Emergence of Anthropology

UNIT 2 DIFFUSIONISM*

Contents
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Essential Features of Diffusion
2.2 Schools of Diffusionism
2.2.1 British School of Diffusion
2.2.2 German-Austrian School of Diffusion
2.2.3 American School of Diffusion
2.3 Summary
2.4 References
2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 explain how cultural traits spread from one region to another;
 outline the essential features of diffusion;
 distinguish between diffusion and acculturation; and
 critically examine British, German and American schools of diffusion.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Many of you would be aware of what happens when a drop of ink is placed on
the surface of water in a cup or when a tea bag is immersed in a cup of water. We
notice that as the drop of ink or tea bag comes in contact with water in the cup,
colour spread from a region of its high concentration to the region of low
concentration (i.e., from the drop of ink/tea bag towards the margins of the cup
filled with water). Just as colour in our example, objects and ideas belonging to
one culture spread over to other cultures. In our day-to-day lives we use objects
that belong to people living far away from us. In fact, we tend to adopt and use a
few of them so routinely that we tend to forget that they have come from elsewhere.
You could think of noodles (which originally belongs to China but prepared in
different ways and consumed in different parts of India). Two other examples of
interest and relevance are: paper (first invented in China from where it spread to
the West via the silk route and to other parts of the world); and fax machine (first
developed in Germany and now used worldwide). The transmission of objects,
customs, beliefs, ideas, and values from one culture to another or more cultures
is referred to as diffusion.

Two questions arise, (i.) How does diffusion actually take place? (ii.) Is diffusion
the only way through which cultural traits travels from one culture to another?
Diffusionism assumes that there has been direct transmission of cultural elements
from one stable population to another or through migration of people from one
culture to another. The transmission is one way i.e., let us say from population A
to population B or from population B to population A, or to population C and so

*Contributor: Professor Nita Mathur, Discipline of Sociology, School of Social Sciences,

26 IGNOU.
on. Diffusion, however, is not the only process through which transmission of Diffusionism
cultural traits takes place. The other process that comes close to diffusion is that
of acculturation. According to Redfield, Linton and Herskovits (1936:149-50),
‘Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of
individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact,
with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups’.
While diffusion refers to the spread of cultural traits from one culture to another
and is in this sense it is a one-way transaction, acculturation refers to exchange
of cultural traits between cultures through direct contact in a way that both cultures
undergo change. The situation of contact between two cultures could arise due
to immigration of groups of people, conquest of one population by another or
any other means. What is important to note is that diffusion does not call for
exchange of cultural elements while exchange of cultural elements is an essential
feature of acculturation.

Expectedly, diffusion does not lead to change in both the cultures. In acculturation,
however, both cultures adopt elements from each other and in this way exhibit
change. Herskovits (1955:742) distinguishes between diffusion and acculturation
in following words, ‘diffusion is study of achieved cultural transmission while
acculturation is the study of cultural transmission in process’. This means, that
diffusion assumes that contact between culture did take place some time in the
course of which elements got transferred from one culture to the other.
Acculturation, on the other hand, obtains from contact between cultures that can
be demonstrated.

Silk Route: It is also known as silk road and refers to a series of routes
through which both trade and transmission of culture took place between
Asia and the West chiefly through soldiers, monks, pilgrims and traders.

2.1 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF DIFFUSION

According to Linton (1936), diffusion takes place through three processes: a.)
presentation of new cultural elements or traits; b.) acceptance of these cultural
traits by society; and c.) integration of accepted cultural traits into the accepting
culture. The following are important features of diffusion.
i) Diffusion of any cultural trait depends upon contact between the populations.
The likelihood of diffusion between populations in close physical proximity
of each other is greater than that between populations located far away
from each other.
ii) The traits spread irregularly and at different speeds from their centres of
origin. The nature and extent of diffusion of a cultural trait depends on the
ease with which it can be transferred. Ease of transfer depends on the level
of complexity and the ease with which it can be comprehended. Compare
two cultural traits: an alphabet and a complex theory. You will agree that
the alphabet will diffuse faster than a complex theory, because the former is
easier to communicate and understand than the latter.
iii) The acceptance of a cultural trait by the receiving group depends on its
utility for and compatibility with traits of the culture in which it is getting
diffused. Those cultural traits that are of no use or are in conflict with the
beliefs and values prevalent in the receiving culture are likely to be rejected.
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Emergence of Anthropology Linton (1936) explains this with an example of the Apache’s reaction to
peyote. The Apache rejected the offer of peyote by certain tribes. The reason
was that the Apache believed that consumption of peyote would generate
visions and those people who had vision would be bestowed with enviable
power. This power could be stolen by other medicine men. The Apache did
not promote the regular pattern of peyote consumption in a group for the
fear of the power that accrues from it getting stolen by others. Another
example is that of diffusion of refrigerator or say television set. Diffusion
of such items (here referring to those that raise the consumption of electricity)
depends on the availability of electricity connection at people’s houses, and
among others, per capita income of the family (that determines their
affordability).
iv) Changes or innovations in a cultural trait that has undergone diffusion lags
behind the original cultural trait. Consider the example of plough that
developed in region A and has reached regions B, C and D through the
process of diffusion. Now, people in region A improve certain features of
the plough. The new features will not spread as fast as the original version
of the plough did. The advanced plough will take a long time to reach and
replace the older one at all the places.
v) Diffusion of single cultural trait does take place, however, those cultural
traits that are functionally related get diffused together. Diffusions of tea,
for example, gets linked with various methods of brewing it. Surely, in the
course of diffusion, new methods of brewing tea developed in places of its
spread and these got diffused too.
vi) Extent of distribution of a cultural trait is not deterministic of its age. It is
not correct to assume that a trait which is more widely distributed is older
in its origin, that the one which is scarcely distributed because certain traits
or set of traits tend to get diffused faster than other. This is determined by
the nature of trait.

Apache: The term Apache is used to collectively refer to the American Indians
in the United States.
Peyote: It is a small cactus known for its psychoactive properties when
consumed

Check Your Progress 1

1) Explain the concept of diffusion.
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2) What is the difference between diffusion and acculturation?
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3) What are the processes through which diffusion takes place? Diffusionism

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2.2 SCHOOLS OF DIFFUSIONISM

The fundamental premise of diffusion is often contrasted with that of the
evolutionary theory. While the evolutionary theory assumes that human beings
are creative and that innovations will be developed independently in different
societies (which is why all societies are expected to develop innovations
characterising the evolutionary stage they are in), diffusion assumes that human
beings are, largely, conservative and uninventive and they tend to borrow cultural
traits that have originated at one or more but specific places(s). Diffusionism
challenged the basic proposition that all societies pass through the same stages
of evolution. Instead, diffusionists argued that there is/are distinct centre(s). It is
from this/these centre(s) of culture(s) that cultural traits spread to different regions
through the process of diffusion. While agreeing on the basic postulate of spread
of cultural traits from specific center(s), diffusionists differed on other counts.
The following are three prominent schools of diffusionists.

2.2.1 British School of Diffusion

The founder of the British School of diffusion was Graffon Elliot Smith. Both
Smith and his disciple William James Perry insisted that cultures originated in
Egypt. They argued that it was from Egypt that cultures spread to different parts
of the world. You might want to know why Smith identified Egypt as the centre
of all cultures. Smith was a well-known anatomist and surgeon who went to
Egypt to study the anatomy of mummies. He was so impressed with the Egyptians’
procedure of mummification, their pyramids and large monuments of stone that
he postulated (i) the stone monuments in Egypt were the forerunners of megalithic
structures much like the Stonehenge in England; and (ii) Egypt was the only
place on earth where ancient culture originated and spread to other parts of the
world.

According to him, sun worship and stone monuments were of critical value in
Egyptian culture. Other traits were: irrigation and agriculture, mummification,
pyramids and other megalithic structures, ear piercing and circumcision practices.
He began looking for these in other cultures as well.

Smith maintained that the soil along the banks of the river Nile that flows in
Egypt was very fertile. Here, wild barley grew in abundance which was later
cultivated by Egyptians. In order to cultivate barley, Egyptians developed
hydraulic system of irrigation. The rich harvest of barley had to be stored. So,
Egyptians invented pottery and constructed granaries. Later, granaries developed
into dwellings. When people did not have to worry about food and house, they
had leisure. They used this leisure to develop different skills such as those of
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Emergence of Anthropology basketry, matting and weaving. Additionally, they invented the wheel and plough,
domesticated cattle, and developed metallurgy. Thereafter, they set up towns,
and cities. Large monuments for law and governance came up. River Nile
continued to be the most important resource for the people. The king could predict
the course that the river would take and since the river was very important for
them, the people came to believe that their king was an embodiment of sun and
that he was immortal. This made them to preserve his body as a mummy after he
died.

As one would expect, (i) religion based on sun-worship developed; and (ii) rituals,
dance, drama and music developed to protect the body of the king from getting
corrupted in any way. These were the beginnings of religion. According to Smith,
around 4000 BC Egyptians travelled to different parts of the world in search of
precious metals and raw materials. This enabled them to master the skill of
navigation. In the course of travel to different places, they passed on the traits of
culture to people in distant lands. The position of Graffon Elliot Smith and Perry
postulating that Egypt was the cradle of all cultures is referred to as an extreme
diffusionism. Perry was far too impressed with sun temples at Cairo. He asserted
that the process of diffusion of art and craft from Egypt to different cultures was
inevitably accompanied with their degradation. But Smith and Perry were not
the only two diffusionists within the British school of diffusion.

There were other diffusionists as well who did not assert the importance of Egypt
but maintained that similarities and differences among cultures could be explained
in terms of contact with other cultural groups not just with those in Egypt. This
approach is referred to as moderate diffusionism. The chief proponent of moderate
diffusionism was, among others, W H R Rivers. Rivers studied people from
different parts of the world. He studied the Torres Strait Islanders, Todas (tribal
community in the Nilgiri hills of South India) and the Melanesians and
Polynesians. Rivers explained that similarities and differences, particularly among
islands comprising Melanesia were due to the process of diffusion which took
place through a series of migrations between them. Rivers suggested that cultural
complexes spread by way of successive migration. He stated that migration leads
to spread of cultural traits as also loss of some of them. When he did not find
canoes on some islands, for example, Rivers explained that in the past canoes
would have been used by the people but disappeared later due to dying out of the
island’s canoe making guild. He studied the Oceanian culture as well in terms of
cultural complexes. Interestingly, he accorded the presence of five different burial
rituals in Australia to a series of migrations.

According to Rivers, small groups of men equipped with superior technology

migrated to Australia, settled down there and married the local women. The
following were the consequences: (i) since the migrants were few in number,
their racial strain could not find expression in physical features of the native
population which implies that the children lost the racial features of their
forefathers; and (ii) the original language of the migrants was lost because they
had to adopt the local dialects for communication with the natives. The migrant
men, in effect, lost their own way of life. They, however, retained their own
burial rites due to strong emotional attachment with them. What remains
unexplained is/are the reason(s) for local people abandoning their own burial
practices and adopting the rituals of the migrants.

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The British school of diffusion suffered from several weakness. The following Diffusionism
are a few of them: (i.) its basic assumption that other than those in Egypt, people
are largely uninventive has been challenged vehemently; (ii.) both extreme
diffusionists and moderate diffusionists assumed that culture complexes spread.
The difference between them was that the former argued that Egypt was the only
centre point while latter argued that there were other center points as well. It is
difficult to accept this proposition because certain cultural traits could have been
independently invented by the people; (iii) it does not account for the possibility
of multiple diffusions; and (iv) it does not give cognizance to the meaning and
significance attached with a cultural trait.

2.2.2 German-Austrian School of Diffusion

The German-Austrian School of diffusion was founded by Fredrick Ratzel. Some
of the other proponents were Leo Frobenius, Fritz Graebner and Father Withelm
Schmidt. German-Austrian diffusionists differed from British diffusionists chiefly
on following counts: unlike the latter, they maintained that (i) there were not one
but many centers of culture; (ii) culture complexes diffused in totality rather
than in bits-and-pieces as through singular traits. Interestingly, they assumed
that similarity between cultures was due to contact between them some time in
history. Even cultures situated far apart from each other were assumed to have
come in contact sometime if similarity existed between them. Thus, similarity
between cultures was accounted for by diffusion. They identified two kinds of
similarities. The first was based on functional reasons for example sharpness of
spears. Now, spears would have sharp points everywhere because if it were not
so, they would be useless. The other kinds of similarity were based on historical
contact, for example presence of matrilineal descent in two cultures.

Ratzel proposed ‘criterion of form’ which could be stated as: ‘similarity between
two culture elements which do not automatically arise out of the nature, material,
or purpose of the traits or objects should be interpreted as resulting from diffusion,
regardless of the distance which separates the two instances’ (Harris 1968:384).
In fact, Ratzel examined similarities in bow-shaft, mechanism of fastening of
bow strings, material they are made from and the way on which features are
attached to the arrows in Africa and in Australia. He maintained that since these
features had nothing to do with how the bow and arrow would function, it was
safe to conclude that the similarities were due to historical contact leading to
diffusion between Africa and Australia. In other words, he explained that the
similarity is not due to functional reasons (i.e., not because the design was the
one that was best suited for hunting). Rather, the similarity was due to (i) historical
connection between them; and (ii) similarity in psychological makeup of people
in the two regions. Ratzel’s ‘criterion of form’ was called ‘criterion of quality’
by Schmidt.

Ratzel maintained that while cultural traits diffuse singularly, culture complexes
spread through migration. He insisted that regions and routes of migration and
diffusion across the world should be mapped. He added that cultural traits, could
get simplified or complicated when they get diffused.

Just as Ratzel proposed ‘criterion of form’, one of his pupils named Leo Frobenius
proposed ‘criterion of quantity’. Frobenius saw that certain cultural traits diffuse
together. We can conclude that diffusion has taken between two culture when
many similar traits are found together. The ‘criterion of quantity’ establishes that 31
Emergence of Anthropology diffusion has taken place between two or more cultures when we see many similar
traits in them. Let us refer to the example of the bow and arrow in West Africa
and Australia once again. The similarity in bow and arrow in the two cultures
was accompanied with similarity in house types, shields masks, clothing and
drums. With increase in number of similar traits between cultures, the possibility
that diffusion has taken place between them increases.

German-Australian diffusionists came up with the theory of kulturkreis (‘culture

circle’ or ‘culture center’) to explain how diffusion actually takes place. It
accepted that all cultures originated in specific cultural centers. From here they
spread through larger circles in a way that additional cultural areas were
encompassed. The original cultural centers were believed to be identified by
discrete characteristics referred to as ‘cultural complex’. Diffusionists were to
trace the spread of cultural traits from their specific centers of origin. The initiative
of Ratzel and Frobenius, the notion of kulturkreis was carried forward by Graebner
and Schmidt. Graebner was a museologist who was mainly interested in
similarities in material culture first across Oceania and later in different parts of
the world. What he did was to bring together Ratzel’s ‘criterion of form’ and
Frobenius’s ‘criterion of quantity’ and proposed that both form and quantity were
critical in assessing the likelihood that any two cultures were historically related.
He maintained that Asia was the region that was occupied by human beings in
earliest time. It was here that they invented language, tools and other elements of
culture. Later, they organised themselves into bands and moved independently
to different parts of the world (first through land routes and later through the
seas). In course of travel and settling down in different parts of the world, they
developed their own cultures. There were now different kreise (i.e., distinct culture
of each band). According to Graebner, all dimensions of a culture did not develop
at the same pace. This explained why a culture that was characterized by simple
kinship system could exhibit complex technology.

Schmidt compared kulturkreis or ‘culture circle’ with a living organism. Just as

a living organism is made up of different parts that are interrelated with each
other, kulturkreis comprises of economy, material culture, social life, customs
and religion all of which are related with each other. A culture circle is complete
in itself, however, if one of its needs was not met internally, it borrows a substitute
to meet this need from another culture. A culture circle ceases to exist when the
number of substitutes grows to be fairly large. Evidently, a culture complex
tends to diffuse in totality and as a whole. It adopts elements to meet specific
needs of cultures it comes into contact with.

Following were major criticism against German-Australian diffusionists: (i) undue

emphasis on trait complex. This ruled out the possibility that some traits could
originate and spread independently; (ii) the maze of traits is complex, not easy to
sort out and understand; (iii) the proposition that all cultures of the world are
derived from a few basic cultures is too far-fetched and difficult to accept; and
(iv) the association of certain elements with each culture seems to be arbitrary
and subjective.

Check Your Progress 2

4) What is the difference between ‘criterion of form’ and ‘criterion of quantity’?
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5) What do you understand by kulturkreis?
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2.2.3 American School of Diffusion

The foundation of American school of diffusion was laid by Franz Boas who
was born and educated in Germany. Expectedly, his ideas were influenced by the
German school of diffusion. According to Boas, each cultural group had its own
history comprising its own development and influences of others on it. Boas
believed that culture developed independently. Hence, there are many cultures
and each culture is a consequence of its own geography, climate, environment,
resources and borrowings. The task before anthropologists was to record and
document the history, compare groups of cultural traits in specific geographical
areas and then plot the distribution of these cultural traits. Plots of different sets
of cultural traits in a geographical area are indicative of cultural borrowings and
enable reconstruction of histories of specific cultures. Understandably, Boas
regards culture as an assemblage of traits and since trait has a complex past, he
projected that cultures have their own unique histories.

American diffusionists believed that people tend to learn and borrow elements
of cultures they come in contact with. The likelihood of learning and borrowing
increases when the duration and frequency of contact increases. They proposed
the concept of ‘culture area’ which referred to geographical space in which similar
cultures were found. The basic proposition was that mapping of distribution of
cultural traits in culture areas would provide an explanation of similarities and
differences between cultures, particularly Native American Cultures.

According to Clark Wissler, subsistence was an important means of identifying

culture areas. The reason was simple: subsistence was the basis of existence
itself and influences other aspects of culture. On the basis of following subsistence:
Caribou; Bison; Salmon; Wild Seed; Eastern Maize; Intensive agriculture;
Manioc; and Guanaco he identified eight culture areas-Eskimo, Mackenzie (and
north part of Eastern Woodland); Plains; North Pacific Coast; Plateau; California;
South east, Eastern Woodland (except north non-agricultural portion); South west,
Nahua-Mexico, Chibcha, Inca Peru; Amazon, Antilles; and Guanaco respectively.
Each culture area had a culture centre which governed its social, economic,
political, and religious activities. Wissler also proposed the age-area hypothesis
by which he meant that a trait which is more widely distributed around a culture
centre is older than the one that is less widely distributed. Edward Sapir, however,
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Emergence of Anthropology cautioned that (i) the spread of cultural traits may be faster in one direction than
in another (ii) the oldest cultural trait could undergo large-scale transformation
at the centre (i.e., at its place of origin) to the extent that the real point of origin
could be mistaken; and (iii) migration within the area of distribution of a cultural
trait may lead to erroneous conclusion regarding culture distribution.

Alfred Louis Kroeber suggested that culture area should be looked at in the broad
framework of its cultural contact. He identified six culture areas of native America
based on geographical and ecological considerations and several other factors.
These culture areas were: Arctic zone, North-West Coast, South-West Coast,
Intermediate and Inter-mountain Area, East and North Area, and Mexico-Central
American Area. In fact, he argued in favour of using the term ‘culture climax’
instead of culture area. He defines culture climax as, ‘the point from which the
greatest radiation of cultural material has taken place’ (1952:39). The level of
organization of cultures increases as they become richer and more differentiated
in the sense of developing religious hierarchies, detailed norms and customs etc.
As cultures become richer, they are able to assimilate and incorporate new material
or traits that could be borrowed or developed internally.

The American school of diffusion has been criticized for its culture area concept:
(i) It is argued that cultural trait which constitutes the very core of culture area
concept is itself not a clearly understood one. Critics have expressed concern
over what constitutes cultural trait. Consider the example of a ship. Should ship
be considered as a simple unit or as a combination of traits such as nature and
design of the seating space, decorations in it etc. (ii) Equal importance was
assigned to each cultural trait. The number of oars in a ship, the number of wives
a man had or the number of husbands a woman had, for example, hold equal
value so far as diagnosis or determination whether diffusion had taken place was
concerned. What comes out of the example is the fact that only the trait as such
was taken into account while the function it performed in a culture was ignored.
(iii) In order to determine culture areas, large number of criteria were identified.
Based on these criteria several culture areas were noted. There was, however no
agreement among the diffusionists about the culture areas. (iv) Symbiotic
interaction between culture areas was largely ignored. (v) Geographical conditions
harbouring different cultures in different periods of time were not taken into
account. (vi) Free diffusion within culture areas is assumed ignoring forces of
resistance and difficulties of acceptance of cultural traits in different culture areas.

Another set of criticism of American school of diffusion relates with the age-
area hypothesis: (i) it is not appropriate to correlate age of a trait with its
distribution. This is meaningless because traits do not spread continuously; and
(ii) it ignores the fact that spread of a trait depends on its receptivity in the other
culture.

Cultural Trait: It is the basic unit of a culture. Diffusionists regard cultural

trait as a unit of cultural transmission. There are both empirical units (i.e.,
things that can be touched and held e.g., a jar) and ideational units (i.e.,
descriptions, ideas, beliefs etc. that characterize a thing or they may be
theoretical or analytical in nature).

Cultural Complex: It is a combination of different cultural traits.

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Check Your Progress 3 Diffusionism

6) What is the age-area hypothesis? Outline it demerits.

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7) What are the major tenets of the American school of diffusion?
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2.3 SUMMARY
In this unit we obtained an explanation of how and why similarities among cultures
are found. We familiarised ourselves with three schools of diffusionism. None of
them however, could explain how and why certain traits originate and how do
we account for similarities in culture which have not come into contact with
each other? Notwithstanding its limitation, diffusionist school captured the
attention of anthropologists for a long time. The question it answered and those
that it generated provided a feeder for new paradigms and theories in anthropology.

2.4 REFERENCES
Harris, M. (1968). The Rise of Anthropological Theory. London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul.

Herskovits, M. J. (1955). Cultural Anthropology. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH

Publishing Company.

Kroeber, A. L. (1952). The Nature of Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press.

Linton, R. (1936). The Study of Man: An Introduction. New York: Appleton-

Century-Crofts.

Mathur, N. (nd). ‘Diffusion of Culture: British, German-Austrian, and American

Schools’ http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/156/1/
PDF%207.3Diffusion.pdf

Redfield, R., R. Linton and M. J. Herskovits. (1936). Memorandum on the Study

of Acculturation. American Anthropologist xxxviii: 149-152.

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Emergence of Anthropology
2.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1

1) Diffusion refers to the transmission of cultural traits.

2) For detailed explanation of the concept of diffusion and for difference
between diffusion and acculturation refer to section 2.1
3) According to Linton, diffusion takes place through the following practices:
presentation of new cultural elements or traits; acceptance of these cultural
traits by society; and integration of accepted cultural traits into the accepting
culture.
4) ‘Criterion of form’ establishes that similarity between two culture elements
that are not due to the nature, material, or purpose of the traits or objects
should be interpreted as resulting from diffusion. This is irrespective of the
distance which separates them. The ‘criterion of quantity’, on the other
hand establishes that diffusion can be said to have taken place between two
or more cultures when many similar traits are found in them.
5) For the concept of kulturkreis refer to section 2.2.2.
6) Age-area hypothesis was proposed by Wissler to ascertain the relative age
of a culture trait. The age-area hypothesis suggests that a trait which is
more widely distributed can be considered to be older than the one which is
of limited distribution. The main demerits of the age-area hypothesis are
first, since traits do not spread continuously it is not appropriate to correlate
age of a trait with its distribution; second, it does not account for the fact
that spread of a trait depends of its receptivity in the other culture.
7) For major tenets of the American school of diffusion refer to section 4.3.3

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