INTRODUCTION

Research is a key to progress. There can be no progress without research in almost if

not all human endeavor. In government, in education, in trade and commerce, and in all
types and kinds of industries, research is vital and essential. Therefore, the methods
and techniques must be taught and learned in graduate as well as in undergraduate
educational work. This is imperative because the people who have gone through the
college and graduate levels of education are the ones who are most expected to
undertake research activities.

Objective of Research

At the end of this module the students will be able to

1. Discover new facts about Research

2. Enumerate the characteristics of a Good Research
3. Differentiate Research and Problem-solving
4. Classify kinds of Research

Definition of Research

There are almost as many definition of research as there are many authors writing
about the subject.

Good defines research as a “careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique

and method according to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed
toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem.”

According to Manuel and Medel, research is a process of gathering data or information

to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific manner.

Treece and Treece commented that “research in its broadest sense is an attempt to
gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the collection of data in a rigorously
controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation.

Formulated in a more comprehensive form, research may be defined as a purposive,

systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, organizing,
presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for
invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing
knowledge, all for the prevention and improvement of the quality of human life.
Characteristics of Good Research

Crawford, from his definition, has given some characteristics of research as follows:

1. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources. It is not
research when one merely restates or merely reorganizes what is already known or
what has been written. Research places emphasis upon the discovery of general
principles. It goes beyond the specific groups and situation investigated, and, by careful
sampling procedures, infers qualities of the entire population from those observed in the
smaller group.

2. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation. The researcher knows

what is already known about his problem. He proceeds from this point, carefully
planning his procedures. Data are gathered recorded, and analyzed with as much as
accuracy as possible. He uses such valid data-gathering instruments as he can find or
devise, and employs mechanical means to improve on the accuracy of human
observation, recording, and computation of data.

3. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to verify the data
collected and the procedures employed. The researcher constantly strives to eliminate
personal feeling and preference. He resists the temptation to seek only the data that
support his hypothesis. There is no attempt to persuade or to prove. The emphasis is on
testing, rather than on proving the hypothesis. The researcher elevates clear thinking
and logic. He suppresses feeling and emotion in his analysis.

4. Research endeavors to organize to organize data in quantitative term, if possible, and

express them as numerical measures. Research is patient and unhurried. The
researcher is willing to exert painstaking effort, suspending judgment to permit the data
and logic to lead to a sound conclusion. He realizes that significant findings do not come
as a result of hurried and careless procedures. Researches require courage. The
researcher is willing to follow his procedures to conclusions that may be unpopular and
bring social disapproval.

5. Research is carefully recorded and report. Every term is carefully defined, all
procedures are described in detail, all limiting factors are recognized, all references are
carefully documented, and all results are objectively recorded. All conclusions and
generalizations are cautiously arrived at, with due consideration for all of the limitations
of methodology, data collected, and errors of human interpretation.
Differences between Research and Problem-Solving

The researcher must be able to distinguish between research and problem-solving. His
supposed research problem may only be good for problem-solving. The differences
between the two are summarized as follows:

Research Problem-Solving relationship or phenomena by explaining

how and why certain events occurred or
1. There may not be a problem, only could have occurred. In this process
interest in answering a question or a research also generates more problems
query. to explore
2. A research problem is more rigorous 1. There is always a problem to be
and broader in scope. solved.
3. The research problem is not 2. A problem to be solved is less
necessarily defined specifically. rigorous and less broad.
4. All research is intended to solve some 3. The problem to be solved has to
kind of problem, but this is not the be defined specifically and identified
primary aim. definitely.
5. Research is conducted not primarily 4. Problem-solving does not always
to solve a problem but to make a involve research.
contribution to general knowledge.
5. Problem-solving is always
6. Research is concerned with broad intended to solve a problem.
problems, recurrent phenomena, and
wide application through generalization. 6. Problem-solving is concerned
It is concerned with defining and with a specific problem and once a
outlining the properties of phenomena problem is solved that is the end of it.
with forecasting future occurrences so
that they may be predicted and
controlled, and with describing the

Kinds and Classification of Research

There are many kinds of research which are classified according to their distinctive
features. Some of the classifications are as follows:

1. According to purpose. Trow identifies three broadly different kinds of research,

namely, predictive, directive, and illuminative. (Treece and Treece,Jr.,p.5)
 a. Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the future
operation of the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting
such for the better. “Predictive research proposes to give the result from one specific
educational practice or pattern and seeks to establish a close statistical connection
between characteristics of students and a prediction of educational outcome”.

b. Directive research determines what should be done based on the findings.

This is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition if there is any.

c. Illuminative research is concerned with the interaction of the components of

the variable being investigated, as for example, “interaction of the components of
educational systems and aims to show the connection among, for example, student
characteristics, organizational patterns and policies, and educational consequences.

2. According to goal. According to goal, research may be classified as a basic or pure

research and applied research.

a. Basis or pure research is done for the development of theories or principles. It

is conducted for the intellectual pleasure of learning. Much of this kind of research has
been done in psychology and sociology.

b. Applied research is the application of the result of pure research. This is

testing the efficacy of theories and principles. For instance, a principle says that praise
reinforces learning. To determine if this is true, one conducts an experiment in which
there are two classes. In one class, he uses praise but in the other class there is no
praise at all. All other things are kept equal. At the end of the experimental period, he
gives the same test to the two classes. If the scores of the pupils in the class with praise
are significantly higher than those in the class without praise, then the principle is true.

3. According to the level of investigation. French categorizes research according to the

level of investigation into exploratory research, descriptive research, and experimental
research.

a. In exploratory research, the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a

specific situation.

b. In descriptive research, the researcher studies the relationship of the

variables.

c. In experimental research, the experimenter studies the effect of the variables

on each other.

4. According to the type of analysis. According to the type of analysis, Weiss classifies
research into analytic research and holistic research.
 a. In the analytic approach, the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the
components of the research situation.

b. The holistic approach begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the
system first and then on its internal relationship.

5. According to scope. Under this category is action research. This type of research is
done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big. It is
almost problem-solving.

6. According to choice of answer to problems. Ackoff divides research that is concerned

with finding answers to problems into evaluation and developmental research.

a. In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and

identified and the researcher tries to find the most advantageous.

b. In developmental research, the focus is on finding or developing a more

suitable instrument or process than has been available.

7. According to statistical content. Under this type may be mentioned quantitative

research and non-qualitative research.

a. Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential statistics are

utilized to determine the results of the study. Inferential statistics such as correlation,
chi-square, analysis of variance, etc. are used to test hypothesis. This type of research
usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect relationships, etc.

b. Non-quantitative research. This is research in which the use of quantity or

statistic is practically nil. This is especially true in anthropological studies where
description is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data.

8. According to time element. According to time element, best classifies research as

historical, descriptive, and experimental.

a. Historical research describes what was.

b. Descriptive research describes what is.

c. Experimental research describes what will be.

Some Hindrances to Scientific Inquiry (Errors in Personal Judgment)

Babbie gives the following as some of the hindrances to scientific inquiry. They are
mostly errors in personal judgment.

1. Tradition. This is accepting the customs, beliefs, practices, and superstitions are true
and are parts of the daily lives of men. No effort is exerted to find out whether they are
true or not. For example, there is a traditional belief among some women that women
who are conceiving should avoid eating dark or black food such as black berries
because their children will become dark also. This may be true or not, but many women
believe and practice it without verifying its true. People have the idea that when
everybody does a thing, it is true. This belief is a hindrance to scientific investigation.

2. Authority. This is accepting without questions, an opinion about a certain subject

which is given by someone who is considered an authority on the subject. If an ordinary
person says that kissing transmits colds, he is not believed much, he may be even
laugh at. On the other hand, when a doctor says the same thing, he is believed without
question. Suppose, a doctor commits a mistake and it is a fact that some doctors
commit mistakes sometimes. Worse, sometimes persons with big names in the
community make pronouncements about things outside their own expertise and they
are believed because of their big names. They are believed without any scientific inquiry
about the truth of their pronouncements. For instance, a well-known athlete is made to
announce that to drink a certain brand of liquor is good because it makes the body
strong. Big stars in the movie are often made to sponsor the sale of certain products,
especially beauty enhancing things or articles, and they are believed without the
slightest semblance of any scientific investigation.

3. Inaccurate observation. This is describing wrongly what is actually observed. For

instance, in the dead of a moonlit night, a man sees a shadow in the form of a person
and the man concludes at once without any investigation that he has seen a ghost.
When a meteor streaks the atmosphere, people who see it say they have seen a flying
saucer. When one sees a man lying unconscious in the street after he is hit by a
speeding car, he concludes at once that the person is already dead even if he is not. He
does not investigate anymore.

4. Overgeneralization. This is establishing a pattern out of a few instances. For,

instance, when one sees one or two Ilocano husband who are hardworking, responsible
and trustworthy then he concludes that Ilocano husband are hardworking, responsible
and trustworthy. When one happens to travel in a rough road in a certain province he
forms the impressions that the roads in the province are rough. He does not take the
pains anymore to see if the other roads in the province are also rough.
5. Selective observation. This is persisting to believe an observed pattern from an
overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent patterns. For example, one sees for the
first time or two prosperous. Chinese store beside a poor, struggling Filipino store. He
forms the conclusion that the Chinese are shrewder and more competitive the Filipinos.
So whenever he sees Chinese and Filipino store he always has that idea that Chinese
are better businessmen than Filipinos ignoring the fact that there are also poor Chinese
businessmen and there are also very good and more competitive Filipinos
businessmen.

6. Made-up information. This is making up information to explain away confusion.

Suppose a buyer buys from a store, goods worth P20.00 and gives to the storekeeper a
P100.00 bill. The storekeeper mistakenly gives a change of P70.00. The buyer goes
away without counting the change but when he gets home he finds that the change is
short of P10.00. Instead of going back to the store to find out why he has a wrong
change, he concludes that the storekeeper is a cheater and the members of his family
are also cheaters. Then he buys again from the store but accidentally leaves his wallet
when he is paying for the goods. A son of the storekeeper goes to the buyer’s house
returning the wallet. Instead of thinking that after all the storekeeper is an honest fellow
and perhaps also his family members, he imagines that maybe the boy went to his
house purposely not to return the wallet but to see his house for a possible burglary.

Another example of made-up information is wrongly interpreting the findings of a

research material.

7. Illogical reasoning. This is attributing something to another without any logical basis.
For instance, because of the extended good weather it may rain at the weekend. Or,
because it is sunny it will not rain that day. Or, when a woman is believed to be a
sorcerer. These are beliefs without any logical basis and no effort is exerted to verify
them.

8. Ego-involvement in understanding. This is giving an explanation when one finds

himself in an unfavorable situation. For instance, when foreigners make a slur on
Filipinos, the latter counter that, that is racial discrimination without investigating
whether the slight is true or not. When a student gets a low grade, he says that he got a
low grade because his teacher has a personal grudge against him and he is a victim of
vindictiveness. He does not make any effort to examine his abilities and his habits of
study, and etc.

9. Mystification. This is attributing to supernatural power, the phenomena that cannot be

understood. This is accepting that there are things which are beyond human intelligence
to understand and which are reserved only to a supernatural being. Thus, no effort is
exerted to make a scientific inquiry about these phenomena.
10. To err is human. This is an attitude that admits the rgfhy4fallibility of man. When a
man renders a wrong decision or commits a, mistake, he merely leans on the saying
“To err is human”. He does not make any effort anymore to study why he committed the
error, how he can correct his error and how to make more sound decisions in the future.

11. Dogmatism. This is an addition. This is an unwritten policy of certain institutions and
governments prohibiting the study of topics that are believed to run counter to the
established doctrines of such institutions or governments. Thus in communistic states, it
is unlikely that one studies and writes about the beauty of democracy. There is a veiled
prohibition to study and write about the beauty and adoption of communism. It may be a
remote possibility that a research student in Christian church-related school can make a
study about the non-existence of God. It is unlikely also that one advocates the adoption
of polygamy in a Christian community because his study findings say that polygamy is
good.
References:

Aquino, Guadencio V., Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Quezon City:
Alemars-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1974

Good, Carter V. Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Meredith Publishing

Company, Inc.,1963.

Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates. Methods of Research: Educational,

Psychological, Sociological. Manila: Appleton-Century-Croft, Inc., 1972. (Reprinted by
National Book Store).

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1973. (Reprinted by Phoenix Press,
Inc.)

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Second Edition. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1977. (Reprinted by
Phoenix Press, Inc.)

Sanchez, Custodiosa A. Methods and Techniques of Research, Manila:Rex Book Store

Inc., 1980.
LESSON 2

According to Khan Academy the scientific method is used in all sciences—including

chemistry, physics, geology, and psychology. The scientists in these fields ask different
questions and perform different tests. However, they use the same core approach to
find answers that are logical and supported by evidence.

Learning Course Outcome

At the end of this module the students will be able to:

1. Enumerate the steps in Scientific Method;

2. Define what is Research Problem; and
3. Explain and Understand the Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem
or Topic.

The Scientific Method of Research

One of the characteristics of good research is that, it is systematic. It follows the

scientific method of research which includes the following sequential steps: (Treece and
Treece,Jr.,p.47)

1. Determining (recognizing) the problem;

2. Forming a hypothesis;

3. Doing the library search;

4. Designing the study;

5. Developing the instruments for collecting data;

6. Collecting the data;

7. Analyzing the data;

8. Determining implications and conclusion from the findings; and

9. Making recommendations for further research.

It should be borne in mind that the research goes through all the nine steps when the
researcher does and writes his research report. If the standard format of thesis writing is
followed, the first two steps will be included in Chapter 1, “The Problem and Its Setting”,
the third step will be in Chapter 2, “Related Literature and Studies”, the fourth, fifth, and
sixth steps will be discussed in Chapter 3,” Methods of Research and Procedures”, the
seventh step will be presented in Chapter 4, “Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation
of Data”, and the last two steps will be placed in Chapter 5, Summary, Conclusions, and
Recommendations”.

Principles of the Scientific Research Method

1. Rigid control

2. Objectivity,

3. Systematic organization, and

4. Rigorous standards.

Rigid control refers to the manipulation of the research variables. Variables are those
things that vary in quantity and quality which are to be manipulated by the researcher.
Examples of variables are age, sex, population, adequacy, efficiency, etc. There are
variables which should be controlled rigidly, that is kept constant or equal in a certain
research work.

Objectivity means that there should be no bias or partiality in treating the results of the
inquiry. The results should not be tampered with, whatever they may be.

Systematic organization refers to proper and accurate tabulation of data as well as

presenting them in statistical tables ready for interpretation.

The fourth principle refers to the setting up of standards or principles which serves as
bases for evaluating the findings of a study. Such standard should not be changed to
suit the expectations of the researcher. The principle also refers to the accurate
statistical computation and interpretation of quantified data.

The Research Problem

Definition

A problem is (1) any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real or artificial,
the solution of which requires reflective hinking; (2) a perplexing situation after it has
been translated into a question or series of questions that help determine the direction
of subsequently inquiry. The foregoing definitions are according to Dewy.
Elements of a Research Problem

A research problem is a statement that implies that an investigation, inquiry or study is

to be conducted, or that the problem is ready for investigation, inquiry or study. There
are certain elements that a problem must possess before it becomes a research
problem ready for investigation. These elements are:

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. This answers the question
“Why?” Why is there an investigation, inquiry or study?

2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the question “What?”
What is to be investigated or studied?

3. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted. This answers the
question “Where?” Where is the study to be conducted?

4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This
answers the question “When?” When is the study to be carried out?

5. Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected. This answers the
question “Who?” or “From Whom?” Who are the respondents? From whom are the data
to be gathered?

Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem or Topic

There are certain guidelines or criteria in the selection of a research problem to make it
more interesting and the research work more enjoyable to the researcher as well as to
ensure the completion of the study. Among the guidelines or criteria are the following
which may also be considered as characteristics of research problems:

1. The research problem or topic must be chosen by the researcher himself. This is
to avoid blaming others or offering excuses for any obstacle encountered.

2. It must be within the interest of the researcher. This is to make sure that the
researcher will focus his full attention on the research work.

3. It must be within the specialization of the research. This will in some way make
the work easier for him because he is working on familiar grounds. Besides, this may
improve his specialization, skill, and competence in his profession.

4. It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle. The researcher

must know the method of research and other research procedures applicable to his
problem and he must know how to apply them. He must have a workable understanding
of his study.

5. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance; otherwise he must be

able to find funding for his research. Research involves not a small amount of expense
and the researcher must be able to foot the bills until his study is completed. There must
be a budget which he must be able to shoulder.

6. It is researchable and manageable, that is,

a. Data are available and accessible. The researcher must be sure that the
participants in his investigation possess the needed data and that they are within is
reach. So, one must not choose a problem in which the locations of the data are too far
away, say foreign lands.

b. The data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity, and

verifiability. This is important. The data gathered must be accurate, objective and not
biased, and can be verified if there arises a need, otherwise, the results of the study will
not be valid and the generalization formulated will be faulty.

c. Answers to the specific questions (sub problems) can be found. The data
to be collected must supply the necessary answers to the specific questions. Suppose
the question is “How qualified are the teachers handling science?” The data to be
gathered are the educational attainments and the fields of specialization of the teacher
to be checked against the regulations of the school system. This way, the answer to the
question can be found.

d. The hypotheses formulated are testable, that is, they can be accepted or
rejected. Hypotheses are not proved, they are only determined as true or not. If the
findings conform to the hypotheses, the latter are accepted as true and valid.

e. Equipment and instruments for research are available and can give valid
reliable results.

7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time unless it is a longitudinal

research which takes a long time for its completion. Although research is unhurried,
there must be a timetable for its completion. For graduate students engaged in social
and educational research, a research project for a master’s thesis must be completed
within three years from the time academic work has been completed and for a doctoral
dissertation, five years. This is according to regulation.

8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and situation, timely,
and of current interest. This means that the research project must be able to make a
substantial impact upon situations and people it is intended for or addressed to. It must
be able to arouse the interest of the people concerned. If the study is about drug abuse,
it must be able to draw attention of those engaged in the habit and those assigned to
stop it.

9. The results are practical and implementable. If the investigation is about drug
addiction, are the recommendations for its eradication applicable with the expected
effectiveness.

10. It requires original, critical, and reflective thinking to solve it. To be able to apply
these, the research project must be novel, new or original. The study is considered
novel and new if it has not yet been studied before and the data are gathered from new
and original sources. However, the study may be a replication, that is, the study has
already been conducted but in another place, not in the place where it is intended to be
studied again. The purpose of the study replications is to determine if the conditions in
one place are also true in other places so that generalizations of wider application can
be formulated.

11. It can be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher but big or large enough
to be able to give significant, valid, and reliable results and generalizations. The area
and population may be reduced but only to such an extent that the generalizations can
be considered true and useful.

12. It must contribute to the national development goals for the improvement of the
quality of human life. This is the ultimate aim of research, to improve the quality of
human life. Research must improve or show how to improve unsatisfactory conditions.

13. It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge. All the facts and knowledge
that we have is mostly the product of research, any study to be conducted must add a
new bit of knowledge to what we already have.

14. It must show or pave the way for the solution of the problem or problems
intended to be solved. Usually, after an inquiry has been conducted, recommendations
are made for the solution of problems discovered which, if implemented, can solve the
problems.

15. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the people. It must not
advocate the promotion of antisocial values such as drug addiction, cruelty, hatred, and
divisiveness, multiple sex mating, etc. As much as possible it must advocate the
promotion of divine values and those admirable human values such as love, peace,
goodwill, etc.

16. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things by means of
violence but by peaceful means. It must not advocate subversion, revolution, or the like
wrest control of the government or change the form of government. If there is a needed
change, it must be made by any means but the means must be peaceful and legitimate.

17. There must be a return of some kind to the researcher, either one or all of the
following, if the research report is completed:

a. Monetary, either increases in salary or publication of the results in which

there some kind of royalty.

b. Advancement of position, promotion. Generally, after finishing a graduate

course, there is a promotion especially in the educational system. It is easier to get a
promotion with a graduate than without one.

c. Improved specialization, competence, and skill in professional work

especially if the research subject is related to the profession. Suppose a teacher makes
a study of the school management practices of school principals in certain. So, when
this teacher gets promoted to the principalship he already knows how to manage his
own school because of what he has learned from his study about the practices of the
principals he has studied.

d Enhanced prestige and reputation. Usually it is a big honor, especially

among colleagues, on the part of one who completes a research project and is able to
write a thesis intellectual activity, effort-making capacity, and big expenses involved in
the work, and of course, because of a higher degree earned.

e. Satisfaction of intellectual curiosity and interest, and being able to discover

truth. It is always our experience that after being able to solve a difficult intellectual
problem we are engulfed with so much elation and satisfaction that we forget all the
sacrifices and difficulties that we have gone through. This is also the feeling of those
who are able to finish their research projects and reports, the latter in the form of theses
or dissertation, especially after passing a very rigid oral defense.

18. There must be a consideration of the hazards involved, physical, social, or legal.
This author knows of a man who went to the mountain to study the tribe, ignoring the
physical dangers from wild animals and from the tribesmen themselves. While this act is
admirable, the researcher must also consider his personal safety.

Another hazard is social. This occurs when an inquiry happens to encroach upon
socially approved and established social values, norms of conduct, or ethical standards.
The inquiry may draw the ire of the populace and the researcher may receive some kind
of rebuke, censure, criticism, or derision.
REFERENCES:

Aquino, Guadencio V., Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Quezon City:
Alemars-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1974

Babble, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. Fourth Edition. Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. 1986

Berelson, Bernard. Content Analysis in Communication Research. Glencoe, Illinois:

Free Press, 1952

Good, Carter V. Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Meredith Publishing

Company, Inc.,1963.

Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates. Methods of Research: Educational,

Psychological, Sociological. Manila: Appleton-Century-Croft, Inc., 1972. (Reprinted by
National Book Store).

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1973. (Reprinted by Phoenix Press,
Inc.)

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Second Edition. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1977. (Reprinted by
Phoenix Press, Inc.)

Sanchez, Custodiosa A. Methods and Techniques of Research, Manila:Rex Book Store

Inc., 1980.
WEEK 2 LESSON 1

Course Learning Outcome

At the end of this module, the students are expected to;

1. Enumerate the characteristics of a title;

2. Construct their own research title;
3. Define what is statement of the problem, assumption, and hypothese.

The Title

The title is a major determinant of whether your research paper will be read. It should
draw the reader’s attention and interest and make them want to continue reading.

The title should accurately, completely, and specifically indicate the focus of the paper,
and should contain relevant “keywords.” The best way to structure you title is to look at
your hypothesis and experimental variables.

The thesis writer should be guided by the following of his title. These are also the
characteristics of the title.

1. Generally, the title is formulated before the start of the research. It may be revised by
the researcher later if there is a need to revise.

2. The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the locale of the study, the
population involved, and the period when the data were gathered or will be gathered.

3. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter studied or to be
studied. The title must indicate what are to be expected to be found inside the thesis
report.

4. It must be as brief and concise as possible.

5. The researcher must avoid the terms “An Analysis of”, “A Study of,” “An Investigation
of,”. All these things are understood to have been done or to be done when a
researcher is conducting his research.

6. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid, all
words in capital letters.
Example of a complete title:

THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS IN THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL OF

PROVINCE B AS A PERCEIVED BY THE MATHEMATICS TEACHERS AND
STUDENTS DURING THE SCHOOL YEAR 2016-2017

The contents as required by Guidelines No. 2 are:

a. Subject matter : The teaching of mathematics

b. Locale of the study : Senior High School of Province B

c. Population involved : The mathematics teachers and students; and

d. Period of the study : School year 2016-2017

THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS

IN THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL OF PROVINCE B
It will be noted that the population, the mathematics teachers and students as well as
the period of the study, 2016-2017, are omitted when writing the second form but they
have to be mentioned in the scope and delimitation of the study. It will also be noted
that the title, though brief and simplified, is broad enough to include all possible aspects
of the subject matter. The central theme, which is the teaching of mathematics, is also
very clear.

Statement of the Problem

Guidelines in formulating the general problem and the specific subproblems or specific
questions. The following are suggested to guide the researcher in the formulation of his
general as well as his specific subproblems or questions. These are also the
characteristics of specific questions:

1. The general statement of the problem and the specific suubproblems or questions
should be formulated first before conducting the research.

2. It is customary to state specific subproblems in the interrogative form. Subproblems

are called specific questions.

3. Each specific questions must be clear and unequivocal, that is, it has only one
meaning it must not have dual meaning.
4. Each specific question is researchable apart from the other questions, that is,
answers to each specific question can be found even without considering the other
questions.

5. Each specific question must be based upon known facts and phenomena. Besides,
data from such known facts and phenomena must be accessible to make the specific
question researchable.

6. Answers to specific question can be interpreted apart from the answers to other
specific questions.

7. Answers to each specific question must contribute to the development of the whole
research problem or topic.

8. Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a complete
development of the entire study.

9. The number of specific questions should be enough to cover the development of the
whole research problem or study.

Before writing down the specific questions, determine first the different aspects of the
research problem to be studied and then for each make one specific question with
subquestions if there is a need to do it. If the research topic is the teaching of
mathematics the different aspects may be the following:

a. Qualifications of teachers, especially educational;

b. Methods and strategies of teaching used and their level of effectiveness;

c. Facilities available, instructional and non-instructional and their adequacy;

d. Adequacy of supervisory assistance extended to teachers;

e. Comparison between the perceptions of the teacher and those of the students
concerning the different aspects;

f. Problems encountered by the teachers in teaching mathematics;

g. Proposals to solve or help solve the problems; and

h. Implication of the study to the teaching of mathematics.

10. Generally, there should be a general statement of the problem and then this
should be broken up into as many subproblems or specific questions as necessary.
Example: This study was conducted to investigate all aspects of the teaching of
mathematics in the senior high school of Province B during the school year 2016-2017
as perceived by the mathematics teachers and students. Specifically, the study
attempted to answer the following questions:

a. How effective are the methods and strategies used by the teachers in teaching
mathematics?

b. How qualified are the teachers handling mathematics in the senior high school
of Province B?

c. How adequate are the instructional as well as the non-instructional facilities for
the teaching of mathematics?

d. How adequate are the forms of supervisory assistance extended to the

teacher relative to the teaching of mathematics?

e. Is there any significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and
those of the students concerning the different aspects in the teaching of
mathematics?

f. What problems are being encountered by the teachers of mathematics?

g. What suggestions are offered by the teachers and students to improve the
teaching of mathematics?

h. What are the implications of the findings to the teaching of mathematics?

Assumptions

An assumption is a self-evident truth which is based upon a known fact or phenomena.

Often times in descriptive or historical researches, assumptions are not explicitly
expressed but left implicit, that is, they are unwritten. Generally, every specific question
is implicitly based upon an assumption. If there is no assumption, expressed or implicit,
there can be no specific question.

Examples:

1. Specific question: How qualified are the teachers handling mathematics

subject?

Implicit (unwritten) assumption: There are certain qualifications that one should
possess before he/she can teach mathematics.

2. Specific question: How adequate are the facilities that a school acquires before
it can offer mathematics as a subject?
Implicit assumption: There are certain required facilities that a school acquires before
it can offer mathematics subject.

3. Specific question: How effective are the methods used in teaching

mathematics?

Implicit assumption: There are certain methods that are effective in the teaching of
mathematics.

Guidelines in the use of basis assumption. The following are the guidelines in the use of
basic assumption: (By Sugden as cited by Manuel,p.81)

1. You cannot assume the value of your study. Such as argument should have been
made under the section, significance of the study.

2. You cannot assume the reliability of the instruments you propose to use in your
research. Such as rationale and defense should be made under methodology.

3. You cannot assume the validity of basic data. Validity is established under
methodology.

4. You cannot assume that your population is typical. This point is to be made under
methodology.

5. An assumption is not tested, neither is it defended nor argued.

Hypotheses

A hypothesis is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question or answer to

a specific question raised at the beginning of the investigation.

Forms of hypotheses

There are two forms of hypotheses. One is in the operational form and the other is in
the null form. The operational form is stated in the affirmative while the null form is
stated in the negative. The operational form states that there is a difference between
two phenomena while the null form states that there is no difference between the two
phenomena. In other words the null form expresses equality between the two
phenomena. This is more commonly used.

The following are the guidelines in the formation of explicit hypotheses:

1. In experimental investigations, hypotheses have to be explicit, they have to be

expressed. They have to be expressed also in comparative and correlational studies.
2. In descriptive and historical investigations, hypotheses are seldom expressed if not
entirely absent. The subproblems or specific questions raised before the start of the
investigation and stated under the statement of the problem serve as the hypotheses.
(Good and Scates,pp.220-2221). The specific questions serve as the hypotheses. With
this fact, it is logical to presume that all studies in research have hypotheses and for that
matter all theses and dissertation have their own respective hypotheses. Consequently,
no research is conducted without ant hypothesis at all.

3. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is
easier than a hypothesis in the operational form. Testing a hypothesis simply means
gathering data to answer it.

4. Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are based.

Example:

Question: Is there any significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers
and those of the students concerning the different aspects in the teaching of
mathematics?

Operational hypothesis: There is a significant difference between the perceptions of

the teachers and those of the students concerning the different aspects in the teaching
of mathematics.

Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the perceptions of the

teachers and those of the students concerning the different aspects in the teaching of
mathematics.

Hypotheses (specific questions) perform important functions in research such as the

following:

1. They help the researcher in designing his study: what methods, research
instruments, sampling design, and statistical treatments to be use, what data to be
gather, and etc.

2. They serve as bases for determining assumptions.

3. They serve as bases for determining the relevance of data.

4. They serve as bases for the explanation or discussion about the data gathered.

5. They help or guide the researcher in consolidating his findings and in formulating his
conclusions. Generally, findings and conclusions are answers to the hypotheses or
specific questions raised at the start of the investigation.
REFERENCES:

Aquino, Guadencio V., Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Quezon City:
Alemars-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1974

Babble, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. Fourth Edition. Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. 1986

Berelson, Bernard. Content Analysis in Communication Research. Glencoe, Illinois:

Free Press, 1952

Good, Carter V. Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Meredith Publishing

Company, Inc.,1963.

Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates. Methods of Research: Educational,

Psychological, Sociological. Manila: Appleton-Century-Croft, Inc., 1972. (Reprinted by
National Book Store).

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1973. (Reprinted by Phoenix Press,
Inc.)

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Second Edition. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1977. (Reprinted by
Phoenix Press, Inc.)

Sanchez, Custodiosa A. Methods and Techniques of Research, Manila:Rex Book Store

Inc., 1980.
WEEK 3 LESSON 4

Course Learning Outcome:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. Enumerate materials and sources to be used in Related Literature and

Studies;
2. Enumerate Importance, Purpose, and Functions of Related Literature and
Studies.

Related Literature and Studies

Related literature is composed of discussion of facts and principles to which the present
study deals is related. For instance, if the present study deals with drug addiction,
literature to be reviewed or surveyed should be composed of materials that deal with
drug addiction. These materials are usually printed and found in book, encyclopedias,
professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and other publications.

These materials are classified as

1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and

2. Foreign, if printed in other lands.

Related studies, on the hand, are studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted
to which the present proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity. They
are usually unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.

Importance, Purpose, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important because such
reviewed literature and studies serve as a foundation of the proposed study. This is
because related literature and studies guide the researcher in pursuing his research
venture. Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the following
ways:

1. They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research
problem or topic. By reviewing related materials, a replication of a similar problem may
be found better than the problem already chosen. Replication is the study of a research
problem already conducted but in another place.
2. They help the investigator understand his topic for research better. Reviewing related
literature and studies may clarify vague points about his problem.

3. They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is duplication if
an investigation already made is conducted again in the same locale using practically
the same respondents. This is avoided if a survey of related literature and studies be
made first.

4. They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information.
This is because the bibliography of a study already conducted indicates references
about similar studies.

5. They help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in

a. The formulation of specific questions to be researched on:

b. The formulation of assumption and hypotheses if there should be any;

c. The formulation of conceptual framework;

d. The selection and application of sampling techniques;

e. The selection and application of the methods of research;

f. The selection and/or preparation and validation of research instruments for

gathering data;

g. The selection and application of statistical procedures;

h. The analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data;

i. The making of the summary of implications for the whole study;

j. The formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions, and

recommendations.

6. They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his findings with
the findings of other researcher on similar studies with the end in view of formulating
generalizations or principles which are the contributions of the study to the fund of
knowledge.

Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

There are certain characteristics of related materials that make them of true value.
Among these characteristics are:
1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of
the rapid social, economic, scientific, and technological changes. Findings several years
ago may be of little value today because of the fast changing life style of the people.

2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some materials are extremely or
subtly one-sided, either political, or religious, etc. comparison with these materials
cannot be made logically and validly. Distorted generalizations may result.

3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some
bearing or similarity to the research problem at hand should be reviewed.

4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or
data to make them valid and reliable. There are cases where fictitious data are supplied
just to complete a research report (thesis or dissertation). Of course, this kind of
deception is hard to detect and to prove. Thus, this is a real problem to honest
researchers.

5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nor too many. They must only be sufficient
enough to give insight into the research problem or to indicate the nature of the present
investigation.

Sources of Related Literature and Studies

The sources of related literature and studies may include the following:

1. Books, encyclopedias, Almanacs, and other similar references.

2. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and

other publications.

3. Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries.

4. Unpublished theses and dissertations.

5. The Constitution, and laws and statues of the land.

6. Bulletins, circulars and orders emanating from government offices and departments,
especially from the Office of the President of the Philippines and the Department of
Education.

7. Records of schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities.

8. Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.

9. Official reports of all kinds, educational, social economic, scientific, technological,
political, etc. from the government and other entities.

Where to locate the Sources of Related Literature and Studies

Generally, the sources of related literature and studies are located in the following
places:

1. Libraries, either government, school, or private libraries.

2. Government and private offices.

3. The National Library.

4. The Library of the Department of Education.

The last two are rich in depositories of related materials, particularly unpublished
master’s theses and doctoral dissertation.

REFERENCES:

Aquino, Guadencio V., Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Quezon City:
Alemars-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1974

Babble, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. Fourth Edition. Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. 1986

Berelson, Bernard. Content Analysis in Communication Research. Glencoe, Illinois:

Free Press, 1952

Good, Carter V. Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Meredith Publishing

Company, Inc.,1963.

Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates. Methods of Research: Educational,

Psychological, Sociological. Manila: Appleton-Century-Croft, Inc., 1972. (Reprinted by
National Book Store).
Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1973. (Reprinted by Phoenix Press,
Inc.)

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Second Edition. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1977. (Reprinted by
Phoenix Press, Inc.)

Sanchez, Custodiosa A. Methods and Techniques of Research, Manila:Rex Book Store

Inc., 1980.
WEEK 3 LESSON 4

Course Learning Outcome:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. Enumerate materials and sources to be used in Related Literature and

Studies;
2. Enumerate Importance, Purpose, and Functions of Related Literature and
Studies.

Related Literature and Studies

Related literature is composed of discussion of facts and principles to which the present
study deals is related. For instance, if the present study deals with drug addiction,
literature to be reviewed or surveyed should be composed of materials that deal with
drug addiction. These materials are usually printed and found in book, encyclopedias,
professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and other publications.

These materials are classified as

1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and

2. Foreign, if printed in other lands.

Related studies, on the hand, are studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted
to which the present proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity. They
are usually unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.

Importance, Purpose, and Functions of Related Literature and Studies

A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important because such
reviewed literature and studies serve as a foundation of the proposed study. This is
because related literature and studies guide the researcher in pursuing his research
venture. Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the following
ways:

1. They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research
problem or topic. By reviewing related materials, a replication of a similar problem may
be found better than the problem already chosen. Replication is the study of a research
problem already conducted but in another place.
2. They help the investigator understand his topic for research better. Reviewing related
literature and studies may clarify vague points about his problem.

3. They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is duplication if
an investigation already made is conducted again in the same locale using practically
the same respondents. This is avoided if a survey of related literature and studies be
made first.

4. They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information.
This is because the bibliography of a study already conducted indicates references
about similar studies.

5. They help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in

a. The formulation of specific questions to be researched on:

b. The formulation of assumption and hypotheses if there should be any;

c. The formulation of conceptual framework;

d. The selection and application of sampling techniques;

e. The selection and application of the methods of research;

f. The selection and/or preparation and validation of research instruments for

gathering data;

g. The selection and application of statistical procedures;

h. The analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data;

i. The making of the summary of implications for the whole study;

j. The formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions, and

recommendations.

6. They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his findings with
the findings of other researcher on similar studies with the end in view of formulating
generalizations or principles which are the contributions of the study to the fund of
knowledge.

Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

There are certain characteristics of related materials that make them of true value.
Among these characteristics are:
1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of
the rapid social, economic, scientific, and technological changes. Findings several years
ago may be of little value today because of the fast changing life style of the people.

2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some materials are extremely or
subtly one-sided, either political, or religious, etc. comparison with these materials
cannot be made logically and validly. Distorted generalizations may result.

3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some
bearing or similarity to the research problem at hand should be reviewed.

4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or
data to make them valid and reliable. There are cases where fictitious data are supplied
just to complete a research report (thesis or dissertation). Of course, this kind of
deception is hard to detect and to prove. Thus, this is a real problem to honest
researchers.

5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nor too many. They must only be sufficient
enough to give insight into the research problem or to indicate the nature of the present
investigation.

Sources of Related Literature and Studies

The sources of related literature and studies may include the following:

1. Books, encyclopedias, Almanacs, and other similar references.

2. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and

other publications.

3. Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries.

4. Unpublished theses and dissertations.

5. The Constitution, and laws and statues of the land.

6. Bulletins, circulars and orders emanating from government offices and departments,
especially from the Office of the President of the Philippines and the Department of
Education.

7. Records of schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities.

8. Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.

9. Official reports of all kinds, educational, social economic, scientific, technological,
political, etc. from the government and other entities.

Where to locate the Sources of Related Literature and Studies

Generally, the sources of related literature and studies are located in the following
places:

1. Libraries, either government, school, or private libraries.

2. Government and private offices.

3. The National Library.

4. The Library of the Department of Education.

The last two are rich in depositories of related materials, particularly unpublished
master’s theses and doctoral dissertation.

REFERENCES:

Aquino, Guadencio V., Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Quezon City:
Alemars-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1974

Babble, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. Fourth Edition. Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. 1986

Berelson, Bernard. Content Analysis in Communication Research. Glencoe, Illinois:

Free Press, 1952

Good, Carter V. Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Meredith Publishing

Company, Inc.,1963.

Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates. Methods of Research: Educational,

Psychological, Sociological. Manila: Appleton-Century-Croft, Inc., 1972. (Reprinted by
National Book Store).
Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1973. (Reprinted by Phoenix Press,
Inc.)

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Second Edition. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1977. (Reprinted by
Phoenix Press, Inc.)

Sanchez, Custodiosa A. Methods and Techniques of Research, Manila:Rex Book Store

Inc., 1980.
WEEK 5 LESSON 5

Methods of Research and Procedures

Generally, the research design is explained in this module. Among those topics included
are the research design which needed to be given some kind of explanations are the
following: Method of Research Used, Method of Collecting Data and Development of
the Research Instrument, Sampling Design and Statistical Treatment.

Course Learning Outcome:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. Classify Data According to Source;

2. Enumerate the characteristics of a good research instruments; and
3. Enumerate the advantages of secondary data.

Method of Research

The methods of research used whether historical, descriptive or experimental should be

explained briefly. The procedural part of the method, its appropriateness to the study,
and some of its advantages should be given attention and should be well discussed.

Example:

Suppose the descriptive method of research was used in the study of the teaching of
mathematics in the senior high school of Province B. briefly the discussion follows:

The descriptive method of research was used in this study. Descriptive method of
research is a fact finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation of the findings.
It describes with emphasis what actually exist such as current conditions, practices,
situations, or any phenomena. Since the present study or investigation was concerned
with the present status of the teaching of mathematics in the senior high school of
Province B, the descriptive method of research was the most appropriate method to
use.

Collection of Data

Data, plural for datum, are a collection of numbers, quantities, facts, or records, used as
bases for drawing conclusion or making inferences. (Good,p.155)

Data are what research is searching for and which are subjected to analysis, statistical
procedures and interpretation so that inferences, principles, or generalizations are
drawn. Data also reveal unsatisfactory conditions that need to be improved. The
application of newly discovered facts and principles to remedy unsatisfactory conditions
becomes the basis of human progress and the improvement of the quality of human life.

Classification of Data According to Source

Data are classified according to sources as follows:

1. Primary data. Primary data are those gathered from primary sources. The primary
sources are as follows:

a. Individual persons.

b. Organized groups or organizations such as associations, fraternities, school,

business firms, the church, army, navy, air force, government, law making
bodies, family, tribe, etc.

c. Established practices such as marriage, religious rites, legal system, economic

system, democracy, system of morals, etc.

d. Documents in their original forms such as the Constitution, laws, orders,

proclamations, treaties, contracts, census and all kinds of original records,
letters, diaries, etc.

e. Living organisms such as animals, fowls, and lower forms of living organisms.

f. Man-made material things such as buildings, machines, weapons, artifacts,

appliances, roads, bridges, dams, radios, television, electricity, etc.

g. Natural objects and phenomena such as rain, wind, typhoon, water,

earthquake, mountain, snow, etc.

2. Secondary data. Secondary data are those gathered from secondary sources. The
secondary sources are as follows:

a. Books including dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanacs, etc.

b. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and other

publications.

c. Unpublished master’s theses and dissertation and other studies.

d. Monographs, manuscripts, etc.

e. All other second-hand sources. Secondary data are verbal (written) data.
These are the certain advantages of primary data over secondary data among which
are: (Bacani, et.al.,p.21)

1. The primary data frequently give detailed definitions of terms and statistical units
used in the survey.

2. The secondary data have usually little or no explanatory notes ad may contain
clerical and typographical mistakes which often arise from transcription of the figures
from the original or primary source.

3. The primary data usually includes a copy of the schedule and a description of the
procedure used in the selection of the type of a sample and in collecting the data. This
gives the user an idea of accuracy, applicability, and limitation of the survey results.

4. The primary data are usually broken down into finer classifications. The secondary
data often omit part of combining categories such as showing barrios instead of sitios,
or municipalities instead of barrios.

There are also advantages of secondary data, among which are:

1. Secondary data are more convenient to use because they are already condensed
and organized.

2. Analysis and interpretation are done more easily.

3. Libraries make secondary data more easily accessible.

Categories of data gathered from respondents. Respondents are those individuals who
are asked or requested by a researcher to supply data or information about his research
problem. The categories of data supplied by respondents are the following:

1. Facts. These are recollections, observations, and perceptions of respondents about

themselves and of other people. Examples are:

a. Personal circumstances such as age, sex, height, weight, color of skin and
eyes, color and nature of hair, facts about health, date of birth, place of birth, civil
status, number of children, present address, kind of residence and residence
environment, telephone number, nationality, race, ethnic group, native language
and other language spoken, education and school, intelligence, character and
other psychological characteristics, etc.
 b. What they do such as habits ad hobbies, profession or occupation, life style,
plans and aspirations, social or economic status, membership in religious,
professional or civic organizations, activities, practices, and other events in their
lives.

2. Attitudes and Feelings. These are the respondent’s ideas and thoughts about the
research topic, and his personal feelings about the worth of the item being investigated.
This may include the extend of the respondent’s attitude and feelings toward the issues
or state of affairs raised in the research problem. For instance, if a respondent is ask to
give his attitude or reaction towards pornography, he may say, strongly agree to, favors
it; or he merely agrees to, favors or likes it; or he may say that he is not sure of his
opinion, that is, he is uncertain; or he merely disagree to, or disfavors, dislikes, or hates
it; or strongly disagrees to, disfavors, dislikes, or hates it.

3. Judgments. These data include the respondent’s idea or opinion about, or his actual
behavior, in a given situation. This is what the respondents think a thing or situation
should be or what is. In this, there seems to be a standard, and ideal standard that is,
with which things, ideas and situations are compared; how far or how near they are from
the standard. For instance, if a respondent is asked how serious a problem is, he may
answer very serious, serious, slightly serious, not serious or not at all a problem
according to his judgment.

4. Psychomotor skills. These data refer to the manipulative skills of the individual and
his activities that involve his five senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. How
skillful does one operate a microscope? How well does he respond to sound? To touch?
In here there is also an element of judgment because the performance of an individual
is usually judged in comparison of or with the performance of an average individual.

5. Results of tests and experiments. The results of tests and experiments are very
important data especially in psychology and in the physical, chemical, and biological
sciences. Much of the progress of mankind is due to the results of tests and
experiments performed in connection with research. The psychological principles that
we are applying today have been the results of extensive testing.

6. All other data gathered from the primary and secondary sources of data.

Selecting the Method of Collecting Data

There are several ways of collecting data among which are the following:

A. Clerical tools
1. The questionnaire method

2. The interview method

3. The empirical observation method

4. The registration method

5. The testing method

6. The experimental method

7. The library method

B. Mechanical devices: microscope, thermometers, cameras, etc.

The choice of the method depends upon some factors such as the nature of problem,
the population or universe under study, the cost of the survey, and the time factor.

The Research Instrument or Tools

Instruments or tools for gathering data in research are of two categories or kinds:
(Treece and Treece, p.49)

1. Mechanical devices. Mechanical devices include almost all tools (such as

microscopes, telescopes, thermometers, rulers and monitors) used in physical sciences.
In the social sciences and nursing, mechanical devices include such equipment as tape
recorders, cameras, films and video tape. In addition, included also are the laboratory
tools and equipment used in experimental research in the chemical and biological
sciences, as well as in industry and agriculture.

2. Clerical tools. Clerical tools are used when the researcher studies people and
gathers data on the feelings, emotions, attitudes and judgment of the subjects. Some
examples of clerical tools are: filed records, histories, case studies, questionnaires, and
interview schedules.

Among the characteristics of a good research instruments are the following:

1. The instrument must be valid and reliable. An instrument is valid if it collects data
which are intended for it to collect and long enough to be able to collect adequate
information to complete the study or investigation. It is reliable if it is administered to the
same subject twice without any practice it also gives the same result or measure.
2. It must be based upon the conceptual framework or what the researcher wants
to find out. A conceptual framework is the researcher’s idea or expectation of what a
situation should be but he is not proving his idea or expectation to be true. He is only
finding out if it is true or not.

3. It must gather data suitable for and relevant to the research topic. Foreign data
or extraneous to the study or topic should not be gathered by the instrument. For
instance, if the topic is about the teaching of mathematics, the instrument should gather
data only about the teaching of mathematics and not for the teaching of Science.

4. It must gather data that would test the hypotheses or answer the questions
under investigation. Testing a hypothesis is merely finding out whether it is true or not
based upon the data gathered. If the information gathered reveals that the hypothesis is
true, then it is accepted, otherwise it is rejected. In studies where there are no
expressed hypotheses, but only specific questions are used, the data that should be
gathered are those that would answer the question.

5. It should be free from all kinds of bias. It should not suggest what should be the
replies. Here is an example of a biases question. “Are you using Colgate Toothpaste?
______ If not, what brand of toothpaste are you using?” This is based because the
mere mention of the word “Colgate” is already a suggestion. To remove the bias, the
question should be “What brand of toothpaste are you using?”

6. It must contain only questions or items that are unequivocal. An equivocal

question admits two or more interpretations while an unequivocal question admits only
one interpretation. Here is an example of an equivocal question: “Are you employed or
not?” This is also called a double barreled question. Actually, these are two questions
rolled into one. The first question is “Are you employed?” The second question is “Are
you not employed?” The original question is answerable by “yes” or “no” but the “yes” or
“no” should be qualified. The answer should be either “Yes I am employed” or “No, I am
not employed” “Are you employed?” is an example of unequivocal question because the
answer expected is definite, either “yes” or “no”.

7. It must contain clear and definite directions to accomplish it. Poor direction:
“Please accomplish the questionnaire”. The respondents do not exactly know what to do
whether to write his replies in words, in numbers, or in other symbols. Better: This is a
multiple response questionnaire. Please read each question carefully and then put a
check mark before the item or items following which you think will best answer the
question.

8. If the instrument is mechanical device, it must be of the best or latest model. If

it is a microscope or a camera, or a tape recorder, it must be of the latest model so that
it will gather accurate and reliable data.
9. It must be accompanied by a good cover letter. A good cover letter in the form of
a request should be made as cordially and politely as possible to make the instrument
more acceptable to the respondents.

10. It must be accompanied, if possible, by a letter of recommendation from a

sponsor. A letter of recommendation from a sponsor, one who has some influence over
the respondents, may be secured and made to accompany the instruments to facilitate
its administration or to insure its accomplishment and return.

REFERENCES:

Aquino, Guadencio V., Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Quezon City:
Alemars-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1974

Babble, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. Fourth Edition. Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. 1986

Bacani, Alberto C., Alfomso R. Cruz,and Sancho M. Cuasay. Introduction to Business

and Economic Statistics. Manila: University of the Eas, GIC Enterprise & Co., Inc. 1968

Berelson, Bernard. Content Analysis in Communication Research. Glencoe, Illinois:

Free Press, 1952

Good, Carter V. Editor. Dictionary of Education. Second Edition. New York: Barnes and
Noble, Inc.,1960

Good, Carter V. Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Meredith Publishing

Company, Inc.,1963.

Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates. Methods of Research: Educational,

Psychological, Sociological. Manila: Appleton-Century-Croft, Inc., 1972. (Reprinted by
National Book Store).

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1973. (Reprinted by Phoenix Press,
Inc.)

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Second Edition. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1977. (Reprinted by
Phoenix Press, Inc.)

Sanchez, Custodiosa A. Methods and Techniques of Research, Manila:Rex Book Store

Inc., 1980.
LESSON 6

Course Learning Outcome

At the end of the module, the students are expected to:

1. Enumerate the role of Statistics in Research;

2. Enumerate the Advantages and Disadvantages of the Questionnaire;
3. Enumerate the Evidences of Misleading Questions

The Sampling Design

Before the collection of data starts in any research project, the proportion of the
population to be used must have been determined already and the computation of the
sample must have been finished. So, what the researcher must do here is to write about
the complete procedure or method he used in determining his sample. Among the
things that he should explain are:

a. The size of the population;

b. The study population;

c. The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used;

d. The type of technique of sampling used whether pure random sampling, systematic
random sampling, stratifies random sampling, cluster sampling or a combination of two
or more techniques;

e. The actual computation of the sample; and

f. The sample.

The researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his sample. He must be able
to show that his sample is representative of the population by showing that he used the
appropriate technique of sampling. This is very important because if it appears that his
sample is not representative, his findings and conclusions will be faulty and hence, not
valid and reliable.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The kind of statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the problem, especially the
specific problem, and the nature of the data gathered. The explicit hypotheses
particularly determine the kind of statistics to be used.
The role of statistics in research. With the advent of computer age, statistics is now
playing a vital role in research. This is true especially in science and technological
research. What functions do statistics perform in research? Some are the following:

1. Statistical method helps the researcher in making his research design, particularly in
experimental research. Statistical methods are always involved in planning a research
project because in some way statistics directs the researcher how to gather his data.

2. Statistical techniques help the researcher in determining the validity and reliability of
his research instruments. Data gathered with instruments that are not valid and reliable
are almost useless and so the researcher must have to be sure that his instruments are
valid and reliable.

3. Statistical manipulations organize raw data systematically to make the latter

appropriate for study. Unorganized data cannot be studied. No inferences nor
deductions can be made from unorganized data. Statistics organize data systematically
by ordered arrangement, ranking, score distribution, class frequency distribution or
cumulative frequencies. These make the data appropriate for study.

4. Statistical treatments give meaning and interpretation to data. For instance, if the
standard deviation of the class frequency of a group is small, we know that the group is
more or less homogenous but if it is large, the group is more or less heterogeneous.

5. Statistics are used to test the hypotheses. Statistics help the researcher determine
whether his hypotheses are to be accepted or to be rejected.

6. Statistical procedures are indispensable in determining the levels of significance of

vital statistical measures. These statistical measures are the bases for making
inferences, interpretation, conclusions or generalization.

The Questionnaire

A questionnaire has been defined by Good as a list of planned written questions related
to a particular topic, with space provided for indicating the response to each question,
intended for submission to a number of persons for reply; commonly used in normative
survey studies and in the measurement of attitudes and opinion. (Good,p.435)

In other words, a questionnaire is simply a set of questions which, when answered

properly by a required number of properly selected respondents, will supply the
necessary information to complete a research study. The questionnaire is commonly
used in behavioral research or social research.
Advantage of the Questionnaire

Among the advantages of the questionnaire are:

1. The questionnaire is easy to construct. The rules and principles of construction are
easy to follow.

2. Distribution is easy and inexpensive. Many of the respondents can be reached by

copies of the questionnaire either by mail or by personal distribution. Besides, a small
staff can be employed in the distribution even if the research project is a big one.

3. Responses are easy to tabulate. Generally, responses to a questionnaire are

objectified and standardized and these make tabulation easy.

4. The respondent’s replies are free. The respondent’s replies are of his own free will
because there is no interview to influence him. This is one way to avoid bias, particularly
the interviewer’s bias.

5. Confidential information may be given freely. Confidential information which the

respondent may not reveal to an interviewer may be given freely if the respondent can
be made anonymous. Much as they like to reveal confidential information, respondents
are hesitant to tell the truth if they are not made anonymous because they also want to
save themselves from embarrassment, indictment, or trouble which may result from
their revelation of confidential data.

6. The respondent can fill out the questionnaire at will. Because nobody is pressing him
to answer the questionnaire immediately, the respondent can accomplish the
questionnaire anywhere at any time at his own convenience.

7. The respondents can give more accurate replies. The respondent has time enough to
think reflectively of his replies making them more accurate than the results of interviews
where the respondent is usually pressed for an immediate reply. He also has time to
consult his records if necessary.

Among the disadvantages of a questionnaire are the following:

1. The questionnaire cannot be used with those who cannot read nor write well,
especially those who are totally illiterate.

2. If many respondents may not return the filled up copies of the questionnaire
purposely or forgetfully, considerable follow ups are necessary. This is true if the returns
are not representative of the group.
3. If a respondent gives wrong information, it cannot be corrected at once.

4. A respondent may leave some or many questions unanswered because nobody

urges him to do so or he may not understand the significance of the information he
gives.

5. Some questions may be vague and so the respondents may not answer them or if he
does, he may give wrong replies.

6. The number of choices may be so limited that the respondent may be forced to select
responses that are not his actual choices. This is especially true with the yes or no
question.

There are some steps in the preparation of a questionnaire, some of which are the
following:

1. Doing library search. Do some library research among studies similar to yours.
There may be some questionnaires similar to what you want to use. They may serve as
guides in constructing yours.

2. Talking to knowledgeable people. Talk to people who have some knowledge about
the construction of questionnaires. You may be able to get some ideas from them.

3. Mastering the guidelines. There are guidelines in the construction of a

questionnaire. You learn these from books and similar studies in your libray search and
from your interviews with knowledgeable people. Master the guidelines.

4. Writing the questionnaire. Write the questionnaire following the guidelines as

closely as possible.

5. Editing the questionnaire. After the questionnaire has been finished, show it for
correction and suggestions for improvement to people who are known to posses
adequate knowledge in the construction of questionnaires, especially to your adviser if
you have one.

6. Rewriting the questionnaire. Rewrite the questionnaire according to the corrections

and suggestions.

7. Pretesting the questionnaire. This is called a dry run. This is the process of
measuring the effectiveness, validity, and reliability of the questionnaire, and
determining the clarity of the items, the difficulty of answering the questions, the proper
length of time in answering, ease in tabulating responses, and other problems.
The types of questions asked in questionnaire for survey purpose are:

A. According to form:

1. The free-answer type. This is also called the open form, open-ended, subjective,
unrestricted, essay, and unguided response type. The respondent answers the question
in his own words and in his own way.

Example: Why do you use soap in taking a bath?

2. The guided response type. This is also called the closed form or restricted type.
The respondent is guided in making his reply. There are two kinds of this type: recall
and recognition types;

2.1 Recall type. The replies are recalled.

Example: Please supply the information asked for.

Age : ______

Sex : ______

Date of Birth : ______

Place of Birth : ______

2.2 Recognition types. The possible responses are given and respondent
selects his answer. There are three type: dichotomous, multiple choice, and
multiple response.

2.2.1. Dichotomous. These are only two options and one is selected.

Example: Are you married? Yes ____ No _____

2.2.2. Multiple choices. Only one answer is chosen from those given as
options.

Example: What is your highest educational attainment?

Please put a check before your reply.

____ Elementary Graduate

____ High School Graduate

____ College Graduate

 2.2.3. Multiple responses. Two or more options may be chosen.

Example: Why do you use toothpaste in brushing your teeth?

Please check marks before your choices

____ It prevents tooth decay

____ It freshens the breath

____ It is soothing to the mouth

____ It is cheap

____ It is imported

B. According to the kind of data asked for

a. Descriptive (verbal) data

What kind of house do you live in? Please check

____ Concrete ____ Semi-Concrete Wooden

____ Bamboo ____ Others

b. Quantified (numerical) data

1. How old are you?____

2. What is your average monthly income? P_____

c. Intensity of feeling, emotion, or attitude

Do you agree to have only one day election, set for local and national elective officials?

____ Strongly agree

____ Agree

____ Fairly agree

____ Disagree

____ Strongly disagree

d. Degree of judgment

How serious is the problem (drug addiction, drinking, stealing, etc.)?

____ Very serious

____ Serious

____ Not serious

____ Not a problem

How adequate are the facilities?

____ Very adequate

____ Adequate

____ Fairly adequate

____ Inadequate

____ Very inadequate

e. Understanding

Explain what democracy is.

f. Reasoning

Why do you prefer democracy to dictatorship?

It had been said before that a questionnaire is a set of planned questions which, when
answered properly, would supply the needed data for a research problem or topic. The
following are useful guidelines in the construction of questions for a questionnaire:

1. Make all directions clear and unequivocal. As much as possible make all
directions clear, definite, unequivocal and brief. There should also be a direction
for every type of questions. See to it that the respondent knows exactly what to
do.

Example : Poor direction for a multiple response question:

Answer the following questions.

Better : Choose the items or options that would best answer the

Question and write a check mark on the space before each

Option. You may have more than one choice.

 2. Use correct grammar. Punctuation marks especially should be placed properly
to avoid misinterpretation.

Example of poor grammar : Please accomplish the questionnaire as soon

as possible return it.

Better : Please accomplish the questionnaire and

return it as soon as possible.

3. Make all questions unequivocal. As much as possible make all questions,

brief, clear, and unequivocal. Avoid making double barreled questions, questions
which can be interpreted in two was.

Example : Are you employed or not? This is a double barreled question

because actually there are two questions. One is: Are you employed? The other is : Are
you not employed? This type of question cannot be answered by yes or no without
qualifying the answer. If you answer in the affirmative, it should be: Yes, I am employed.
If you answer in the negative the answer should be : No, I am not employed.

Example of a vague question: Are you a graduate?

Better : Are you a high school graduate?

4. Avoid asking biased questions. A biased question is one in which there is a

veiled suggestion for an answer.

Example : Do you use Colgate toothpaste? If not, what brand do you

use? In this question there is a veiled suggestion to make Colgate as the answer. The
respondent may think that because Colgate is mentioned, it is the best toothpaste and
he has the tendency to say yes.

Better : Which brand of toothpaste do you use?

5. Objectify the responses. This is for the standardization of responses and easier
tabulation.

Example : Why do you use Palmolive Soap?

_____ It is fragrant.

_____ It makes my skin smoother.

_____ It is cheap.

_____ It is available all the time.

 _____ It lasts long.

The replies can be checked only.

6. Relate all questions to the topic under study. All questions should gather data
relevant to the study. If the study is about the teaching of mathematics, all questions
should gather data that have something to do with the teaching of mathematics. If the
study is about the teaching of science, all questions should gather data that have
something to do with the teaching of science.

7. Create categories or classes for approximate answers. There are questions

which cannot be given exact answers and so there is a necessity of creating categories
or classes to accommodate the approximate replies. Such classes or groupings may be
qualitative or quantitative.

8. Group the questions in logical sequence. Some ways of grouping are:

a. Questions may be grouped according to the specific questions under the

statement of the problem. All questions that gather data to answer one specific
question under the statement of the problem should be grouped to gather.

b. Questions that deal with items that are logically and usually placed together
under a big category should be grouped together.

c. In each grouping, easier questions should be asked first.

d. Questions should be given in successive steps if the topic of study is a

process such as baking a cake, constructing a house, preserving foods, etc.

9. Create sufficient number of response categories. This is to make possible the

inclusion of the correct choice of the respondent. If the correct choice of the respondent
is not included among the response categories and he is required to make a response,
his reply would be wrong.

Example of limited number of response categories: Do you agree that the presidential
form of government is better than the parliamentary form?

_____ Agree

_____ Disagree

10. Word carefully or avoid questions that deal with confidential or embarrassing
information.
Example: Suppose a woman becomes unfaithful to her husband and you want to find
the reasons why she became unfaithful to her husband. This is in connection with your
study of family relations.

Poor question: Why did you become unfaithful to your husband? (This is already telling
her that she is unfaithful and this will surely embarrass her).

Better: What, in your own opinion, are the reasons why wives sometimes fall in love with
men other than their own husbands? (Supply all possible reasons and she will choose
those which she experienced).

11. Explain and illustrate difficult questions. Difficult questions such as those
employing some unfamiliar technical terms should be made clearer by adding
explanations and or illustrations.

12. State all questions affirmatively. If negative statements are unavoidable,

underline the negative word to avoid misinterpretation.

Example

Poor : Are you not studying?

Better : Are you studying?

13. Make as many questions as would supply adequate information for the study.
The study is only as complete as the completeness of the data used. If some important
data are missing, the worth of the inquiry is very much reduced particularly its accuracy
and validity.

14. Add a catch-word or phrase to options of multiple response questions. This is

necessary for any additional information that the respondent may want to give.

Example : Why did you stop your studies?

_____ I am too poor. I cannot afford.

_____ I married early.

_____ I lost interest.

_____ My family moved to a place too far from school.

_____ Others, please specify.

The word “Others” is the catch-all word.

15. Place all spaces for replies at the left side. As much as possible, place all spaces
for replies at the left side of the questionnaire for easy tabulation. The spaces should be
in straight vertical column.

16. Make the respondent anonymous. This is to make them give information more
freely and more accurately. Respondents are reluctant and even refuse to give
information about confidential and or embarrassing matters if they are not made
anonymous.

Evidence of Misleading Questions (Treece and Treece Jr.,p.189)

1. All-or-none response. If all or most of the answers are in same direction, such as all
“yes” or all ”no”, there is something wrong with the question. An example is “Are you in
favor of good health?” Naturally the answer is “yes”.

2. Considerable difference in responses when the order is changed. This may be a

changed in the word order of an item or an item or a change in order of the questions.

3. High proportion of omission or “no response”. If so many questions are left

unanswered, either the question is overlooked, or it is unclear, or it is offensive, or there
is no place where to write the answer.

4. High proportion of “don’t know” or “don’t recall”. These responses indicate that
the items are improperly stated or inappropriate. This is why pretesting is necessary to
discover these defects.

5. High proportion of “other” answers. This is an indication that the choices or

options for selection are either inadequate or inappropriate. Enough options should be
provided and their appropriateness should be studied carefully.

6. Considerable number of added comments. If there are many comments on the

margin or at the end of the items. This indicates the enthusiasm of the respondents or
weakness of the item. If the comments are irrelevant, the items are either unclear or the
alternatives are inappropriate.
REFERENCES:

Aquino, Guadencio V., Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Quezon City:
Alemars-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1974

Babble, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. Fourth Edition. Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. 1986

Bacani, Alberto C., Alfomso R. Cruz,and Sancho M. Cuasay. Introduction to Business

and Economic Statistics. Manila: University of the Eas, GIC Enterprise & Co., Inc. 1968

Berelson, Bernard. Content Analysis in Communication Research. Glencoe, Illinois:

Free Press, 1952

Good, Carter V. Editor. Dictionary of Education. Second Edition. New York: Barnes and
Noble, Inc.,1960

Good, Carter V. Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Meredith Publishing

Company, Inc.,1963.

Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates. Methods of Research: Educational,

Psychological, Sociological. Manila: Appleton-Century-Croft, Inc., 1972. (Reprinted by
National Book Store).

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1973. (Reprinted by Phoenix Press,
Inc.)

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Second Edition. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1977. (Reprinted by
Phoenix Press, Inc.)

Sanchez, Custodiosa A. Methods and Techniques of Research, Manila:Rex Book Store

Inc., 1980.
LESSON 7

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. Differentiate what is Cover letter and Interview;

2. Purpose and Uses of the Interview;
3. Enumerate the Advantage and Disadvantage of the Interview; and
4. Enumerate Types of Classes of Interviews.

The Cover Letter

Every copy of the questionnaire to be sent to a respondent should be accompanied by a

cover letter which should certain among other things the following:

a. The purpose of the questionnaire or the study;

b. Who is sanctioning, endorsing or sponsoring the study;

c. What will be done with the information gathered by the questionnaire?

d. The reason why the respondent should answer the questionnaire and giving
importance to the respondent;

e. The deadline date for the return of the questionnaire;

f. A guaranty of the anonymity of the respondent and the confidentiality of the

information given by him;

g. An expression of gratitude for the respondent’s participation in the study; and

h. An offer to inform the respondent of the results of the study if he is interested.

The letter should be written as courteously and cordially as possible making it very
personal and neatly printed or typed bearing the actual signature of the researcher. The
sponsoring or endorsing person should be selected on the basis of his influence upon
the respondents.
Interview

The interview is one of the major techniques in gathering data or information. It is

defined as a purposeful face to face relationship between two persons, one of whom
called the interviewer who asks questions to gather information and the other called
interviewee or respondent who supplies the information asked for.

Purpose and Uses of the Interview

The researcher may use the interview in the following circumstances:

1. The researcher may approach and interview knowledgeable people to enable him to
gain insight into his problem, the variables he is going to use, the formulation of his
specific questions and hypotheses, the statistical methods he is going to utilize, etc.

2. The researcher may also interview knowledgeable people about the proper
construction and validation of a questionnaire, or who can make any contribution to the
enrichment of his study.

3. In cases when the subject of the study is a person with some signs of abnormality,
the interviewer may wish to gain information from the overt, oral, physical, and
emotional reactions of the subject towards certain questions to be used for a possible
remedy of the abnormality.

4. The researcher may also use the interview as the principal tool in gathering data for
his study or just to supplement data collected by other techniques.

Advantage of the Interview

1. It yields more and valid information. The respondents are usually pressed for an
answer to a question which the interviewer can validate at once. He can probe into the
veracity of the reply immediately. Hence, there is a higher proportion of usable returns.

2. The interview can be used with all kinds of people, whether literate or illiterate, rich or
poor, laborer or capitalist, etc.

3. The interviewer can always clarify points or question which are vague to the
interviewee.

4. Only the interviewee respondent can make replies to questions of the interviewer,
unlike in the case of a questionnaire in which filling up a questionnaire may be
delegated to another person or the respondent may be aided by another person in
making replies.
5. The interviewer can observe the nonverbal reactions or behavior of the respondent
which may reveal rich pertinent information. These are called subliminal cues which are
“behavioral or attitudes that are not specifically stated but are covertly displayed. The
interviewer must be skillful in reading cues. He may bring such subliminal cues to the
attention of the respondent to check if his suspected recognition is correct and to
alleviate tension. Interpretations and predictions based upon nonverbal cues must be
accurate; otherwise they will tend to be biased subjective data.

6. Greater complex questions can be asked with the interviewer around to explain
things greater complex data which are vital to the study can be acquired.

7. There is flexibility. The interviewer can affect a modification of the interview or any
question if there is a need so that the desired information can be gathered.

Disadvantages of the Interview

1. Sometimes, selected respondents are hard to contact or cannot be contacted at all

because of the distance of their place or due to some other reasons. For instance, if a
selected respondent is in another country, it can be hard to contact him.

2. It is expensive if many interviews have to be employed to meet a target date. The

cost of training them and their salaries would entail too much expense.

3. The responses may be inaccurate if the interviewee has no time to consult hid
records especially if the needed data involve numerals.

4. It is time consuming if only the researcher conducts the interviews.

5. It is inconvenient for both the interviewer and the interviewee in terms of time and
sometimes in terms of place. The interviewer has to travel distances.

6. There is no anonymity and so the interviewee may withhold some confidential but
vital information, especially if the information may possibly invite trouble. This is true if
the information is about the morality of an individual or the commission of graft and
corruption.

7. There is a tendency of interviewers to introduce bias because they may influence

their interviewees to give replies that would favor their research-employers. This may
happen in political surveys where the candidacy of a certain person is involved.

8. If the interviewer modifies a question, the standardized construction of the questions

is lessened and, categorization and tabulation become a problem.
Types of Classes of Interviews

Treece and Treece Jr, classify interviews as follow:

1. Standardized interview. In this type of interview, the interviewer is not allowed to

change the specific wordings of the questions in the interview schedule. He must
conduct all interviews in precisely the same manner, and he cannot adapt questions for
specific situations or pursue statements in order to add something to the data. This is
the same as the so-called formal interview.

2. Nonstandardized interview. In this type, the interviewer has complete freedom to

develop each interview in the most appropriate manner for each situation. He is not held
to any specific question. He may revise, add to, or subtract from, the interview schedule
that which he thinks is best for the situation. This is the same as the so-called informal
interview.

3. Semistandardized interview. The interviewer is required to ask a number of specific

major questions, and beyond these he is free to probe as he chooses. There are
prepared principal questions to be asked and once these are asked and answered the
interpreter is free to ask any question as he sees fit for the situation.

4. Focused interview. This is also called depth interview. This is similar to the
nonstandardized interview in which no required questions should be asked by the
interviewer. The researcher asks a series of questions based on his previous
understanding and insight of the situation. Specific attention is given to specific topics or
ideas.

5. Nondirective interview. In this type of interview, the interviewee or subject is

allowed and even encouraged to express his feelings without fear of disapproval. The
subject can express his feelings or views on certain topics even without waiting to be
questioned or even without pressure from the interviewer. The interviewee does most of
the talking.

On the other hand, Good and Scates classify interview as follows:

1. According to function (diagnostic interview, treatment interview, and research

interview, the last for gathering research data).

2. According to number of persons participating (individual interview and group

interview, in the latter, several persons are interviewed simultaneously by the same
interviewer).
3. According to the length of contract (short contact interview and long contact
interview).

4. According to the roles assumed by the interviewer and the interviewee in relation to
the socio-psychological process of interaction:

a. Nondirective interview (uncontrolled, unguided, unstructured)

b. Focused interview (directive interview)

c. Repeated interview (this is done to trace the development of a social or socio-

psychological process, such as following the progressive reactions of a voter in
making up his mind as to choice in a presidential election).

REFERENCES:

Aquino, Guadencio V., Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Quezon City:
Alemars-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1974

Babble, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. Fourth Edition. Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. 1986

Bacani, Alberto C., Alfomso R. Cruz,and Sancho M. Cuasay. Introduction to Business

and Economic Statistics. Manila: University of the Eas, GIC Enterprise & Co., Inc. 1968

Berelson, Bernard. Content Analysis in Communication Research. Glencoe, Illinois:

Free Press, 1952

Good, Carter V. Editor. Dictionary of Education. Second Edition. New York: Barnes and
Noble, Inc.,1960

Good, Carter V. Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Meredith Publishing

Company, Inc.,1963.

Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates. Methods of Research: Educational,

Psychological, Sociological. Manila: Appleton-Century-Croft, Inc., 1972. (Reprinted by
National Book Store).

Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1973. (Reprinted by Phoenix Press,
Inc.)
Treece, Eleonor Walters and James William Treece, Jr. The Elements of Research in
Nursing. Second Edition. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby Company, Inc., 1977. (Reprinted by
Phoenix Press, Inc.)

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