1

Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ .2
1.1 BASICS................................................................................................................................... .3
1.2 LOGICS................................................................................................................................... .4
1.3 SYNTAX...................................................................................................................................5
2 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES................................................................................................. .7
2.1 C................................................................................................................................................7
2.2 Pros and cons of C................................................................................................................... .7
2.3 C++.......................................................................................................................................... .8
2.4 C#..............................................................................................................................................9
2.5 Python...................................................................................................................................... .9
2.6 Introduction to Python............................................................................................................ .10
2.7 JAVA SCRIPT......................................................................................................................... .11
3 INPUT DEVICES...........................................................................................................................13
3.1 KEYBOARD......................................................................................................................... .13
3.2 MOUSE................................................................................................................................. .13
3.3 SCANNER..............................................................................................................................14
4 VARIETY OF INPUT DEVICES..................................................................................................15
4.1 MECHANICAL KEYBOARD...............................................................................................15
4.2 TRACK BALL...................................................................................................................... .15
4.3 HAND HELD SCANNER......................................................................................................15
5 OUTPUT DEVICES.......................................................................................................................15
5.1 MONITOR..............................................................................................................................15
5.2 PROJECTOR......................................................................................................................... .16
5.3 SPEAKERS........................................................................................................................... .16
6 MEMORY DEVICES.....................................................................................................................16
6.1 SSD........................................................................................................................................ .16
6.2 HDD........................................................................................................................................19
7 HARD DISK................................................................................................................................. .19
7.1 WHAT DOES A HARD DISK LOOK LIKE?...................................................................... .19
7.2 WORKING OF HARD DISK............................................................................................... .20
8 INSIDE A COMPUTER.................................................................................................................20
8.1 BIOS...................................................................................................................................... .20
8.2 MOTHER BOARD.................................................................................................................20
8.3 CMOS.................................................................................................................................... .21
8.4 ASCII..................................................................................................................................... .21
8.5 RIBBON CABLES................................................................................................................ .22
2

1 INTRODUCTION
A programming language is a formal language that specifies a set of instructions for a computer to
perform specific tasks. It’s used to write software programs and applications, and to control and
manipulate computer systems. There are many different programming languages, each with its own
syntax, structure, and set of commands. Some of the most commonly used programming languages
include Java, Python, C++, JavaScript, and C#. The choice of programming language depends on
the specific requirements of a project, including the platform being used, the intended audience, and
the desired outcome. Programming languages continue to evolve and change over time, with new
languages being developed and older ones being updated to meet changing needs.
Are you aiming to become a software engineer one day? Do you also want to develop a mobile
application that people all over the world would love to use? Are you passionate enough to take the
big step to enter the world of programming? Then you are in the right place because through this
article you will get a brief iRibbon Fiber Optic Cable is just what its' name says, a ribbon of
optical fibers, which is formed into a flat strip. This is done by manufacturing a series of
individual optical fibers and laying them flat and bonding them to each other. Using this technology
as many as 24 optical fibers can be put together.ntroduction to programming. Now before we
understand what programming is, you must know what is a computer. A computer is a device that
can accept human instruction, processes it, and responds to it or a computer is a computational
device that is used to process the data under the control of a computer program. Program is a
sequence of instruction along with data.

The basic components of a computer are:

1. Input unit
2. Central Processing Unit(CPU)
3. Output unit
The CPU is further divided into three parts-
• Memory unit
• Control unit
• Arithmetic Logic unit
Most of us have heard that CPU is called the brain of our computer because it accepts data, provides
temporary memory space to it until it is stored(saved) on the hard disk, performs logical operations
on it and hence processes(here also means converts) data into information. We all know that a
computer consists of hardware and software. Software is a set of programs that performs multiple
tasks together. An operating system is also software (system software) that helps humans to interact
with the computer system.
A program is a set of instructions given to a computer to perform a specific operation. or computer
is a computational device that is used to process the data under the control of a computer program.
While executing the program, raw data is processed into the desired output format. These computer
programs are written in a programming language which are high-level languages. High level
3

languages are nearly human languages that are more complex than the computer understandable
language which are called machine language, or low level language. So after knowing the basics,
we are ready to create a very simple and basic program. Like we have different languages to
communicate with each other, likewise, we have different languages like C, C++, C#, Java, python,
etc to communicate with the computers. The computer only understands binary language (the
language of 0’s and 1’s) also called machine-understandable language or low-level language but the
programs we are going to write are in a high-level language which is almost similar to human
language.
The piece of code given below performs a basic task of printing “hello world! I am learning
programming” on the console screen. We must know that keyboard, scanner, mouse, microphone,
etc are various examples of input devices, and monitor(console screen), printer, speaker, etc are
examples of output devices.

1.1 BASICS
At this stage, you might not be able to understand in-depth how this code prints something on the
screen. The main() is a standard function that you will always include in any program that you are
going to create from now onwards. Note that the execution of the program starts from the main()
function. The clrscr() function is used to see only the current output on the screen while the printf()
function helps us to print the desired output on the screen. Also, getch() is a function that accepts
any character input from the keyboard. In simple words, we need to press any key to continue(some
people may say that getch() helps in holding the screen to see the output).
Between high-level language and machine language, there are assembly languages also called
symbolic machine code. Assembly languages are particularly computer architecture specific. Utility
program (Assembler) is used to convert assembly code into executable machine code. High Level
Programming Language is portable but requires Interpretation or compiling to convert it into a
machine language that is computer understood.
We assume you are well aware of English Language, which is a well-known Human Interface
Language. English has a predefined grammar, which needs to be followed to write English
statements in a correct way. Likewise, most of the Human Interface Languages (Hindi, English,
Spanish, French, etc.) are made of several elements like verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs,
propositions, and conjunctions, etc.
Similar to Human Interface Languages, Computer Programming Languages are also made of
several elements. We will take you through the basics of those elements and make you comfortable
to use them in various programming languages. These basic elements include −
• Programming Environment
• Basic Syntax
• Data Types
• Variables
• Keywords
• Basic Operators
4

• Decision Making
• Loops
• Numbers
• Characters
• Arrays
• Strings
• Functions
• File I/O
We will explain all these elements in subsequent chapters with examples using different
programming languages. First, we will try to understand the meaning of all these terms in general
and then, we will see how these terms can be used in different programming languages.
This tutorial has been designed to give you an idea about the following most popular programming
languages −
• C Programming
• Java Programming
• Python Programming
A major part of the tutorial has been explained by taking C as programming language and then we
have shown how similar concepts work in Java and Python. So after completion of this tutorial, you
will be quite familiar with these popular programming languages.

1.2 LOGICS
Programming paradigm is an approach to solve problems using some programming language or
also we can say it is a method to solve a problem using tools and techniques that are available to us
following some approach. There are lots of programming languages that are known but all of them
need to follow some strategy when they are implemented and this methodology/strategy is
paradigms. Apart from varieties of programming languages, there are lots of paradigms to fulfill
each and every demand. They are discussed below as follows:
5

1.3 SYNTAX
The piece of code given below performs a basic task of printing “hello world! I am learning
programming” on the console screen. We must know that keyboard, scanner, mouse, microphone,
etc are various examples of input devices, and monitor(console screen), printer, speaker, etc are
examples of output devices.

main()
{
clrscr();
printf(“hello world! I am learning to program");
getch();
}

Syntax is a set of rules that tell us what arrangements of characters create a valid statement in a
language. Human languages and programming languages are both dependent on syntax. To use
either type of language effectively, you need to know how to fit elements together to achieve your
goal. In the case of a human language, this goal is successful communication. In the case of a
programming language, the goal is to issue a set of directives that a computer can read and act on.
Syntax errors occur when the elements in a statement are disordered in a way that impedes
successful communication. Let’s look at a simple example from English:
1. The dog chased the rabbit.
2. The rabbit chased the dog.
3. Chased the rabbit the dog.
As you can see, word order matters a great deal in English. The words are the same in these three
sentences, but combining them in different ways results in very different meanings. Sentence one
contains a simple statement that accords with English syntax. Sentence two switches the positions
6

of the subject and direct object, so that while the sentence still makes sense syntactically, the
meaning is radically different. The third sentence shuffles the words around in such a way that it’s
difficult to read. It doesn’t follow the conventions of English syntax, so it’s unclear what the
sentence is saying.
Using correct syntax is arguably even more important in programming languages than it is in
human languages. If you’re learning a new human language and you only have a beginner’s
understanding of its syntax, you’ll often still be able to get your meaning across. This is because
syntax in human languages is often flexible, and human listeners can problem-solve to figure out
the meaning of an imperfect sentence.
Programming languages are less accommodating to syntax errors. Syntax determines how we
organize the elements in our code to make it legible to the computer. If there’s a syntax error, the
computer might not be able to read it.
Here are some examples of what programming syntax can determine:
• whether we use lower-case or upper-case characters
• how we notate code comments
• how we use whitespace
• how we indicate the relationships between statements (individual commands issued to the
computer)
Syntax is important in programming because it would be impossible to write functioning code
without it. Code is a set of instructions written in a language that a computer can read and act on. If
there are syntax errors in the code, the program won’t work.

Syntax vs semantics
“Semantics” is another term you might encounter while researching syntax. The relationship
between syntax and semantics is important. In linguistics, syntax refers to word order: the way that
words need to be sequenced in order to convey meaning. Semantics is the meaning that those
words convey. Likewise, in programming, syntax refers to the structure of the language, the internal
logic that determines how the language needs to be written. The semantic value of a line of code is
its content or meaning.
Let’s look at a few examples of the Hello World program written in different programming
languages. As we’ll see, the syntax varies between examples while the semantic meaning remains
the same.
7

2 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
2.1 C
The C programming language is a procedural and general-purpose language that provides low-level
access to system memory. A program written in C must be run through a C compiler to convert it
into an executable that a computer can run. Many versions of Unix-based operating systems (OSes)
are written in C and it has been standardized as part of the Portable Operating System Interface
(POSIX).
Today, the C programming language runs on many different hardware platforms and OSes such as
Microsoft and Linux.

2.2 Pros and cons of C

The C language comes with a set of special characteristics, making it one of the most widely used
languages of all time. The following are the main benefits of using C:
• Structured. It offers a structured programming approach for breaking down problems into
smaller modules or functions that are easy to understand and modify.
• Portable. C is machine-independent and C programs can be executed on different machines.
• Mid-level programming language. It's a mid-level language that supports the features of
both a low-level and a high-level language.
• Rich library. It offers numerous built-in library functions that expedite the development
process.
• Dynamic memory allocation. C supports the dynamic memory allocation feature, which
can be used to free the allocated memory at any time by calling the free() function.
• Speed. It's a compiler-based language, which makes the compilation and execution of code
faster. Since only essential and required features are included in C, it saves processing power
and improves speed.
• Pointers. C uses pointers, which improve performance by enabling direct interaction with
the system memory.
• Recursion. C enables developers to backtrack by providing code reusability for every
function.
• Extensible. A C program can be easily extended. If code is already written, new features and
functionalities can be added to it with minor alterations.
C also comes with a few shortfalls, even though it's an ideal language for programming beginners
due to its simple syntax, algorithms and modular structure. The following are a few disadvantages
of using C:
• OOP features. C doesn't extend its support for object-oriented programming (OOP)
features, which enables the creation of subclasses from parent classes. Unlike Java, Python
or C++, multiple inheritances can't be created in C, which makes it difficult to reuse existing
code.
8

• Namespace feature. C lacks namespace features, which means the same variable name can't
be reused in one scope. Without namespaces, it's impossible to declare two variables with
the same name.
• Run-time checking. C doesn't display code errors after each line of code; instead, all the
errors are presented by the compiler after the program has been written. This can make code
checking a challenge, especially for larger programs.
• Exception handling. C lacks exception handling, which is the ability to handle exceptions,
such as bugs and anomalies that can happen during source code
• Constructor and destructor. Since C isn't object oriented, it doesn't offer constructor and
destructor features. Constructing or destructing a variable in C must be done manually
through a function or by other means.
• Garbage collection. C isn't equipped with garbage collection. This important feature
automatically reclaims memory from objects that are no longer required by the library or an
app.
Where is C used?
C has a wide range of real-world applications that aren't limited to the development of OSes and
applications. C is also used in areas such as graphical user interface development and integrated
development environments.
The following are some use cases for the C language:
• OSes, such as Unix and all Unix applications;
• databases, including Oracle Database, MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server and PostgreSQL,
which are partially written in C;
• language compilers, including the C compiler;
• text editors;
• print spoolers;
• assemblers;
• network drivers;
• modern programs, such as Git and FreeBSD;
• language interpreters; and
• utilities, such as network drivers, mouse drivers and keyboard drivers.

2.3 C++
C++ is one of the most widely-used programming languages in game development. It has been used
to create: games, such as World of Warcraft, Counter-Strike, and StarCraft, game engines like
Unreal Engine, and gaming consoles, including Xbox, PlayStation, and Nintendo Switch.C has
a wide range of real-world applications that aren't limited to the development of OSes and
applications. C is also used in areas such as graphical user interface development and integrated
development environments.
The following are some use cases for the C++ language:
• OSes, such as Unix and all Unix applications;
9

• databases, including Oracle Database, MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server and PostgreSQL,
which are partially written in C;
• language compilers, including the C compiler;
• text editors;
• print spoolers;
• assemblers;
• network drivers;
• modern programs, such as Git and FreeBSD;
• language interpreters; and
• utilities, such as network drivers, mouse drivers and keyboard drivers.

2.4 C#
C# is a modern, innovative, open-source, cross-platform object-oriented programming language
and one of the top 5 programming languages on GitHub.
Do you have experience with JavaScript, Java, or C++? You'll find C# instantly familiar, and you'll
enjoy its evolving features including type safety, generics, pattern matching, async, records, and
more.
We hope you'll fall in love with C# from the very first keystroke.
s basically a high-level programming language. It is a dynamic and free open-source language in
nature. Moreover, it uses an interpreter for converting the source code into machine code.
Furthermore, it supports both object-oriented programming as well as procedure-oriented
programming. It is such a language that is highly readable and uses English keywords.

2.5 Python
Table of content
1 Introduction to Python
2 History of Python
3 Features
3.1 Easy to code and maintain
3.2 Open source and free
3.3 Object-oriented
3.4 Supports GUI programming
3.5 Extensible in nature
3.6 Portable and Platform independent
3.7 Integrated Language
3.8 Interpreted Language
3.9 Huge Standard Library
3.10 Dynamically Typed
3.11 Scalable
3.12 Browse more Topics Under Getting Started with Python
10

4 Execution Modes in python

4.1 Interactive Mode
4.2 Script Mode
5 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

2.6 Introduction to Python

Python is basically a high-level programming language. It is a dynamic and free open-source
language in nature. Moreover, it uses an interpreter for converting the source code into machine
code. Furthermore, it supports both object-oriented programming as well as procedure-oriented
programming. It is such a language that is highly readable and uses English keywords.

History of Python
Guido Van Rossum developed Python in the middle of the eighties and nineties. He developed it at
the National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in the Netherlands.
It is derived from many languages like C, C++, Algol-68, ABC, Unix shell, etc. Moreover, it is
copyrighted.
Features
The features are as follows:

Easy to code and maintain

Many people call it developer-friendly because it is quite easy to learn. Furthermore, we can learn
to write its code very easily in a few hours or days. Moreover, this is possible because it has only a
few keywords, a simple structure, and a clearly defined syntax.
Open source and free
It is an open-source language which means that anyone can download it, use it, and share it.
Moreover, it is free of cost.
Object-oriented
It supports object-oriented programming language features. For example, the concept of object
and classes, encapsulation, inheritance, etc.
Supports GUI programming
Python has support for creating various GUI applications. Furthermore, these applications can
work in many system software and libraries. Besides, it has modules like PyQt5, PyQt4,
wxPython, or Tk through which we can make graphical user interfaces. Among them, PyQt5 is
the most popular for making graphical apps.
Extensible in nature
It is extensible in nature which means that we can use python code in other languages. For
example C, C++ also can compile that code in C or C++.
Portable and Platform independent
It is portable in nature. Moreover, we can run the python code in any environment like windows,
Linux, mac, etc without changing it. Besides, if we write the code in one OS and run it on the
other it is totally valid.
Integrated Language
We can easily integrate it with other languages such as C, C++, etc. Hence, it is an integrated
language.
Interpreted Language
11

It uses an interpreter for converting the source code into machine code. This means that we
execute the python code line by line. Hence, it becomes easy to debug the error and solve it.
Huge Standard Library
There are a very large number of libraries in python. These libraries contain predefined modules
and functions for certain tasks. Hence, it becomes easy fr the programmer to develop the code
since he does not have to do all the things by himself. Moreover, the library is portable and
cross-platform compatible.
Dynamically Typed
This means that we do not have to define the type of the variable. The interpreter decides it itself
at the run time. Hence, the name dynamically typed.
Scalable
It provides good support for large programs.
Some additional features besides these are as follows:
• It supports both object-oriented and procedure-oriented programming structure.
• We can use it as a scripting language for large applications.
• It contains automatic garbage collection.
• It performs dynamic type checking.
• Case sensitive in nature.
• Useful for developing web applications.
• it uses indentation for program structuring. Unlike other languages that use braces for the
distinction of blocks.
Browse more Topics Under Getting Started with Python
• Data Types in Python
Execution Modes in python
As we know that python uses an interpreter for the execution of source code. now, there are two
ways in which we can use the interpreter. They are as follows:
• Interactive Mode
• Script Mode
The interactive mode allows us to execute a single statement instantly. Whereas, in script mode
we can write multiple lines of code and then execute it.
Interactive Mode
In this mode, we can execute a single statement at a time. Moreover, to use the interactive mode,
we have to write the statement in front of ‘>>>’ and press enter. This results in the output of that
particular statement immediately. This mode is easy and convenient to use to see the instant
output. But, at the same time, we cannot save the whole code and have to write it again and again
to execute it.
Script Mode
In this mode we have to write the whole source code and save it as a Python source code file.
Furthermore, we can execute this file using the interpreter. Moreover, we save the python source
code file with the extension ‘.py’.

2.7 JAVA SCRIPT

JavaScript / ECMAScript
JavaScript was invented by Brendan Eich in 1995.
It was developed for Netscape 2, and became the ECMA-262 standard in 1997.
12

After Netscape handed JavaScript over to ECMA, the Mozilla foundation continued to develop
JavaScript for the Firefox browser. Mozilla's latest version was 1.8.5. (Identical to ES5).
Internet Explorer (IE4) was the first browser to support ECMA-262 Edition 1 (ES1).

Year ECMA Browser

1995 JavaScript was invented by Brendan Eich
1996 Netscape 2 was released with JavaScript 1.0
1997 JavaScript became an ECMA standard (ECMA-262)
1997 ES1 ECMAScript 1 was released
1997 ES1 IE 4 was the first browser to support ES1
1998 ES2 ECMAScript 2 was released
1998 Netscape 42 was released with JavaScript 1.3
1999 ES2 IE 5 was the first browser to support ES2
1999 ES3 ECMAScript 3 was released
2000 ES3 IE 5.5 was the first browser to support ES3
2000 Netscape 62 was released with JavaScript 1.5
2000 Firefox 1 was released with JavaScript 1.5
2008 ES4 ECMAScript 4 was abandoned
2009 ES5 ECMAScript 5 was released
2011 ES5 IE 9 was the first browser to support ES5 *
2011 ES5 Firefox 4 was released with JavaScript 1.8.5
2012 ES5 Full support for ES5 in Safari 6
2012 ES5 Full support for ES5 in IE 10
2012 ES5 Full support for ES5 in Chrome 23
2013 ES5 Full support for ES5 in Firefox 21
2013 ES5 Full support for ES5 in Opera 15
2014 ES5 Full support for ES5 in all browsers
2015 ES6 ECMAScript 6 was released
2016 ES6 Full support for ES6 in Chrome 51
2016 ES6 Full support for ES6 in Opera 38
2016 ES6 Full support for ES6 in Safari 10
2017 ES6 Full support for ES6 in Firefox 54
2017 ES6 Full support for ES6 in Edge 15
2018 ES6 Full support for ES6 in all browsers **
Note
* Internet Explorer 9 did not support ES5 "use strict".
** Internet Explorer 11 does not support ES6.

The ECMA Technical Committee 39

In 1996, Netscape and Brendan Eich took JavaScript to the ECMA international standards
organization, and a technical committee (TC39) was created to develop the language.
ECMA-262 Edition 1 was released in June 1997.
13

From ES4 to ES6

When the TC39 committee got together in Oslo in 2008, to agree on ECMAScript 4, they were
divided into 2 very different camps:
The ECMAScript 3.1 Camp:
Microsoft and Yahoo who wanted an incremental upgrade from ES3.
The ECMAScript 4 Camp:
Adobe, Mozilla, Opera, and Google who wanted a massive ES4 upgrade.
August 13 2008, Brendan Eich wrote an email:
It's no secret that the JavaScript standards body, Ecma's Technical Committee 39, has been split
for over a year, with some members favoring ES4, a major fourth edition to ECMA-262, and
others advocating ES3.1 based on the existing ECMA-262 Edition 3 (ES3) specification. Now,
I'm happy to report, the split is over.
The solution was to work together:
• ECMAScript 4 was renamed to ES5
• ES5 should be an incremental upgrade of ECMAScript 3.
• Features of ECMAScript 4 should be picked up in later versions.
• TC39 should develop a new major release, bigger in scope than ES5.
The planned new release (ES6) was codenamed "Harmony" (Because of the split it created?).
ES5 was a huge success. It was released in 2009, and all major browsers (including Internet
Explorer) were fully compliant by July 2013

3 INPUT DEVICES
3.1 KEYBOARD
The keyboard is the main input device of the computer that is used most often. The
keyboard is used to perform all typing tasks on the computer. The keyboard has many types
of keys for proper function. The QWERTY keyboard has 6 types of keys:
• Indicators
• Function keys
• Alphanumeric Keys
• Control keys
• Number keys
• Navigation keys

3.2 MOUSE
The mouse is also the main input device. With which the pointer on the computer screen is
controlled. That is why it is also called a pointing device. Mouse is used to open, close, drag
and drop files,icons on a computer. The use of the mouse has increased a lot with the
introduction of GUI (Graphic User Interface).
14

3.3 SCANNER
A scanner is used to scan documents and enter them into the computer in digital form. The
scanned document can bThe ECMA Technical Committee 39
In 1996, Netscape and Brendan Eich took JavaScript to the ECMA international standards
organization, and a technical committee (TC39) was created to develop the language.
ECMA-262 Edition 1 was released in June 1997.

From ES4 to ES6

When the TC39 committee got together in Oslo in 2008, to agree on ECMAScript 4, they were
divided into 2 very different camps:
The ECMAScript 3.1 Camp:
Microsoft and Yahoo who wanted an incremental upgrade from ES3.
The ECMAScript 4 Camp:
Adobe, Mozilla, Opera, and Google who wanted a massive ES4 upgrade.
August 13 2008, Brendan Eich wrote an email:
It's no secret that the JavaScript standards body, Ecma's Technical Committee 39, has been split for
over a year, with some members favoring ES4, a major fourth edition to ECMA-262, and others
advocating ES3.1 based on the existing ECMA-262 Edition 3 (ES3) specification. Now, I'm happy
to report, the split is over.
The solution was to work together:
• ECMAScript 4 was renamed to ES5
• ES5 should be an incremental upgrade of ECMAScript 3.
• Features of ECMAScript 4 should be picked up in later versions.
• TC39 should develop a new major release, bigger in scope than ES5.
The planned new release (ES6) was codenamed "Harmony" (Because of the split it created?).
ES5 was a huge success. It was released in 2009, and all major browsers (including Internet
Explorer) were fully compliant by July 2013
15

4 VARIETY OF INPUT DEVICES

4.1 MECHANICAL KEYBOARD
The keyboard is the main input device of the computer that is used most often. The
keyboard is used to perform all typing tasks on the computer. The keyboard has many types
of keys for proper function. The QWERTY keyboard has 6 types of keys:
• Indicators
• Function keys
• Alphanumeric Keys
• Control keys
• Number keys
• Navigation keys

4.2 TRACK BALL

The mouse is also the main input device. With which the pointer on the computer screen is
controlled. That is why it is also called a pointing device. Mouse is used to open, close, drag
and drop files,icons on a computer. The use of the mouse has increased a lot with the
introduction of GUI (Graphic User Interface).

4.3 HAND HELD SCANNER

A scanner is used to scan documents and enter them into the computer in digital form. The
scanned document can be saved as an image on the computer. You can also edit the
document if you want.

5 OUTPUT DEVICES
5.1 MONITOR
The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is called the Monitor
• When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action is displayed on the
monitor
• Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years

PRibbon Fiber Optic Cable is just what its' name says, a ribbon of optical fibers, which is formed
into a flat strip. This is done by manufacturing a series of individual optical fibers and laying
them flat and bonding them to each other. Using this technology as many as 24 optical fibers can
be put together
16

A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what we command a computer to
do is called a speaker
• Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware device which can be
attached separately
• With the advancement in technology, speakers are now available which are wireless and can
be connected using BlueTooth or other applications

5.2 PROJECTOR
An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a projection screen is called a
projector
• Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie theatres for the display
of the videos or lighting
• If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed on the screen is the
same as the one displayed on the computer screen

5.3 SPEAKERS
A speaker is an output device that produces sound through an oscillating transducer called a driver.
The equivalent input device is a microphone. Speakers are plugged into a computer's sound card via
a myriad of interfaces, such as a phone connector for analog audio, or SPDIF for digital audio.

6 MEMORY DEVICES

6.1 SSD

A solid-state drive (SSD) is a semiconductor-based storage device, which typically uses NAND
flash memory to save persistent data. Each NAND flash memory chip consists of an array of blocks,
also known as a grid, and within each block, there is an array of memory cells, known as pages or
sectors. The number of bits stored in each cell can vary, and they are typically categorized as either
single-bit cells (i.e. "Single Level Cells" or "SLC"), 2- and 3-bit cells (i.e. "Multi-Level Cells/MLC"
and "Triple-Level Cells/TLC"), or quad-bit cells ("QLC"). Each cell type also has its strengths and
weaknesses. While SLCs are known for its reliability, high speeds and prices, QLCs have the
advantage of being more affordable. Each grid can store between 256KB and 4MB. The central
17

processing unit (CPU) acts as the controller for any reading or writing jobs to memory. Their size
and low power requirements make them ideal for laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
SSDs try to mimic HDDs through the use of nonvolatile solid-state memory, but they are much
faster than the traditional hard drive or floppy disk. HDDs have an inherent latency and access time
caused by mechanical delays in the spinning of the platter and movement of the read/write head.
Since SSDs have no moving parts, latency and time to access and store data is greatly reduced.
According to Gartner (link resides outside ibm.com), solid-state drives are emerging as the go-to
storage platform to support structured data workloads, which is fueled by innovation around NAND
flash and storage class memory (SCM) technology. They expect that by 2025 over 40% of all on-
premises IT storage administration and support activities will be replaced by managed storage as a
service, which is up from less than 5% in 2021.
Flash storage, also known as flash memory, is a type of solid-state technology which uses flash
memory chips for writing and storing data. Flash storage solutions can range from USB drives to
enterprise-level arrays. All-flash arrays are designed to maximize and speed up performance
without the constraints of storage area network (SAN) legacy functions. They are more suitable for
multi-cloud environments and storage protocols, like NVMe. Since most modern SSDs are flash-
based, flRibbon Fiber Optic Cable is just what its' name says, a ribbon of optical fibers, which is
formed into a flat strip. This is done by manufacturing a series of individual optical fibers and
laying them flat and bonding them to each other. Using this technology as many as 24 optical fibers
can be put together.ash storage tends to be synonymous with a solid-state system.
As implied by the name, internal solid-state drives are installed inside a computer, directly
connecting to its motherboard. External SSDs, on the other hand, are plugged in like external
HDDs, frequently to USB 3.0 ports, and serve similar purposes. Internal SSDs connect via standard
SATA, IDE, and m.2. while external SSDs utilize USB, eSATA, and Thunderbolt connections.
There are two main types of SSD form factors:
- mSATA III, SATA III, and traditional SSDs: While SATA SSDs are probably the most common,
it is more of a legacy technology as it was designed with the intention of being installed in the place
of a hard disk drive. That said, you may need a bay adapter or enclosure depending on your device,
such as a desktop PC. While the ease of installation facilitated the adoption of SSDs, this interface
is the process of phasing out with the introduction of PCIe and NVMe SSDs. By comparison,
mSATA III, SATA III, and traditional SSDs are limited in their speed times, having a lower
throughput compared to newer versions of SSDs in the market.
- PCIe and NVMe SSDs: Newer form factors, like U.2 and M.2 SSDs, utilize an interface protocol
called, Nonvolatile Memory Express (NVMe), which was jointly developed by companies in the
NVM express workgroup, such as Samsung, Intel, and Seagate. NVMe works with Peripheral
Component Interconnect Express (a.k.a. PCI Express or PCIe) to deliver high data transfer speeds,
reaching read speeds of over 3000 MB/s. The reduced latency makes this type of SSD ideal for
gamers and their Playstations. These SSDs usually come with a heatsink to prevent overheating.
IBM’s history with the hard drive dates all the way back to the 1950s with the IBM 650 RAMAC
hard drive. Hard disk drives (HDD) use a spinning magnetic disk and a mechanical write head to
18

manipulate data. The most common form factors are 2.5 and 3.5 inch drives, which are used for
laptops and desktops, respectively. While most HDDs leverage a SATA interface, also known as
Serial ATA, you may also encounter Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) or Fibre Channel connections for
specialized use.
Unlike HDDs, solid-state drives (SSD) have no moving parts to slow them down, so SDDs are very
appealing for their high throughput. However, solid-state users will tend to compromise on storage
capacity. While high-capacity SSDs exist, users will pay a premium compared to HDDs.
Many organizations are adopting a hybrid approach, mixing the speed of flash with the capacity of
hard drives. A balanced infrastructure enables companies to apply the right technology for different
storage needs, offering an economical way to transition from legacy HDDs without going entirely
to flash.
- High Performance: Solid-state drives are more efficient in speed compared to hard drives due to
its flash-based memory system, making it ideal for running apps, booting up your Windows or Mac
OS, or transferring files. However, as storage capacity decreases, solid state drives can become
increasingly slower.
- Easy of Use: SDDs are easy to install, and they have no moving parts. Their size and weight also
make them extremely portable, making them extremely appealing for popular mobile devices, like
the Mac Book and iPad.
- Durability and reliability: Thermal issues caused by high rotations per minute (RPM) and
mechanical wear and tear cause deterioration and degradation in HDDs over time and create
vulnerabilities to vibration, drops, and jolts.
- Limited number of writes: The main disadvantage of SSDs is that they have a limited lifetime
number of writes. However, techniques, like wear leveling and overprovisioning, help enterprise
class SSDs to withstand many years of continuous use.
- Cost: While the cost per storage unit (i.e. in gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB)) of SSDs is more
expensive than HDDs, the energy usage of SSDs is lower. Unlike HDDs, SSDs do not have use up
electricity to spin up disks from a standstill; its product design saves companies money on their
energy bills.

Scale up to help you move more data, while also supporting virtualization, hybrid cloud and big
data requirements.
Ensure continuity of operations, better performance, and lower infrastructure costs with storage data
protection and cyber resilience.
Simplify your hybrid cloud with high-performing all-flash storage solutions that are cost-effective
and easy to manage.
In this ebook, learn how to build a flash storage strategy to drive digital transformation. (165 KB)
Check out IBM's high-performance solutions that make hybrid cloud storage simple for every
enterprise (8.7 MB)
19

Learn more about storage area networks, advantages and why it’s important.
Solid-state drives and IBM
Featuring NVMe technology, IBM FlashSystem is managed by a common operating system (OS)
that offers high performance and secure storage capacity at prices that fit your needs. Our Storage
Insights capabilities will also help your team optimize storage infrastructure, providing reporting
and analysis of your system’s operations. With IBM hybrid flash, you can meet the data demands
cost effectively while strengthening performance and data availability.

6.2 HDD
A hard disk drive (HDD) is an internal or external computer component that stores data, such
as the operating system, applications, and user files. HDDs are “non-volatile” storage devices,
meaning they retain stored data even when power isn't being supplied.
There are two general types of hard drives: hard disk drives (HDD), which use one or more rotating
discs and rely on magnetic storage, and solid-state drives (SSD), which have no moving mechanical
parts, but use flash memory like the kind found in USB flash drives.
The data is stored on the hard drive magnetically, so it stays on the drive even after the power
supply is turned off. The term “hard drive” is actually short for “hard disk drive.” The term
“hard disk” refers to the actual disks inside the drive.

7 HARD DISK
• The platter is a circular magnetic disk containing tracks and sectors that retain data.
• The actuator arm moves across the platter to read and write data.
The platter spins (hence the name) on a spindle to help speed up the read/write process as the
actuator arm moves across it.
The data sectors are spread out randomly (also known as fragmented) across the platter, and below
we'll discuss defragmenting a hard drive to boost performance.

7.1 WHAT DOES A HARD DISK LOOK LIKE?

The platter and the actuator arm are delicate physical mechanisms, so a solid case covers them to
prevent damage under normal use. The hard drive cover will look like a metal box, and it will be
clearly labeled as a hard disk drive or HDD.
Here's what an internal HDD looks like beneath its metal casing. You can see the spinning platter
and the actuator arm, and how they work together to read and write the data upon request.
Hard disks are flat circular plates made of aluminum or glass and coated with a magnetic
material. Hard disks for personal computers can store terabytes (trillions of bytes) of information.
Data are stored on their surfaces in concentric tracks.. It is said to be rigid magnetic disc that
20

stores data. It is located within a drive unit. Hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that contains
platters and magnetic disks rotating at high speeds.

7.2 WORKING OF HARD DISK

Data are stored on their surfaces in concentric tracks. A small electromagnet, called a magnetic
head, writes a binary digit (1 or 0) by magnetizing tiny spots on the spinning disk in different
directions and reads digits by detecting the magnetization direction of the spots.
A hard disk is a memory storage device that looks like this: The disk is divided into tracks. Each
track is further divided into sectors. The point to be noted here is that outer tracks are bigger in size
than the inner tracks but they contain the same number of sectors and have equal storage capacity.
The components of a hard drive include the platter, spindle, read/write arm, and actuator. The
platters are circular disks that store data in the form of binary code, and the spindle is responsible
for spinning and for holding the platter in position
They are called “hard drives” because the platters inside them are made of rigid (hard) plates of
metal. They are “hard” disk . Compared to the “floppy drives” which had a flexible plastic disk
inside it.

8 INSIDE A COMPUTER
8.1 BIOS
BIOS, in full Basic Input/Output System, computer program that is typically stored in EPROM
and used by the CPU to perform start-up procedures when the computer is turned on. Its two major
procedures are determining what peripheral devices (keyboard, mouse, disk drives, printers, video
cards, etc.) are available and loading the operating system (OS) into main memory. After start-up,
the BIOS program manages data flow between the OS and the peripherals, so neither the OS nor the
application programs need to know the details of the peripherals (such as hardware addresses). In
the early 21st century, BIOS was supplanted by United Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI),
which can handle much larger drives and operate faster than BIOS.

8.2 MOTHER BOARD

A motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer. The motherboard is a
computer's central communications backbone connectivity point, through which all components and
external peripherals connect.
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together.
It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports
and expansion cards directly or via cables.A motherboard (also called mainboard, main circuit
board, MB, mboard, backplane board, base board, system board, mobo; or in Apple
21

computers logic board) is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in general-purpose computers and
other expandable systems.The standard 6-layer PCB stack-up includes top layer - prepreg -
internal ground plane - core - internal routing layer - prepreg - internal routing layer - core -
internal power plane - prepreg - bottom layer.

The CPU is the brain of a computer, containing all the circuitry needed to process input, store
data, and output results. The CPU is constantly following instructions of computer programs that
tell it which data to process and how to process it.

8.3 CMOS

CMOS (short for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) is the term usually used to describe
the small amount of memory on a computer motherboard that stores the BIOS settings. Some
of these BIOS settings include the system time and date as well as hardware settings.
Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) is a small amount of memory on a
computer motherboard that stores the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) settings. The BIOS
is the software stored on the memory chip on the motherboard.
The BIOS is the program that starts a computer up, and the CMOS is where the BIOS stores
the date, time, and system configuration details it needs to start the computer. The BIOS is a
small program that controls the computer from the time it powers on until the time the operating
system takes over.To sum up, CMOS circuit has the advantages of simple structure, low power
consumption, large noise tolerance and strong temperature stability, which is conducive to high
integration. In addition, due to the high degree of integration, the entire circuit is integrated in the
chip

8.4 ASCII
RIBBON CASCII, abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information
Interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII
codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other
devices.
Alias(es): ISO-IR-006, ANSI_X3.4-1968, ANSI_X3.4-1986, ISO_646.irv:1991, ISO646-
US, us, IBM367, cp367
Classification: ISO/IEC 646 series
22

Extensions: Unicode; ISO/IEC 8859 (series); KOI-8; OEM (series); Windows-125x (series); Others
Language(s): English (made for; does not support all loanwords), Malay, Rotokas, Interlingua, Ido,
and X-SAMPA
A=65 B=66 C=67 D=68 E=69 F=70 G=71 H=72 I=73 J=74 K=75 L=76 M=77 N=78 O=79 P=80
Q=81 R=82 S=83 T=84 U=85 V=86 W=87 X=88 Y=89 Z=90.

ASCII, stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It is a 7-bit character code
where each individual bit represents a unique character. This page shows the extended ASCII table
which is based on the Windows-1252 character set which is an 8 bit ASCII table with 256
characters and symbols. It includes all ASCII codes from standard ASCII, and it is a superset of ISO
8859-1 in terms of printable characters. In the range 128 to 159 (hex 80 to 9F), ISO/IEC 8859-1 has
invisible control characters, while Windows-1252 has writable characters. Windows-1252 is
probably the most-used 8-bit character encoding in the world.

8.5 RIBBON CABLES

Ribbon cabling is used for data transmission and communications. It is often chosen for
computer cable applications, where it is used as internal wiring for hard drives, CD drives, and
more. Ribbon cables are also commonly used as internal wiring for other electronics and appliances.
Ribbon cables are flat cables designed with the conductors laid parallel (side by side). Ribbon cable,
also known as multi-wire planar cable, is used for a wide variety of high speed, high performance,
space restricted applications, and low voltage applications.

Ribbon Fiber Optic Cable is just what its' name says, a ribbon of optical fibers, which is formed
into a flat strip. This is done by manufacturing a series of individual optical fibers and laying them
flat and bonding them to each other. Using this technology as many as 24 optical fibers can be put
together.