout the universe
Students should be able to explain how fusion processes lead to the formation
of new elements
4.8.1.3 Orbital motion, natural and artificial satellites
Gravity provides the force that allows planets and satellites (both natural and
artificial) to maintain their circular orbits
157–159
Students should be able to describe the similarities and distinctions between
the planets, their moons, and artificial satellites
(HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively how:

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 • (HT only) for circular orbits, the force of gravity can lead to changing
velocity but unchanged speed 157–159
• (HT only) for a stable orbit, the radius must change if the speed
changes
4.8.2 Red-shift (physics only)
There is an observed increase in the wavelength of light from most distant
galaxies. The further away the galaxies, the faster they are moving and the
bigger the observed increase in wavelength. This effect is called red–shift 162–163
The observed red-shift provides evidence that space itself (the universe) is
expanding and supports the Big Bang theory
The Big Bang theory suggests that the universe began from a very small region
that was extremely hot and dense
Since 1998 onwards, observations of supernovae suggest that distant galaxies
are receding ever faster
Students should be able to explain:
• qualitatively the red-shift of light from galaxies that are receding
162–163, 377
• that the change of each galaxy’s speed with distance is evidence of an
expanding universe
• how red–shift provides evidence for the Big Bang model
• how scientists are able to use observations to arrive at theories such as
the Big Bang theory
• that there is still much about the universe that is not understood, for
example dark mass and dark energy
4.9 Key ideas
The complex and diverse phenomena of the natural and man-made world can
be described in terms of a small number of key ideas in physics
These key ideas are of universal application, and we have embedded them
throughout the subject content. They underpin many aspects of the science
assessment and will therefore be assessed across all papers
Key ideas in physics include:
• the use of models, as in the particle model of matter or the wave
models of light and of sound
• the concept of cause and effect in explaining such links as those Throughout the
between force and acceleration, or between changes in atomic nuclei book, including
and radioactive emissions pages 375–381
• the phenomena of ‘action at a distance’ and the related concept of the
field as the key to analysing electrical, magnetic and gravitational
effects
• that differences, for example between pressures or temperatures or
electrical potentials, are the drivers of change
• that proportionality, for example between weight and mass of an object
or between force and extension in a spring, is an important aspect of
many models in science
• that physical laws and models are expressed in mathematical form

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Working scientifically Page numbers

WS1 Development of scientific thinking

WS1.1 Understand how scientific methods and theories develop over time
Give examples to show how scientific methods and theories have changed
over time
Explain, with an example, why new data from experiments or observations 6, 374–383
led to changes in models or theories
Decide whether or not given data supports a particular theory

WS1.2 Use a variety of models such as representational, spatial, descriptive,

computational and mathematical to solve problems, make predictions and to
develop scientific explanations and understanding of familiar and unfamiliar
facts
Recognise/draw/interpret diagrams
Translate from data to a representation with a model 374–383
Use models in explanations, or match features of a model to the data from
experiments or observations that the model describes or explains
Make predictions or calculate quantities based on the model or show its
limitations. Give examples of ways in which a model can be tested by
observation or experiment

WS1.3 Appreciate the power and limitations of science and consider any ethical
issues which may arise
Explain why data is needed to answer scientific questions, and why it may
be uncertain, incomplete or not available 6, 358, 111

Outline a simple ethical argument about the rights and wrongs of a new
technology

WS1.4 Explain everyday and technological applications of science; evaluate

associated personal, social, economic and environmental implications; and Physics at Work
make decisions based on the evaluation of evidence and arguments pages,
Describe and explain specified examples of the technological applications of
science. Describe and evaluate, with the help of data, methods that can be 111, 220
used to tackle problems caused by human impacts on the environment

WS1.5 Evaluate risks both in practical science and the wider societal context,
including perception of risk in relation to data and consequences
Give examples to show that there are hazards associated with science-
based technologies which have to be considered alongside the benefits 111, 220–221
Suggest reasons why the perception of risk is often very different from the
measured risk (eg voluntary vs imposed risks, familiar vs unfamiliar risks,
visible vs invisible hazards)

WS1.6 Recognise the importance of peer review of results and of communicating

results to a range of audiences
Explain that the process of peer review helps to detect false claims and to
establish a consensus about which claims should be regarded as valid 374

Explain that reports of scientific developments in the popular media are not
subject to peer review and may be oversimplified, inaccurate or biased

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WS2 Experimental skills and strategies

WS2.1 Use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses

373
Suggest a hypothesis to explain given observations or data

WS2.2 Plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, produce or

characterise a substance, test hypotheses, check data or explore
phenomena
Describe a practical procedure for a specified purpose.
Explain why a given practical procedure is well designed for its specified
purpose
Explain the need to manipulate and control variables.
362, 373
Identify in a given context:
• the independent variable as the one that is changed or selected by
the investigator
• the dependent variable that is measured for each change in the
independent variable
• control variables and be able to explain why they are kept the same
Apply understanding of apparatus and techniques to suggest a procedure for
a specified purpose

WS2.3 Describe a practical procedure for a specified purpose.

Explain why a given practical procedure is well designed for its specified
purpose
Explain the need to manipulate and control variables.
Identify in a given context:
• the independent variable as the one that is changed or selected by
362, 373
the investigator
• the dependent variable that is measured for each change in the
independent variable
• control variables and be able to explain why they are kept the same
Apply understanding of apparatus and techniques to suggest a procedure for
a specified purpose
WS2.4 Carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct
manipulation of apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and
safety considerations
373
Identify the main hazards in specified practical contexts
Suggest methods of reducing the risk of harm in practical contexts

WS2.5 Recognise when to apply a knowledge of sampling techniques to ensure any

samples collected are representative (43, 356, 369)
Suggest and describe an appropriate sampling technique in a given context

WS2.6 Make and record observations and measurements using a range of

apparatus and methods
360–363
Read measurements off a scale in a practical context and record
appropriately

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WS2.7 Evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements and further
investigations
Assess whether sufficient, precise measurements have been taken in an 364
experiment
Evaluate methods with a view to determining whether or not they are valid

WS3 Analysis and evaluation

WS3.1 Presenting observations and other data using appropriate methods

Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and 363–364, 373
histograms
Plot two variables from experimental or other data

WS3.2 Translating data from one form to another 7, 107–108, 222,

265, 329, 363,
Translate data between graphical and numeric form
393
WS3.3 Carrying out and represent mathematical and statistical analysis
For example:
• use an appropriate number of significant figures
• find the arithmetic mean and range of a set of data
• construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts
and histograms
• make order of magnitude calculations
• change the subject of an equation 111, 117, 344,
• substitute numerical values into algebraic equations using 394
appropriate units for physical quantities
• determine the slope and intercept of a linear graph
• draw and use the slope of a tangent to a curve as a measure of rate
of change
• understand the physical significance of area between a curve and
the x–axis and measure it by counting squares as appropriate

WS3.4 Representing distributions of results and make estimations of uncertainty

Apply the idea that whenever a measurement is made, there is always some
uncertainty about the result obtained 360
Use the range of a set of measurements about the mean as a measure of
uncertainty

WS3.5 Interpreting observations and other data (presented in verbal, diagrammatic,

graphical, symbolic or numerical form), including identifying patterns and
trends, making inferences and drawing conclusions 66, 106–107,
Use data to make predictions 109, 110–111,
151, 265, 342,
Recognise or describe patterns and trends in data presented in a variety of 351, 364
tabular, graphical and other forms
Draw conclusions from given observations

WS3.6 Presenting reasoned explanations including relating data to hypotheses

18, 265, 289,
Comment on the extent to which data is consistent with a given hypothesis 303, 340, 344,
Identify which of two or more hypotheses provides a better explanation of 369, 373, 375,
data in a given context 377, 378

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WS3.7 Being objective, evaluating data in terms of accuracy, precision, repeatability
and reproducibility and identifying potential sources of random and
systematic error
Apply the following ideas to evaluate data to suggest improvements to
procedures and techniques.
• An accurate measurement is one that is close to the true value
• Measurements are precise if they cluster closely.
• Measurements are repeatable when repetition, under the same
conditions by the same investigator, gives similar results 7, 359–361
• Measurements are reproducible if similar results are obtained by
different investigators with different equipment
• Measurements are affected by random error due to results varying in
unpredictable ways; these errors can be reduced by making more
measurements and reporting a mean value
• Systematic error is due to measurement results differing from the
true value by a consistent amount each time
• Any anomalous values should be examined to try to identify the
cause and, if a product of a poor measurement, ignored

WS3.8 Communicating the scientific rationale for investigations, methods used,

findings and reasoned conclusions through paper–based and electronic
reports and presentations using verbal, diagrammatic, graphical, numerical
and symbolic forms 106, 110–111,
116, 353,
Present coherent and logically structured responses, using the ideas in 2
363–364
Experimental skills and strategies and 3 Analysis and evaluation, applied to
the required practicals, and other practical investigations given appropriate
information

Scientific vocabulary, quantities, units, symbols and nomenclature

WS4 (the knowledge and skills in this section apply across the specification,
including the required practicals)
WS4.1 Use scientific vocabulary, terminology and definitions In every chapter

WS4.2 Recognise the importance of scientific quantities and understand how they 8, 9, 97, 130
are determined
WS4.3 Use SI units (eg kg, g, mg; km, m, mm; kJ, J) and IUPAC chemical 9
nomenclature unless inappropriate
WS4.4 Use prefixes and powers of ten for orders of magnitude (eg tera, giga, mega, 9
kilo, centi, milli, micro and nano)
WS4.5 Interconvert units 9

WS4.6 Use an appropriate number of significant figures in calculation 394

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Required practical activities
Your teacher or exam board may provide you with detailed instructions for the required practicals,
page numbers
and the pages below may help you with prior research.

8.2.1 An investigation to determine the specific heat capacity of one or

more materials. The investigation will involve linking the decrease
of one energy store (or work done) to the increase in temperature (36–37)
and subsequent increase in thermal energy stored
8.2.2 Investigate the effectiveness of different materials as thermal
insulators and the factors that may affect the thermal insulation (40–43, 51)
properties of a material
8.2.3 Use circuit diagrams to set up and check appropriate circuits to
investigate the factors affecting the resistance of electrical circuits.
This should include: (256–257,
• the length of a wire at constant temperature 260–263)
• combinations of resistors in series and parallel

8.2.4 Use circuit diagrams to construct appropriate circuits to

investigate the I–V characteristics of a variety of circuit elements
including a filament lamp, a diode and a resistor at constant (261, 265, 322)
temperature
8.2.5 Use appropriate apparatus to make and record the measurements
needed to determine the densities of regular and irregular solid
objects and liquids. Volume should be determined from the
dimensions of a regularly shaped object and by a displacement (75)
technique for irregularly shaped objects. Dimensions to be
measured using appropriate apparatus such as a ruler,
micrometer or Vernier callipers
8.2.6 Investigate the relationship between force and extension for a
spring (66)

8.2.7 Investigate the effect of varying the force on the acceleration of an

object of constant mass and the effect of varying the mass of an (134)
object on the acceleration produced by a constant force
8.2.8 Make observations to identify the suitability of apparatus to
measure the frequency, wavelength and speed of waves in a (171–172, 180,
ripple tank and waves in a solid and take appropriate 188–189, 210, 234)
measurements
8.2.9 Investigate the reflection of light by different types of surface and (180–182,
the refraction of light by different substances 188–191)
8.2.10 Investigate how the amount of infrared radiation absorbed or
radiated by a surface depends on the nature of that surface (46–47, 219)

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Mathematical skills Page numbers

M1 Arithmetic and numerical computation

a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form 394
b Recognise and use expressions in standard form 394
106, 124, 199, 344,
c Use ratios, fractions and percentages
353, 393
d Make estimates of the results of simple calculations 137, 169
M2 Handling data
a Use an appropriate number of significant figures 394
b Find arithmetic means 360, 394
Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and
c 106, 109, 110, 363
histograms
f Understand the terms mean, mode and median 394
g Use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables 169
h Make order of magnitude calculations 155, 164
M3 Algebra

a Understand and use the symbols: =, <, <<, >>, >, ∝, ~ 394

b Change the subject of an equation 392

Substitute numerical values into algebraic equations using appropriate 131, 262, 272, 297,
c
units for physical quantities 309, 393
131, 262, 272, 297,
d Solve simple algebraic equations
309, 393
M4 Graphs
72, 283, 129, 149
a Translate information between graphical and numeric form
337, 353, 355, 363
b Understand that y = mx + c represents a linear relationship 393
72, 283, 337, 353,
c Plot two variables from experimental or other data
355, 363
d Determine the slope and intercept of a linear graph 129, 363
Draw and use the slope of a tangent to a curve as a measure of rate of
e 395
change
Understand the physical significance of area between a curve and the
f 129, 395
x–axis and measure it by counting squares as appropriate
M5 Geometry and trigonometry
a Use angular measures in degrees 180, 184, 189, 194
Visualise and represent 2D and 3D forms including two dimensional 71, 82, 152, 296–
b
representations of 3D objects 298, 301, 304, 306
Calculate areas of triangles and rectangles, surface areas and volumes
c 393
of cubes

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Equations to recall and apply page numbers
Equation Word Symbol
number equation equation
1 weight = mass x gravitational field strength (g) W=mg 67, 135

2 work done = force x distance along the line of 101

W=Fs
action of the force
3 force applied to a spring 66
F=ke
= spring constant x extension
4 moment of a force 94
M=Fd
= force x distance normal to direction of force
5 pressure = force normal to a surface 𝐹
p =𝐴 77
area of that surface
6 distance travelled = speed x time s=vt 126

7 acceleration = change in velocity ∆𝑣

126
a= 𝑡
time taken
8 resultant force = mass x acceleration F=ma 134

9 HT momentum = mass x velocity p=mv 140

10 1
kinetic energy = 0.5 x mass x speed2 Ek = 𝑚 𝑣 2 113
2

11 gravitational potential energy 112

Ep = m g h
= mass x gravitational field strength (g) x height
12 power = energy transferred 𝐸
114, 272
P= 𝑡
time
13 power = work done 𝑊
P= 114, 272
time 𝑡

14 efficiency = useful output energy transfer 106, 120

total input energy transfer
15 efficiency = useful power output 106, 120
total power input
16 wave speed = frequency x wavelength v=fλ 171

17 charge flow = current x time Q=It 266

18 potential difference = current x resistance V=IR 259

19 power = potential difference x current P=VI 272

20 power = current2 x resistance P = I2 R 272

21 energy transferred = power x time E=Pt 114, 272

22 energy transferred 267

E=QV
= charge flow x potential difference
23 density = mass 𝑚
𝜌= 74
volume 𝑉

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Equations to be able to select and apply page numbers

Equation Word Symbol

number equation equation

1 HT pressure due to a column of liquid

= height of column x density of liquid x p=hρg 78
gravitational field strength (g)
2 (final velocity)2 – (initial velocity)2
v 2 – u2 = 2 a s 131
= 2 x acceleration x distance
3 HT force = change in momentum 𝑚∆𝑣
𝐹= 140
time taken ∆𝑡
4 elastic potential energy 1
Ee = 2 k e2 67
= 0.5 x spring constant x extension2
5 change in thermal energy = mass x specific heat
∆E=mc∆θ 37
capacity x temperature change
6 1
period = 171
frequency

7 magnification = image height 199

object height
8 HT force on a conductor at right angles to a magnetic
F=BIl
field carrying a current 297
= magnetic flux density x current x length
9 thermal energy for a change of state E=mL 54, 55
= mass x specific latent heat
10 HT 𝑉𝑝 𝑛𝑝
potential difference across primary coil = number of turns in primary coil
= 308
potential difference across secondary coil number of turns in secondary coil
𝑉𝑠 𝑛𝑠
11 HT potential difference across primary coil x current
in primary coil = potential difference across Vs Is = Vp Ip 308
secondary coil x current in secondary coil
12 For gases: pressure x volume = constant pV = constant 29, 33

The fully–detailed GCSE syllabus specification can be found by clicking on:

http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA–8463–SP–2016–V1–0.PDF

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