BORIS STIJAKOVIC

Table of contents

Transmittal Letter 3

Executive summary 4

Introduction 5

Background and Literature review 5

Theory 6

Procedure 7

Equipment 7

Observation 8

Data analysis 9

Results 10

Mild Steel 10

Aluminium 11

Reinforced Bar 12

Rockwell testing of mild steel 13

Conclusion 14

References 14

Appendix 16

A, B

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Dear Mr. Petersen

I am submitting the investigative report entitled Tensile and Hardness tests for CIVL2240
Civil Engineering Materials Course 2011.

This report has been prepared in accordance to the requirements elaborated in Civil
Engineering Materials-Laboratory Guide (2012) by Michael D. Netherton. The report
contains investigation of the material performance of various metals such as mild steel,
aluminium and deformed reinforcement bar via tensile tests. Also hardness test of mild
steel using Rockwell test device.

This experiment has allowed us to understand the behaviour of the metals such as mild
steel, aluminium and deformed reinforcement bar which have extensive use in the building
and construction industries.

I hope the report meets and exceeds the requirements, please feel free to contact me if you
have any further questions regarding the report.
Sincerely,

Boris Stijakovic
[email protected]

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 Executive Summary
In this summary, it is my aim to analyse the behaviour of metals, after they have been subjected to
hardness and tensile tests. The metals tested, under strict and well-defined procedures, were
reconstituted products such as bars made from aluminium, mild steel and a reinforcing bar. These
bars were of the same measurement in length and diameter so that the outcomes could be more
easily interpreted and compared.
It is expected that the results of the tests will be helpful to us to understand how certain metals
behave under specific conditions. They will also provide directions for investigating the properties
and usefulness of the metals when they are being used in construction industries. The laboratory
experiment was carried out with the use of an extensometer, which gave accurate measurements of
the metals being tested. The metal bars were firmly affixed to the extensometer in such a way that
axis of the tested specimen coincided with that of the apparatus. Initially loads were applied at low
speeds. Simultaneous observations were recorded as the loads were increased on each metal bar.
However, data was only recorded systematically at regular load-interval: at every 5 kN for mild steel
and reinforcing bar, and every 2kN for the aluminium bar. All data was relayed by the extensometer
to a computer, which recorded them, developed and produced the graphs which indicated the
strains as the loads were increased. All data points were employed in calculating Young’s Modulus,
and also in determining the change in the metal bars as the loads were increased in gradual stages.
When unloaded, it was possible to calculate and observe the characteristics of each yield. This
allowed us to see the specific behaviours of metals as they were subjected to conditions of
unloading and reloading. The resultant observations showed the metals being tested to behave
plastically or elastically as force was applied to them. They can also fracture depending on the loads
applied; similarly, this happens when they absorb the energy which then increases temperature to
originate the stretching process. Observed characteristics matched those as indicated in the
standard textbook.
This report has a specific purpose: to show, through the data collected and the analyses made, the
results of stresses and strains on metals, when they are stretched to the breaking points. The
Rockwell test device was used to determine the hardness status of the mild steel bar. Comparisons
were made via the tensile tests, between the behaviours of the aluminium and the mild steel bars.
Results indicated and demonstrated the raw and characteristics of the three metal bars being
investigated, so that they can be classified through accurate scientific analyses and tests, for their
appropriateness in building and construction activities.

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 Introduction

The aim of this report is to analyse stress and strain of metals and performance of mild steel,
aluminium and reinforcing bar through tensile tests. Using Rockwell test device, hardness of mild
steel has been found. The investigation of the metals behaviour and comparison of the aluminium
and mild steel bar is included in this report. Through the report, we can see different characteristics
of various metals as these metals can be used suitably for manufacture.

Background information and literature reviews

The concept of 'Strength of Materials' has been introduced at the earliest attempts to account for
the behaviour of structures under load. Therefore the investigation of such issues has been taken
place by Galileo and Hooke in the 17th century, Euler and Coulomb in the 18th century.’ Similar issues
occurred associated with the behaviour of beams and columns but modern technology which is used
today for the investigation, gives more accurate and precise data which assist in defining behaviours
of metals. Mathematical modelling has also been a useful tool to describe the behaviour of elastic
bodies which was made by Navier (1821) and Cauchy (1822). Gradually the concept of structures has
subsequently developed and contains various and sophisticated fields of interests in Engineering and
understanding the metals structure and characteristics.

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 Theory
Stresses occur in any material that is subjected to a load or any applied force. When a metal
is subjected to a load (force) it is distorted or deformed, no matter how strong the metal or
the light the load. Stress can be equated to the load per unit area or the force (P) applied per
cross sectional are (A) perpendicular to the force.
σ = P/A
Strain is the amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test
ε = Delta L/L
It can be shown that the stress is directly proportional to the strain within the straight line
region. This relationship is expressed by Hooke's Law;
σ = E/ε
Young’s Modulus can be calculated if the values for strain and stress are known. When
strain Vs stress is plotted on a graph, E can be interpreted as the gradient, this is shown in
Fig. 1.

Fig.1: Stress v Strain

As the sample expands the deformation of the specimen occurs, as a result the diameter of
the sample is reduced. This is known as necking.
A material can possibly fail in one of two ways; brittle or ductile
Brittle materials have a high tendency to break when subject to high stress. Brittle materials
have undergone very little strain when they reach their elastic limit, and tend to break at
that limit. Ductile materials will withstand large strains before the specimen ruptures.
Ductile materials often have relatively small Young’s modules and ultimate stresses.
Ductile materials exhibit large strains and yielding before they fail.

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 Procedure

 Measure and record the average diameter of the sample

 Mark a 50.8mm length along the axis
 Place sample in tensile testing machine
 Apply the load to the sample taking readings every 5KN and 2KN
 Record the maximum tensile strength
 Continue to load the sample until failure
 Remove sample after failure and measure diameter and the length

Rockwell hardness testing

 Using the Rockwell device and using the B scale with an initial load of 98N and a final load of
980N place a sample in the device
 Load the specimen and record the hardness value after indentation with the steel ball
Repeat 7 times

Equipment
 Micrometer
 50.8mm Marking scale and hammer
 Tensile Tester
 an extensometer
 Rockwell Tester

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 Observations

As it could be seen during the conduction of the experiment, all samples deformed after the
max tensile strength was reached. In the samples examined, a change in length and
reduction in diameter was noticeable. This continued until the sample failed. All of the
materials failed in a ductile manner as distinguished by the reduction in area concentrated in
the middle of the samples.

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 Data
Table1. Results for Mild Steel Bar

Table2. Results for Aluminium Bar

Table3. Results for Deformed Bar

Table4. Results - Rockwell Test on Mild Steel

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 Results
Mild Steel Bar
The following graph of Stress Vs Strain was plotted using the data in Appendix A and the
equations in the Data.

Fig. 1 Stress Vs Strain

In Fig.2 Stress Vs Strain graph, shows the linear deformation at the upper yield. The load was
added to the elastic limit to approximately 395 MPa, before it was dropped to zero. When
reloaded, the plastic deformation occurred as the strain did not come back to the initial
value (0). It can be seen that when reloaded, the line directly matched the unloading line
and is matching the original loading line.
Young’s Modulus can be calculated from Fig.3 as the gradient of the line up to the elastic
limit, to determine the gradient, line of best fit was used. From the graph it can be seen at
Young’s Modulus is 212.3 GPa, standard results indicate that values for steel are close to 200
GPa (William F. Riley, Leroy D. Sturges and Morris

Fig.3 Young’s Modulus calculations

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 Aluminium Bar

The following graph of Stress Vs Strain was plotted using the data in Appendix A and the
equations in the Data.

Fig. 4 Stress Vs Strain

In Fig.4 Stress Vs Strain graph, shows the linear deformation; however it can be seen that for
the Aluminium sample there are no yield points. For Aluminium the 0.2% yield stress is
given. Young’s Modulus calculation is determined by the slope of the line.
The Young’s Modulus calculated for Aluminium is 62.5 GPa being slightly less than the
standard value (William F. Riley, Leroy D. Sturges and Morris, 1996) around 71 GPa.

Fig. 5 Young’s Modulus calculations

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 Deformed Bar

The following graph of Stress Vs Strain was plotted using the data in Appendix A and the
equations in the Data.

Fig.6 Stress Vs Strain

In Fig.6, it can be seen that it is comparable to Mild Steel and that it has numerous yield
points. The sample has been loaded until it failed, where the ultimate load was 71.743kN.
The Young’s Modulus was calculated using the same principle as in the previous samples.
Measured Young’s Modulus for reinforcing bar of 210.3 GPa is very similar to that of Mild
steel, as expected since they are both of similar materials.

Fig.7 Young's Modulus calculations

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 Rockwell Testing of Mild Steel

Rockwell values for mild steel: 78R, 78R, 79R, 80R, 75R, 75R & 74R. Only the last five were
taken into calculation. The average is 76.6R; this corresponds to a tensile strength of
approximately 500 MPa. (From the graph below)

Fig.8 Rockwell B values versus approximate tensile strength (MPa)

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 Conclusion

The tests conducted for the three selected metals provided information on such details as stress at
the upper and lower yield points, increases in gauge lengths, types of fractures, their tensile
strengths, percentage reduction in cross-sectional areas, the change in yield characteristics
especially after the reloading and unloading procedures were applied. The graph shows that the
reinforcing metal bar had greater tensile strength than the other two metals. Out of the three,
aluminium bar had the least tensile strength.
When subjected to the Rockwell hardness testing device, the mild steel bar indicated a tensile stress
of strength reading of 500MPa. This compared very favourably with the tensile strength of the mild
steel bar as recorded by the Instron Testing Device at 598.40MPa.
In conclusion, it can be established that tensile strength of any type of steel can be accurately
measured simply by using the Rockwell Testing Device and by the observation of the graph formed
by the data collected.

Table 5. Summary of Values

Reference

(“Statics and Mechanics of materials” 1996, William F. Riley, Leroy D. Sturges and Don.H.Morris,
Distinguished Professor Emeritus, Aerospace Engineering, Engineering Science and Mechanics , Iowa
State University and Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University).

(Lecture notes for CIVL2240, 2012)

http://www.civilengineeringterms.com/mechanics-of-solids-1/ductile-and-brittle-materials-
difference-between-ductile-and-brittle-material/

http://www.engineeringarchives.com/les_mom_truestresstruestrainengstressengstrain.html

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 Appendix A
A1. Table 6 : The raw data for Mild steel and the calculation

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A2.

Table 7: The raw data for Aluminium and the calculation

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A3.

Table 8 : The raw data for Reinforced Bar and the calculation

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A4. Gradient Formula

Fig.9 Young’s Modulus calculation using gradient

Rockwell Hardness Test

Table 9: Readings and values

Reading Value (R)
1 78
2 78
3 79
4 80
5 75
6 75
7 74
Average: reading 3-7
76.6

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 Appendix B – Computer Generated Graphs
B1. Mild Steel

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B2. Aluminium

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B3. Reinforced bar

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