Unit VI: Data Presentation

Lesson Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should able to:
a. explore different ways to present data;
b. make observations, construct, compare, and interpret different graphs;
c. make observations, construct, and interpret statistical tables.

Data Presentation
Data presentation is defined as the process of using various graphical formats to visually
represent the relationship between two or more data sets so that an informed decision can
be made based on them.

Methods Of Presenting Data

1. Textual Method - a narrative description of the data gathered
2. Tabular Method - a systematic arrangement of information into columns and rows
3. Graphical Method - an illustrative description of the data

The Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)

An FDT is a statistical table showing the frequency or number of observations contained in
each of the defined classes or categories

Parts of a Statistical Table

1. Table Heading – includes the table number and the title of the table
2. Body – main part of the table that contains the information or figures
3. Stubs∨Classes – classification or categories describing the data and usually found at
the left most side of the table
4. Caption – designations or identifications of the information contained in a column,
usually found at the top most of the column

TABLE 1: Frequency Distribution of Staff Perception of the Leadership Behavior of the

Administrator

Caption Perception of Leadership Behavior Frequency Table Heading

Strongly favorable 10
Favorable 11
Slightly favorable 12
Slightly unfavorable 14
Unfavorable 22
Stubs/Classes Strongly unfavorable 31 Body

TOTAL 100
Types Of FDT
1. Qualitative or Categorical FDT – a frequency distribution table where the data are
grouped according to some qualitative characteristics, data are grouped into non
numerical categories

Example of a Qualitative FDT

TABLE 2: Frequency Distribution of the Gender of Respondents of a Survey
Gender of
Number of Respondents
Respondents
Male 38
Female 62
TOTAL 100

2. Quantitative FDT – a frequency distribution table where the data are grouped
according to some numerical or quantitative characteristics

Example of a Quantitative FDT

Table 3: Frequency Distribution for the Weights if 50 Pieces of Luggage
WEIGHT (in
Frequency
kilogram)
7–9 2
10 – 12 8
13 – 15 14
16 – 18 19
19 – 21 7
TOTAL 50

Steps∈the Construction of a Frequency Distribution Table

1. Determine the Range (R)
R=highest value−lowest value

2. Determine the number of classes (k )

k =√ N
where, N is the total number of observations in the data set.

3. Determine the class size (c ) by calculating first the preliminary class size c '
Preliminary class size c '
' R
c=
k
 Conditions for the actual c:
a. It should have the same number of decimal places as in the raw data, i.e., if
the observations in the data set are all whole numbers, then your c should
also be a whole number
b. It should be odd in the last digit

4. Enumerate the classes or categories

5. Tally the observations.
Note: Sometimes the number of classes (k ) is not followed. An extra class will be added to
accommodate the highest observed value in the data set and a class will be deleted if it
turns out to be empty.
6. Compute for values in other columns of the FDT as deemed necessary

Other Columns∈The FDT

1. True Class Boundaries (TCB)
a. Lower true class boundaries (LTCB)
1
LTCB=¿− unit of measure
2

b. Upper true class boundaries (UTCB)

1
UTCB=UL+ unit of measure
2

2. Class Mark (CM) - midpoint of the class interval where the observations tend to
cluster about
1 1
CM = ( ¿+UL )∨CM = (LTCB+ UTCB)
2 2
3. Relative Frequency (RF) the proportion of observations falling in a class and is
expressed in percentage.
frequency frequency
RF= or %RF= 100 %
N N
4. Cumulative Frequency (CF)-accumulated frequency of the classes.
a. Less than CF (<CF) – total number of observations whose values do not
exceed the upper limit of the class
b. Greater than CF (>CF) – total number of observations whose values are not
less than the lower limit of the class

5. Relative Cumulative Frequency (RCF)

c. Less than RCF (<RCF)
d. Greater than RCF (>RCF)

Example : Construct the FDT of the given data set.

 Age (in years) of 40 patients confined at a certain hospital
5 15 23 27 33 38 44 52
5 15 24 30 33 40 45 53
7 20 25 31 34 42 45 55
10 20 25 31 35 42 50 57
13 21 26 32 36 43 51 57
Solution:
Step 1: Range (R) = 57 – 5 = 52
Step 2: k =√ 40=6.32 ≅ 6 classes
' 52
Step 3: c = =8.67 ≅ 9 , Thus, c=9
6
Step 4:
Table: Frequency Distribution of Age (in years) of 40 patients confined at a certain hospital

Step 5:
Table: Frequency Distribution of Age (in years) of 40 patients confined at a certain hospital

Step 6:
Table: Frequency Distribution of Age (in years) of 40 patients confined at a certain hospital

Graphical Presentation of Data

A graph or a chart is a device for showing numerical values or relationships in pictorial
form
Advantages:
1. main features and implications of a body of data can be seen at once;
2. can attract attention and hold the reader's interest;
3. simplifies concepts that would otherwise have been expressed in so many words,
and;
4. can readily clarify data, frequently bring out hidden facts and relationships.

Qualities of a Good Graph

a. ¿ is accurate
A good graph should not be deceptive, distorted, misleading, or in any way
susceptible to wrong interpretations as a result of inaccurate or careless
construction. Also, care should be taken so as not to create any optical illusion.

b. ¿ is clear
An effective graph can be easily read and understood. The graph should focus on the
message it is trying to communicate There should be an unambiguous
representation of the facts The graph must be able to aid the reader in the
interpretation of facts.

c. ¿ is simple
The basic design of a statistical graph should be simple, straightforward, not loaded
with irrelevant, superfluous, or trivial symbols and ornamentation. There should be
no distracting elements in a chart that inhibit effective visual communication.

d. ¿ has a good appearance

A good graph is one that is designed and constructed to attract or catch attention by
holding a neat, dignified and professional appearance It must be artistic, i.e., it
embodies harmonious composition, proportion, and balance.

CommonTypes of Graph
1. Scatter Graph – a graph used to present measurements or values that are thought to
be related.
2. Line Chart – graphical presentation of data especially useful for showing trends over
a period of time.

3. Pie Chart – a circular graph that is useful in showing how a total quantity is
distributed among a group of categories. The "pieces of pie" represent the
proportion of the total that fall into each category.
 ¯ – like pie charts, column charts and bar charts are applicable only to
4. Column∧Graph
grouped data. They should be used for discrete, grouped data of ordinal or nominal
scale.

Graphical Presentation of the Frequency Distribution Table

1. Frequency Histogram - a bar graph that displays the classes on the horizontal axis
and the frequencies of the classes on the vertical axis, the vertical lines of the bars
are erected at the class boundaries and the height of the bars correspond to the
class frequency
2. Relative Frequency Histogram a graph that displays the classes on the horizontal
axis and the relative frequencies on the vertical axis
3. Frequency Polygon a line chart that is constructed by plotting the frequencies at the
class marks and connecting the plotted points by means of straight lines, the
polygon is closed by considering an additional class at each end and the ends of the
lines are brought down to the horizontal axis at the midpoints of the additional
classes.
4. Ogives-graphs of the cumulative frequency distribution
a. <Ogive – the <CF is plotted against the UTCB
b. >Ogive – the >CF is plotted against the LTCB

Example:
Table: Frequency Distribution of the grade of 40 students in a Psychology test.
Frequency Histogram

Frequency Polygon