1

INDEX
SR NO CONTENT PAGE NO
1 ABSTRACT

2 INTRODUCTION

3 DESTRUCTIVE METHODS

2
3
 1.Abstract

This study looks at major destructive and nondestructive techniques

used to evaluate weld quality in modern welding production. This paper
presents a general review and explanation of these methods, and
implements a more intensive research on destructive methods. Some
attention has been paid to find future trends in the development of
welding evaluation approaches. This study provides a good foundation
for learning and creates awareness among the metal industries to
evaluate their productivity and quality in the field of welding. KEY
WORDS: destructive methods, tensile test, bend test, impact test, nick
break test, hardness test, etch test.

Part 2 of this study looks at major nondestructive techniques used to

evaluate weld quality in

production. This paper presents a general review and explanation of
these methods. Some attention has been paid to find future trends in
the development of welding evaluation approaches. This study
provides a good foundation for learning and creates awareness among
the metal industries to evaluate their productivity and quality in the
field of welding.
KEY WORDS: nondestructive, visual inspection, ultrasonic test, ray
radiography tests, magnetic particle inspection, Liquid penetrant test,
eddy current test.

4
 2.Introduction
This paper looks at various methods of weld evaluation. There are two
main groups of tests that are performed in industry nowadays:
destructive and nondestructive tests. Destructive tests can reveal an
overall picture of the weld; however, specially prepared specimens are
required to be broken. Alternatively, non-destructive methods do not
affect the weld, but are often more complicated and less informative.
Modern production equally employs both types of weld evaluation,
since each method has its unique advantages, but also certain
limitations. This paper, Part 1, will examine the most common
destructive techniques, that is, the tensile test, the bend test, the
impact test, the break test, the hardness test and the etch test.
Considering nondestructive tests, there is a much greater variety of
tests in the market and some will be evaluated in Part 2. This study
provides a good foundation for future research and creates awareness
among the metal industries to evaluate their productivity and quality in
welding.

This paper, Part 2, looks at various methods of non-destructive weld

evaluation. There are twomain groups of

tests that are performed in industry nowadays: destructive and non-
destructive tests. Destructive tests can reveal an overall picture of the
weld; however, specially prepared specimens are required to be
5
broken. Alternatively, non-destructive methods do not affect the weld,
but are often more complicated and less informative.
Modernproduction equally employs both types of weld evaluation,
since each method has its unique advantages, but also certain
limitations. The most common destructive techniques have been
examined in Part 1, that is, the tensile test, the bend test, the impact
test, the nick break test, the hardness test and the etch
test.Considering non-destructive tests, there is a much greater variety
of tests in the market. However, this paper will look only at the most
important ones, that is, visual examination, the ultrasonic test, X-ray
and gamma-ray radiography, magnetic particle inspection, the liquid
penetrant test and eddy current testing. This study provides a good
foundation for future research and creates awareness among the metal
industries to evaluate their productivity and quality in welding.

6
 PART 1
3.Destructive methods
Destructive tests are applied to samples representative of the welded
joint under review, often made especially for test purposes. In a
destructive test, the test piece or specimen is destroyed, in most
cases by fracturing. After destructive testing the specimen remains no
longer applicable to further use. The following presents the most
frequently used destructive methods of evaluating welds.
3.1 Tensile test
One of the most common mechanical approaches of evaluating the
properties of a weld, the tensile test helps to reveal some properties in
the material, such as yield strength, stress-strain curve, tensile
strength, fracture strain and Young`s modulus [1]. Moreover, the
tensile test determines the ductility of a weld by obtaining two
measurements of ductility: the percent elongation and the percent
reduction of the area. Figure 1 shows the process of the test and the
resulting chart. The tensile test is performed by fixing one end of the
specimen in a vise and applying a smooth, steadily increasing pull at the
opposite end until the specimen breaks. The essential features of a
tensile testing machine are the parts that pull the test specimen and
the devices that measure the resistance of the test specimen. During
the test, the tensile load as well as the elongation of the specimen is
measured with the load dial of the machine and extensometer
correspondingly [1].

7
b Fig. 1 The process of the tensile test (a) [2] and the resultant chart (b)
[1]
The strain in the test piece is also measured by an extensometer or
strain gauge. Moreover, there is a device that records and plots the
stress-strain curve for a permanent record [1]. There are two types of
tensile tests, which differ by the way of obtaining a specimen, and
therefore, the tests aim to evaluate different characteristics of the
welded metal. There are transverse and longitudinal tensile tests, the
specimens of which are shown in Fig. 2. In the transverse tensile test,
the specimen is a cut, oriented across the weld so that original
materials, the weld and heat-affected zones are included. When testing
welded tubes or pipes, the extra weld metal above the weld should be
machined off prior to the testing [2]. A

b Fig. 2 a transverse tensile test specimen (a) [1] and a longitudinal

tensile test specimen (b) [3]
sometimes it is necessary to check only the properties of the welded
metal in one part. In this case, along with the transverse tensile test, a
weld metal longitudinal tensile test should be used. This test is aimed
to determine the quality of the deposited metal in the welded joint.
Therefore, a specimen for the test is prepared from the weld metal by
machining a groove in a plate of steel and then completely filling it with
8
the weld metal. After that, the surrounding steel is machined away to
leave only a specimen of the weld metal [3]. Finally, after the test has
been completed, the two broken halves of the specimen are placed
together to measure the distance between the gauge marks and the
area at the place of fracture. The obtained data lead to the evaluation
of the properties of the welded material. In sum, it is clear that the
tensile test is better suited for testing small samples of parts, as it is
quite slow compared to nondestructive techniques. On the other
hand, it is still fast in terms of destructive tests. The main
advantages are the relative simplicity of the test and the ability to
provide quantitative information on weld quality [4].
2.2 Bend test
the bend test is a modest and inexpensive method that can be used to
assess various properties of the weld. Although it will not show the
quantitative values as the tensile test, the bend test will demonstrate
both the quality of the weld and its overall ductility. It also shows the
extent of the weld penetration, fusion, crystalline structure of the
fractured surface and strength. The bend test is a simple advance of
comparing one welded joint with another of the same type and
revealing irregularities and defects. Usually, bend tests are designed so
that the outer surface of the specimen is stretched to a ductility level
that approximates the minimum percent elongation required in a
tensile test. When defects exist in materials strained to these limits, the
material tears locally. When tearing exceeds a specific limit, the
specimen fails. It is frequently implemented as a quality control
evaluation for butt-welded joints, having the advantage of simplicity of
both specimens and equipment. No costly machinery or equipment is
required. It can be utilized using a tensile testing machine with
particular modifications. Test specimens can be easily prepared as well.
Therefore, the bend test can be performed in the field or on the
9
machine shop floor as a fast way to ensure consistency in the
manufacturing process. The process of the bending test is shown in Fig.
3 [5]. A

b Fig. 3 A schematic view of a bend test (a) and an overview procedure

of the free-formed bending test (b) [5] The bend test uses a sample
that is bent in three points to a specified angle. The outside of the
bend is extensively plastically deformed so that any defects in the
material or embrittlement thereof will be revealed by the failure of
the specimen. Generally, there are two types of bend tests: free-
formed and guided. The free-formed bend test is aimed to measure the
ductility of the weld deposit and the heat-affected zone. Moreover, it
shows in the percentage of elongation of the weld metal. To surpass
the barrier criteria of the test, minimum elongation should not exceed
15 percent and there should be no cracks greater that 1.5875 mm
on the face of the weld. The guided bend test is performed by
wrapping a sample weld around a specially designed jig with a certain
diameter. There are two types of tests. Face-bend tests are made in the
jig with the face of the weld in tension (outside), whereas the root-
bend test is performed with the root of the weld in tension (outside).
The specimen is positioned across the die. A hydraulically operated
plunge pushes the specimen into the die. To meet the requirements of
the test specifications, the specimen has to be bent up to 180 degrees
with no cracks larger than 3.5 mm on the surface [1, 5]. Bend tests can
be furthermore divided into the transverse bend test, root bend test,

10
face bend test, longitudinal bend test and side bend test. To test the
different properties of the weld, bend samples can be orienting
transverse or parallel to the welding direction. A 12 mm thick
transverse sample is typically tested with the root or face of the weld in
tension. A material over 12 mm thick is normally tested along the
whole thickness of the weld using the side bend test [5]. When the
material thickness is too great to let the complete section to be bent,
the sample should be divided into smaller parts and tested separately.
In general, most welding specifications require two roots and two face
bend specimens or four sides bend to be taken from each butt welded
test piece [1, 5, 6]. The transverse face bend specimen will reveal any
imperfections on the face, such as excessive undercut or lack of fusion.
It is also excellent at uncovering a lack of root fusion or penetration.
The transverse side bend test examines the full weld thickness and is
particularly good at revealing a lack of side-wall and root fusion in
double-V butt joints. Longitudinal bend samples are machined to
contain the complete weld, the heat-affected zone and side metals.
They may be bent with the face, root or side intension and are used
when there is a difference in mechanical strength between the two
parent metals or the parent metal and the weld. The bend test and the
ductility test are very common tests for welded joints, piping products
and reinforcing materials [1, 5].
2.3 Impact test
Impact testing is crucial in order to evaluate the behavior of welds
under dynamic loading. This test determines the behavior of welded
structures when subjected to high rates of loading. The test compares
the toughness of the welded material with the original one. Toughness
is defined as the resistance of a metal to fracture after plastic
deformation has begun. The purpose of impact testing is to determine
the amount of impact a specimen will absorb before fracturing [5].
11
Even though impact properties are not directly used in fracture
mechanics calculations, impact tests continue to be used as a quality
control method to assess notch sensitivity and to compare the relative
toughness of welded parts. Generally, there are two kinds of impact
tests, Chirpy and IPod. These are different by used specimens and
methods of fixing the specimens, but both tests are performed by using
a pendulum testing machine. During the test procedure, the specimen
is broken by a single hit using a specially designed machine. The impact
toughness of a metal is determined by measuring the energy absorbed
in the breaking of the specimen. This is simply obtained by noting the
height at which the pendulum is released and the height to which the
pendulum swings after it has struck the specimen. The height of the
pendulum times the weight of the pendulum produces the potential
energy. The difference in potential energy of the pendulum at the
start and the end of the test is equal to the absorbed energy [1]. A
typical machine for performing the impact test is shown in Fig. 4. One
of the most common impact testing techniques is the Chirpy method,
designed to measure impact energy, or the toughness of the metal.
Fig. 4 A typical impact test machine [1] Charpy tests show whether a
metal can be classified as being either brittle or ductile. This is
particularly useful for ferritic steels that show ductile or brittle
properties at low temperatures. A brittle metal will absorb a small
amount of energy during the impact test, whereas a tough ductile
metal absorbs more energy [1]. Since toughness is greatly affected
by temperature, the Charpy or Izod test is often repeated numerous
times with each specimen tested at different temperature conditions.
The standard size of the specimen for the test is 55 mm long, 10 mm
square and has a 2 mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25 mm
machined on one face, as shown in Fig. 5, b [1]. The Charpy piece is
settled horizontally between two anvils, and the pendulum strikes

12
opposite the notch (Fig. 5, a, view A). The Izod piece is positioned as a
vertical cantilever beam and is struck on the free end projecting over
the vise (Fig. 5, a, view B)
a
b Fig. 5 Charpy and Izod testing (a) [7], and the standard size of the
specimen (b) [1] The test is intended to check whether any of the
mechanical properties of the base material have been affected by the
welding process. The perfect impact test would show that all the
energy of the blow is transmitted to the test piece. When reporting the
results of a Charpy test, the absorbed energy (in J) is always reported,
while the percentage crystallinity and lateral expansion are optional
on the test report. It should be emphasized that Charpy tests are
qualitative, the results can only be compared with each other or
with a requirement in a specification and they cannot be used to
calculate the fracture toughness of a weld or parent metal [7].
2.4 Nick break test
The nick break test is useful for determining the internal quality of the
weld metal. This test reveals various internal defects, such as slag
inclusions, gas pockets, lack of fusion, and oxidized or burned metal.
The test specimen is cut transversely to the welded joint and has
the full thickness of the plate at the joint. Slots are sawed at each
edge through the center of the weld of the specimen to be tested. The
depth of the cut should be about 6.5 mm [6]. The specimen is placed
upright on two supports, and the force on the weld is applied either by
a press or by the sharp blows of a hammer until a fracture occurs
between the two slots. The process is shown below in Fig. 6. Fig. 6 The
nick break test procedure [6] The weld metal exposed in the break
should be completely fused, free from slag inclusions, and contain no
gas pockets greater than 1.5875 mm across their greatest dimension.

13
The fractured specimen cross-section is then visually examined for
imperfections. If any defect exceeds 1.5 mm in size or the number of
gas pockets exceeds one per square cm, the piece has failed the test
[6].
2.5. Hardness test
The hardness test measures the resistance to wear of the weld metal.
Hardness values can give information about the metallurgical changes
caused by welding. In the case of premium and high carbon steels and
cast iron, the heat-affected zone or weld junction may become hard
and brittle because of the formation of martensite. Hardness values in
a welded joint are usually sensitive to such conditions of welding as the
process used, heat input, preheat or underpass temperature, electrode
composition and plate thickness. Hardness values indicate whether the
correct welding technique and heat treatments have been performed.
The hardness of welds is particularly important if the welds must be
machined. There are two most commonly used hardness test methods:
the Brinell Test and the Vickers pyramid. The welded specimen should
be polished and etched to show clearly the weld metal area. Hardness
is determined on specific areas of interest, including the weld central
line, face or root regions of the weld deposit, the heat-affected zone
and the base metal [1].
2.5.1 Brinell hardness test
The test comprises forcing a hardened steel ball indentor into the
surface of the sample using a standard load as shown in Fig. 7, a. The
diameter/load ratio is selected to provide an impression of an
acceptable diameter. The ball may be 10, 5 or 1 mm in diameter, the
load may be 3000, 750 or 30 kgf. The load, P, is related to the diameter,
D, by the relationship P/D 2. The load is applied for a fixed length of
time, usually 30 seconds. When the indentor is retracted, two
14
diameters of the impression d 1 and d 2 are measured using a
microscope with a calibrated graticule and then averaged as shown in
Fig. 7, b. [1]. A) Brinell
indentation b) measurement of impression diameter Fig. 7 The
Brinell hardness test [5] The Brinell hardness number is found by
dividing the load by the surface area of the impression. The Brinell test
is generally used for bulk metal hardness measurements; the
impression is larger than that of the Vickers test, and this is useful as it
averages out any local heterogeneity and is affected less by surface
roughness. However, because of the large ball diameter the test can
hardly be used to determine the hardness variations in a welded joint
for which the Vickers test is preferred [1].
2.5.2 Vickers hardness test
The Vickers hardness test operates on similar principles to the Brinell
test; however, the major difference is the use of a square-based
pyramidal diamond indentor rather than a hardened steel ball. Also,
unlike the Brinell test, the depth of the impression does not affect the
accuracy of the reading. The diamond does not deform at high loads, so
the results on very hard materials are more reliable. The load may
range from 1 to 120 kgf and is applied for 10 to 15 seconds. [13]. The
basic principles of operation of the Vickers hardness test are illustrated
in Figure 8 where it can be seen that the load is applied to the indentor
by a simple weighted lever. A
b Fig. 8 Schematic principles of operation of Vickers hardness machine
(a) and Vickers hardness test (b) [1] As shown in Fig. 8, b, two
diagonals, d1 and d2, are measured and averaged, and the surface area
calculated and then divided into the load applied. As with the Brinell
test, the diagonal measurement is converted to a hardness figure by
referring to a set of tables. The Vickers indentation is smaller than the
Brinell impression and thus far smaller areas can be tested, making it
15
possible to carry out a survey across a welded joint, including individual
runs and heat-affected zones. The small impression also means that the
surface must be flat and perpendicular to the indentor. To achieve the
required flatness tolerance and surface finish, surface grinding or
machining may be necessary. The specimen dimensions are
important: if the test piece is too thin, the hardness of the specimen
table will affect the result. As a rule of thumb, the specimen thickness
should be ten times the depth of the impression for the Brinell test and
twice that of the Vickers diagonal [8]. 2.6 Etch test The macro etch
test is a test for visual evaluation of the homogeneity and soundness
of a weld. It involves pickling a disc or cross-section in strong acid until
deep etching displays the macro structure of the weld [6, 9]. Serious
defects like voids and porosity or cracks may be clearly visible on the
polished surface of the weld without any further treatment. However,
to detect any defects, the weld borders are etched with a proper
solution. The chemical reagent attacks the metal so that the specific
features stand out [6].

2. Non-destructive

These tests neither break nor

alter the structure or appearance of the

16
welded component. Non-destructive

tests
have the ability to detect invisible
subsurface defects. Although non-
destructive tests do not provide direct
measurement
of mechanical properties, they are
extremely useful in revealing
defects in components that could
impair their
performance when put in service.

2.1 Visual inspection

17
 Visual inspection is the

simplest, fastest, economical and

most commonly used testing method

for detecting
defects on the surfaces of welded
objects. The weld surface and joint
are examined visually; however,
sometimes a
magnifying lens is employed. Visual
weld inspection has the benefit of
being able to be done in-house, it
causes
18
minimal production delays and
provides immediate feedback to
welders and designers. Fig. 1 shows a
robotic crawler
which is used for the internal
inspection of pipe welds.

a
b
Fig. 1 Remote visual inspection using
a robotic crawler (a), and equipment
for the robot (b) [1]

171
19
 Generally, visual inspection

is aimed to reveal improper profiles

and dimensional inaccuracy of welds.

Such
defects often include warpage,
misalignment, incorrect joint
preparation and weld size or profile
discrepancies, that is,
porosity, blowholes, pipes, exposed
inclusions, unfused welds or unfilled
craters. The number, size and
distribution of
20
surface cracks in the weld metal, the
heat-affected zone or the parent metal
directly determine the weld strength.
No
cracks in the surface of the welds shall
be allowed. If a crack is found, the
crack must be removed and magnetic-
particle
inspection performed to ensure the
entire crack has been removed before
re-welding; the opposite of
insufficient throat
is excessive convexity. Often, this
convexity has a sharp approach into
the toe of the weld (angles greater
than 45
21
degrees.) In some cases, the weld
material can approach at nearly a
perpendicular angle; arc strikes are
areas where the
welding electrode comes into contact
with the base metal outside the final
weld. Arc strikes result in heating and
very
rapid cooling. They may cause
hardening or fatigue cracking, and
serve as potential sites for fracture
initiation. The
greatest value of visual inspection is
the prompt feedback to the welder to
recognize good quality and enhance
quality in
22
the future. Additionally, weld
rejection during visual inspection
avoids added further expense. Fig. 2
illustrates typical
welding defects, which can be
examined by visual inspection [1, 2].

Fig. 2 Common welding defects that

can be examined by visual inspection
[2]

2.2 Ultrasonic test

Ultrasonic flaw detection

has long been the preferred method

23
for nondestructive testing in

welding
applications. This safe, accurate and
simple technique has pushed
ultrasonic to the forefront of
inspection technology. It
can reveal a majority of the commonly
occurring defects in welded joints,
such as porosity, slag inclusions, a
lack of
side-wall and inter-run fusion and
root penetration, undercutting, and
longitudinal or transverse cracks.
Most of the
24
applications are for low-alloy
construction quality steels, however,
welds in aluminum can also be tested.
Ultrasonic
weld inspections are typically
performed using a straight beam
transducer in conjunction with an
angle beam transducer
and wedge. A straight beam
transducer, producing a longitudinal
wave at normal incidence into the test
piece, is first
used to locate any laminations in or
near the heat-affected zone. This is
important because an angle beam
transducer
25
may not be able to provide a return
signal from a laminar flaw [3]. This
situation is shown in Fig. 3, a.
Secondly, the
inspection involves using an angle
beam transducer to inspect the
actual weld. Angle beam
transducers use the
principles of refraction and mode
conversion to produce refracted shear
or longitudinal waves in the test
material. This
inspection may include the root,
sidewall, crown and heat-affected
zones of the weld. The process
involves scanning the
26
surface of the material around the
weldment with the transducer. This
refracted sound wave will bounce off
a reflector
in the path of the sound beam. With
proper angle beam techniques, echoes
returned from the weld zone may
allow the
operator to determine the location and
type of discontinuity, as illustrated in
Fig. 3, b [3].
To determine the proper scanning area
for the weld, the inspector must first
calculate the location of the sound
beam in the test material. Using the
refracted angle, beam index point and
27
material thickness, the V-path and
skip
distance of the sound beam is
found. Once these have been
calculated, the inspector can identify
the transducer
locations on the surface of the material
corresponding to the crown, sidewall
and root of the weld [3]. The
advantages of
ultrasonic examination include low
testing costs, mobility, availability
of equipment, basic standardization
and
simplicity. It means that this method is
used most often and in the widest
28
range of applications. Besides the
mentioned
advantages of ultrasonic examination
of welds, the method has a
shortcoming which is that not all weld
can be tested
with it [4]. The procedure of ultrasonic
testing is generally described in Fig. 4.

Ultrasonic flaw detectors are used to

inspect piping, vessels and field welds

for discontinuities. Ultrasonic

testing with portable flaw detectors
and angle beam transducers is the
29
most commonly utilized technique
for weld
inspection, and is mandated by many
welding codes and procedures.

2.3 X-Ray and gamma-ray

radiography test

This radiographic test method is used

to reveal the presence and nature of
internal defects in a weld, such as
cracks, slag and blowholes, and zones
where proper fusion is lacking. In
practice, an X-ray tube is placed on
one side of
the welded plate and an X-ray film,
with a special sensitive emulsion, on
30
the other side. Radiography using X-
ray and
gamma γ-ray on welds radiography is
one of the most useful of the
nondestructive tests which can be
applied for
assessing the quality of the welded
joints. Radiography has been used
for the inspection of welds of all
types and
thicknesses ranging from minute
welds in electronic components to
welds up to 50 cm thick employed
in heavy
fabrications. Radiography can detect
flaws or discontinuities in welds, such
31
as cracks, porosity and blow holes,
slag,
flux or oxide inclusions, a lack of
fusion between the weld metal and the
parent metal, and incomplete
penetration. The
radiography technique is based upon
exposing the components to short
wavelength radiation in the form of X-
rays from
a suitable source, such as an X-ray
tube. The characteristic feature of X-
ray and gamma-ray which makes them
to work
is their power to penetrate matters
opaque to light. X-rays operating at
32
400,000 volts can inspect steel objects
with a
thickness of up to 62 mm [5]. Gamma-
rays given off by radium and
radioactive isotopes such as cobalt-60,
iridium-192
and caesium-167 can penetrate and
thus inspect joints of bigger thickness
than examined by X-rays. When
developed,
the defects in the metal show up as
dark spots and bands, which can be
interpreted by an operator experienced
in this
inspection method. X-ray testing is
used for most radiographic
33
inspections, but gamma-ray equipment
has the advantage
of being portable [6].

2.4 Magnetic particle inspection

This method of nondestructive

testing tends to supplement rather
than displace radiography. For
example,
radiography ordinarily cannot detect
small cracks, especially when they
are too small to be seen by the naked
eye.
Magnetic particle inspection is a
relatively simple and easy technique.

34
It is almost free from any restriction as
to size,
shape, composition and heat-
treatment of a ferromagnetic
specimen. This method is used on
magnetic ferrous
weldments for detecting invisible
surface or slightly subsurface defects.
Deeper subsurface defects are not
satisfactorily
detected because the influence of the
distorted lines of the magnetic flux on
the magnetic particles spread over the
job
surface becomes weaker with the
distance, so that sensitivity decreases
35
rapidly with the depth. The defects
commonly
173

revealed by magnetic particle

inspection are quenching cracks,
thermal cracks, seams, laps, grinding
cracks, overlaps,
non-metallic inclusions, fatigue cracks
and hot tears. When a piece of metal is
placed in a magnetic field and the
lines of
the magnetic flux get intersected by a
discontinuity, such as a crack, or slag
inclusions in a job, the magnetic poles
are

36
induced on either side of the
discontinuity [7]. The discontinuity
causes an abrupt change in the path of
the magnetic
flux flowing through the job normal to
the discontinuity, resulting with a
local flux leakage field and
interference with
the magnetic lines of force. This local
flux disturbance can be detected by its
effect upon the magnetic particles
which
are attracted to the region of
discontinuity and pile up and bridge
over the discontinuity, as shown in
Fig. 5.
37
Fig. 5 A schematic view of the
magnetic particle test [7]

A surface crack is indicated

by a line of fine particles following

the crack outline. Steps involved are:

i)
magnetizing the component part, ii)
applying magnetic particles on the
component part and iii) locating the
defects. A

38
variety of equipment exists to
establish the magnetic field for the
test. Some equipment is designed to be
portable so
that inspections can be made in the
field and some is designed to be
stationary for ease of inspection in the
laboratory or
manufacturing facility. Today, most of
the equipment employed to create the
magnetic field used in MPI are based
on
electromagnetism that is using an
electrical current to produce the
magnetic field. An electromagnetic
yoke is a very
39
common piece of equipment that is
used to establish a magnetic field [1].
It is shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 The approach of creating a

magnetic field based on
electromagnetism [1]

This type of magnet

generates a very strong magnetic field

locally where the poles of the magnet

touch the part

40
being inspected. Magnetic particle
inspection is quite a popular method
of non-destructive testing nowadays
and it has a
lot of potential.

2.5 Liquid penetrant test

Liquid penetrant methods are

used to inspect metals for surface

defects that are similar to those

revealed

41
 by magnetic particle inspection.
Unlike magnetic particle inspection,
which can reveal subsurface defects,
liquid
penetrant inspection reveals only
those defects that are open to the
surface. Three groups of liquid
penetrants are
presently in use: i) non water-
washable, ii) water-washable, and iii)
fluorescent dye penetrants. Before
using a liquid
penetrant to inspect a weld, all slag,
rust, paint and moisture must be
removed from the surface. Except
where a specific
42
finish is required, it is not
necessary to grind the weld surface
as long as the weld surface meets
applicable
specifications. The weld contour
must blend into the base metal
without under-cutting. After the
surface has been
cleaned, all traces of the cleaning
material have to be removed. It is
extremely important to remove all
dirt, grease,
scale, lint, salts, or other materials and
to make sure that the surface is
entirely dry before using the liquid
penetrant [8].
43
174

Fig. 7 The liquid penetrant test

procedure [8]

A liquid penetrant should

always be used when the temperature

range is 10–40°C. After thoroughly

cleaning
and drying the surface, the surface is
coated with the liquid penetrant which
44
is allowed time to soak into all the
cracks,
crevices, or other defects that are open
to the surface. The surface of the test
piece is kept wet with the penetrant for
a
minimum of 15 to 30 minutes. After
this, any excess penetrant should be
removed. Next, the test surface is
allowed to
dry by normal evaporation or it is
wiped dry with a clean, lint-free
absorbent material. After the surface
has dried
another substance (powder or liquid),
called a developer, is applied and
45
allowed to stay on the surface for a
minimum of
7 minutes before starting the
inspection. The literature provides
examples of the liquid penetrant test
[9].

2.6 Eddy current test

As eddy current is best used

for detecting surface-breaking cracks,

its most practical applications relate to

the
46
in-service inspection of welded
structures that are subject to a cyclical
loading that can lead to fatigue crack
propagation
in critical welded areas. In eddy
current testing, a sinusoidal AC
voltage is applied across the eddy
current probe or
inspection coil (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8 A schematic view of the Eddy

current [1]
This coil creates an electromagnetic
field, which in turn causes current
flow on the surface of the material
47
being inspected. When the coil or
probe is scanned across the material
surface, changes in the material's
physical
properties, i.e., geometry, temperature,
conductivity, material type and flaws,
affect the current flow generated by
the
electromagnetic field induced in the
material by the probe. These changes
reflect back to the probe. If the voltage
response of the eddy current probe is
monitored, then changes in voltage
amplitude and phase angle shift can be
used to

48
show changes in material properties.
These changes in magnitude and phase
angle are displayed on what is known
as
the impedance plane display [1]. By
far the widest use of eddy current weld
inspection occurs in the offshore
industry.
Offshore structures such as drilling
platforms are subject to cyclical loads
twice daily and, more unpredictably,
by
severe weather. Fatigue crack
propagation can occurred topside or
underwater and periodic inspection of
critical weld
49
areas is required. Frequently, topside
inspections are only possible by rope
access. Underwater inspections and
repairs
are often done by divers at acceptable
depths. At more extreme depths in
cold water areas, remote-operated
vehicles
have been developed to carry out
surface preparation, eddy current weld
inspection, weld repair and repair
inspection in
one unit. Moreover, eddy testing is
often used in evaluating bridges and
other structures, which are subject to
cyclical
50
loading on their welded structures, as
well as weather-related loading. Eddy
current inspection offers several
benefits
over other rivaling non-destructive
inspection techniques. Traditionally,
a suspect weld is stripped, cleaned,
and a

175

magnetic particle or liquid penetrant

inspection is performed to detect any
surface-breaking cracks. Beyond
offering

51
effective surface-breaking flaw
detection for various welded
structures, the eddy current technique
offers a higher flaw
detection hit rate, reduced costs and
down time, lower inspection
consumables costs, minimal or no
surface preparation
and the capability to be done
underwater [10].

3. Conclusion
This paper presented the most
potential and profitable techniques of
evaluating weld. Considering
destructive tests, there are several

52
quite similar methods which are
aimed to reveal different types of
welding defects. Also, to perform
successful production it is not only
important to evaluate welds
afterwards, but also to carefully check
all the starting conditions and
equipment. Moreover, nowadays some
welding evaluation techniques tend to
be used as real-time welding
evaluation. It seems that this
application will be develop in the near
future. All in all, a number of weld
evaluation techniques can be used in
evaluating weld quality, all based on
physical model analysis.

53
 This paper presented the most
potential and profitable techniques
of evaluating weld. Ultrasonic testing
is
considered as one of the most
common, cheap, fast and convenient
methods to use. Considering
destructive tests, there
are several quite similar methods
which are aimed to reveal different
types of welding defects. Also, to
perform
successful production it is not only
important to evaluate welds
afterwards, but also to carefully check
all the starting
54
conditions and equipment. Moreover,
nowadays some welding evaluation
techniques tend to be used as real-
time
welding evaluation. Non-destructive
methods are highly valuable
techniques that can save both time
and money in
evaluating welds and conducting
research in metals welding.

References

1. NDT resource center. – Pipeline

inspection, NDT resource center,
www.ndt-ed.org,

55
2. Inspection. – Tafaseel Engineering,
tafaseel-eng.com, 2010.
3. Lopez, B. Weld inspection with
EMAT. – NDT, the nondestructive e-
Journal, 2008, p 1-5.
4. Michnowski, W., Miz, R.,
Mierzwa, J., Latarowski, J. Ultrasonic
examination of Difficult welds. –
Thin weld
testing, 2001, p. 1- 6.
5. What is a welding certification? –
Gowelding.org/Welding
Certification.html.
6. Ultrasonic welding, cast iron filler
metal, stress relieving – Practical
welding letter, 2004, issue 8.
56
7. Magnetic particle inspection. –
Welding technology Machines, 2001.
8. Welding quality control.
Fundamentals of Professional
welding. – Published by Sweet Haven
Publishing Services,
2003.
9. Antaki, G. A. Piping and Pipeline
Engineering Design, Construction,
Maintenance, Integrity, and Repair. –
eBook
ISBN: 978-0-203-91115-0, 2003,
chapter 16.
10. Smith, C. H., Schneider, R. W.,
Dogaru, T. Smith, S. T. Eddy-current

57
testing with gmr magnetic sensor
arrays. –
Presented at the Quantitative
Nondestructive Evaluation
Conference, Green Bay, WI, July 28,
2003. Published in
Review of Progress in Quantitative
Nondestructive Evaluation, vol.
2323, ed. by D. O. Thompson and
D. E.
Chimenti, (American Institute of
Physics, Melville, NY, 2003), p. 406-
413.

58
59