to complete the flux.

Each flux line crosses

CHAPTER FOUR the air-gap twice. Some flux lines may not
enter the armature; this flux, called the
DC MACHINCES leakage flux.
The stator of dc machines comprises of
4.1 CONSTRUCTION OF DC I. Main poles: These poles are
MACHINES designed to produce the main
magnetic flux
The dc machines used for industrial
applications have essentially three major II. Frame: These provide support for
parts: the machine. In many machines the
frame is also a part of the magnetic
a) Field system (stator); b) Armature circuit.
(Rotor) and c) commutator
III. Interpoles: These poles are designed
All the components of the dc machine are to improve commutation conditions
illustrated in cut-away view of Figure 4.1. to ensure sparkles operation of
machine.

Figure 4.3 Main-pole

Main-pole
Poles are made of sheet steel laminations of
1.0 to 1.2mm thickness (nowadays the
Figure 4.1 cut-away view of DC machines thickness becomes 0.4-0.5mm). The pole
1.shaft; 2.end-bearings; 3. Commutator; 4. brushes; shoes support the field coils placed on the
5.armature; 6. main-pole; 7.main-pole field winding; pole body and also spread the total flux over
8.frame; 9.end-shield; 10.ventilator; 11.basement; a greater area, thereby reduce the air gap
12.bearings reluctance and giving the desired flux
Field System distribution to limit saturation in the teeth of
l
The field system is located on the stationary the armature. ( = ) .The poles are
part of the machine called stator. The field A
system is designated for producing magnetic secured to the yoke by means of bolts. In
flux and, therefore, provides the necessary small machines the pole are built of steel
excitation for operation of machine. Figure forgings, bolted directly to the yoke. In case
4.2 shows that the main flux  paths which of machines having compensating windings,
starts from a North pole, crosses the air gap the pole face is slotted to accommodate the
and then travels down to the armature core. windings.
There, it divides into two equal (2) halves,
each half enter the nearby South Pole so as

1
Yoke (Frame) to dc in case of generators and dc to ac in
case of motors. The ends of armature coils
The stator of a dc machines consists of a
are connected to the commutator, which
frame or yoke, and poles which support the
together with the brushes rectifies the
field windings. The Frame or Yoke in
alternating e.m.f induced in the armature
addition to being a part of a magnetic circuit
coils and helps in the collection of current
serves as mechanical support for entire
Riser
assembly. Commutator segment
Insulating V-groove
Interlopes
Thread bolt
In addition to the main poles, modern direct
current machines are also provided with
interlopes with windings on them in order to
improve commutation under loaded
conditions. They are arranged midway
between the mains poles and are bolted to
the yolk
Riser
Insulating V ring

Armature Copper commutator bars

End ring
End ring
The armature is the rotating part (rotor) of
the dc machine where the process of The Thread bolt
armature and the field system are separated
from each other by an air gap. The armature
consists of Armature core with slots and (a)
(b)
Armature winding accommodated in slots
Figure 4.5 (a) cut-away view of commutator; (b)
The purpose of the armature is to rotate the commutator segment
conductors in the uniform magnetic field
and to induce an alternating e.m.f in its
winding. The use of high grade steel is to Brushes and Brush Holder
keep hysteresis loss low, which is due to Brushes are needed to collect the current
cyclic change of magnetization caused by from the rotating commutator or to lead the
rotation of the core in the magnetic field and current to it. Normally brushes are made up
to reduce the eddy current in the core which of carbon and graphite, so that while in
are induced by the rotation of the core in the contact with the commutator, the
magnetic field. commutator surface is not spoiled.
In order to dissipate the heat produced by
hysteresis and eddy current losses etc,
ventilating ducts are provided.

Commutator
It is mounted on the rotor of a dc machine
and it performs with help of brushes a
mechanical rectification of power: from ac

2
 Pressure
Pigtail adjusting lever
B C

N S

Brush holder
A D
Spring

Brush

Figure 4.6 Brush and brush holder +

R1
B1
_
R2
B2
4.2 PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF
DC GENERATOR
Load
An electrical generator is a machine, which
converts mechanical energy into electrical C B
energy. The energy conversion is based on
principle of dynamically induced emf,
whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux,
dynamically induced emf is produced in it N S
(Faraday’s law). This emf causes a current
to flow if the conductor is closed. The basic
essential parts of an electrical generator are: D A
• A magnetic Field and
• A conductor or conductors, which can so +
R1
move as to cut the flux.
B1
_
Figure 4.7 shows the schematic diagram of a
R2
simple machine consists of a coil ABCD B2
rotating in the magnetic field of a strong
permanent magnet or powerful
electromagnet. The magnetic lines in the
Load
space between N and S poles are directed
from the North Pole N to the South Pole S as (a)
shown in Figure 4.7. The ends of the coil (b)
ABCD are connected to two copper rings R1 Figure 4.7 (a) and (b) Schematic diagram of a
and R2, fixed on the shaft. Two brushes B1 simple dc generator
and B2 connected to the external load circuit
Let the coil be rotated in an ACW, with
make contact with the copper rings R1 and
R2 respectively. constant surface speed v[ms] in relation to
the magnetic field . According to Faraday’s
laws of electromagnetic induction, an emf

3
will be induced in the rotating coil and is If the machine has P poles and the armature
given by rotates at N revolutions per minute, then the
e = Blv volts frequency of the induced emf in the
armature is,
As l and v are constant for particular case, PN
f = , Hz
120
e = cons tan t  B volts
Hence under the given conditions, the The above discussion clearly indicates that
change in the magnitude of induced e.m.f the e.m.f induced in the armature of a dc
with time depends upon the magnetic flux generator is of alternating nature, alternating
density distribution under the poles. It may with frequency of f hertz depending upon
be assumed neglecting harmonics it is a sine the number of poles in the machine and the
wave distribution. The direction of the speed of the armature.
induced emf in this case can be determined
by Fleming’s right hand rule as shown in However, the output voltage or the current
Figure below. Hence the conductor AB of of dc generator must be unidirectional and
the coil ABCD moves downward and CD that too of a constant value. Thus to compel
moves upward, the direction of the induced the above alternating current to flow in one
emf in the coil is along DCBA as shown in stipulated direction through the external load
Figure 4.7(a). The current in the external circuit, the dc machine is furnished with a
remains the same half a revolution of the special device called the commutator.
coil starting from its vertical position. Figure 4.9 shows that the coil ABCD
connected to a ring commutator split in two

ν

halves R1 and R2 well insulated from each

 other. The rings of the commutator are so
S N arranged that during half the revolution of
the coil, each half ring remain in contact
S N with a particular brush. Figure 4.9(a) wile
during the next half revolution, when the
Motion
Motion
current is reversed, the same half ring is in
Flux contact with other brush as shown in Figure
e Flux
EMF
4.9 (b).

emf
TYPES OF DC GENERATORS
Figure 4.8 Right-hand rule to determine the
direction of induced emf. The field winding and the armature winding
can be interconnected in various ways to
Similarly, in the next half of the revolution,
provide a wide variety of performance
the direction of the induced emf is reversed
characteristics. This can be taken as
and hence the current flows from brush B2 to
outstanding advantages of a dc machines. A
B1 as shown in Figure 4.7(b).The magnitude
dc machine can work as an
of current in the external circuit also varies
electromechanical energy converter only
with time as per sine law; i.e. its magnitude
when its field winding is excited with direct
is not constant with time.
current, except for small dc machines
employing permanent magnets. According

4
to the method of their field excitation dc a self-excited dc machine can be sub-divided
generators are classified into the following as follows:
group:
Series Excitation
a) Separately excited and
The field winding consists of a few turns of
b) Self excited thick wire and is connected in series with the
DC machines may have one or more field armature. In other words, the series field
windings and their method of excitation, current depends on the armature current and
determines the performance characteristics in view of this; a series field may be called a
of the dc machine. current operated field.
A. Separately Excited +
Ise I
Its field winding consists of several L
Important
hundreds turns of fine wire and is connected Ia relationships
to a separate or external dc source i.e. field Series
Winding i. I a L= I se = I L
o
winding are energized from an independent Eg
ii. VL E = V + I (R + Rse )
external sources of dc current. The voltage ga L a a
d
of the external dc source has no relation with
the armature voltage, i.e. the field winding iii. Pdev = E g  I a
energized from a separate supply, can be _
designed for any convenient voltage. iv. Pdel = VL  I L

+ IL
Important Figure 4.13 Series excited dc machine
relationships
Ia Shunt Excitation
Shunt i. I a = I LL
The field winding consists of a large number
E gV=L VoL + I a Ra
Winding
ii.
Eg
_ a of turns of fine wire and is connected in
+ Vdc
d parallel (or in shunt) with the armature.
iii. Pdev = E g  I a Therefore the voltage across the armature
_ terminals and the shunt field is the same and
iv. Pdel = VL  I L it is for this reason that a shunt field may be
called voltage operated field.
Ish IL
Figure 4.12 separately excited dc machines +Important
Field relationships
B. Self Excitation Rheostat Ia V
i. I sh L= sh
When the field winding is excited by its own Rsh L
o
armature, the machines is said to be a self Eg VL
a
Shunt
excited dc machine. In these machines, the Winding ii. I a =d I sh + I L
field poles must have a residual magnetism,
so that when the armature rotates, a residual iii. _ E g = VL + I a Ra
voltage appears across the brushes. This
residual voltage should establish a current in
iv. Pdev = E g  I a
the field winding so as to reinforce the
residual flux. According the connection of
the field winding with the armature winding, v. Pdel = VL  I L

5
 Important relationships
Figure 4.14 Shunt excited dc machine i. I a = IIshse
Remember that series field and shunt field E g − I a +(RILa + Rse ) VL
windings are characterized by low and high ii. I sh I=se
=
resistance respectively. In some application, Rsh Rsh
L
iii. I a = I sh + I L V o
Eg
a shunt excited winding may be replaced by Shunt Series

iv. E g = VL + I a (Ra +d Rse )

Winding Winding L a
a separately excited winding.
Ia
Compound Excitation v. Pdev = E g  I a _
A compound excitation involves both series- vi. Pdel = VL  I L
exited winding and the shunt-excited (b)
winding. From the view point of
connections, a dc compound machine may Figure 4.15 DC compound machine
have short-shunt connection or a long shunt connections for a) short-shunt and b) long shunt
connection. In short shunt connection of In a compound machine, the magnetic flux
Figure 4.15 (a) the shunt field or voltage produced by the shunt field is stronger than
excited winding is connected across the the series field. When series field aids the
armature terminals. In long-shunt shunt field, so that the resultant air gap flux
connection, the shunt field is connected per pole is increases, then the machine is
across said to be cumulatively compounded. In
▪ the series connection Figure 4.16 (a) the direction of arrows
of the armature and corresponds to the direction magnetic flux
series winding or produced by shunt and series field windings.
As the two arrows are in the same direction
▪ the machine or line
in Figure 4.16 (a), this Figure is for a
terminals as shown in
cumulatively compounded dc machine.
Figure 4.15 (b).
+
However there is appreciable difference in
the operating characteristics of short-shunt
and long shunt. The choice between the two
types depends on mechanical considerations Series Shunt
of connections or reversing switches.
Important relationships
_
I se = I L
Ish I
i. + L

Ia
E g − I a Ra VL + I se Rse+
ii. II sh =
se
L=
Rsh o Rsh
Eg V
I a = I sh + I L d
L
Shunt Series a
Winding iii. Winding
Shunt
iv. E g = VL + I a Ra + I L Rse Series

_
v. Pdev = E g  I a
_
vi. Pdel = VL  I L
(a) (a)
(b)

6
 Figure 4.16 compound excited dc machine (a) Generated emf, Eg= emf generated in one of
cumulative and b) differential the parallel path
On the other hand if series field opposes the Average emf generated / conductor
shunt field so that the resultant air gap flux d
= , volt
per pole is decreased, the machine is called a dt
differentially compounded dc machine as Now, flux cut / conductor in one revolution,
shown in Figure 4.16(b). d = P ,Wb
In Figure 4.15(a), each pole of compound Number of revolution / second
machine is shown to possess shunt and N
= , sec ond
series field windings. Figure 4.17(a) 60
illustrated how these windings are arranged Hence according to Faraday’s law of
on one pole of a dc machine. In Figure 4.17 electromagnetic induction
shunt field coil is placed near yoke and emf generated / conductor
series field coil near the pole shoe just for d PN
sake of clarity. = = , volt
dt 60
For wave winding
Actually physical arrangement of these coils Number of parallel path a = 2
is shown in Figure 4.17 (b). It is seen that Number of conductors (in series) in one path
first shunt field coil is wound around the Z
pole body and over it is then wound the =
2
series field coil. The reasons for placing the
 emf generated / path
series field coil outside are:
PN Z ZPN
i. convenience in the =  = volt
60 2 2  60
construction and For lap winding
ii. for its better cooling
Number of parallel path a = P
EMF EQUATION OF DC Number of conductors (in series) in one path
GENERATOR =
Z
Let  = flux per pole in Weber P
 emf generated / path
Z = total number of armature PN Z ZN
conductors =  = volt
60 P 60
= Number of slots  Number of In general, the Generated emf
conductors per slot
ZN  P 
P = Number of poles Eg =    volt
60  a 
a = number of parallel paths in
armature Where, a =2 for wave winding
N= armature rotation in revolutions a=P for lap winding
per minute (rpm) Eg = Ka  N
E = emf induced in any parallel path ZP
where, K a = is machine constant.
in armature 60  a

7
Example 4.1 A dc shunt generator supplies rent per armature path, and (iii) emf
a load of 10 kW at 220 V through feeders of generated. Assume a brush contact drop of
resistance 0.1. The resistance of armature 2V.
and shunt field windings is 0.05  and 100 Solution
 respectively. Calculate, (i) terminal
i)
voltage, (ii) shunt field current and (iii) Terminal voltage across the armature
generated emf. terminals, V = 200 V

Solution Shunt field resistance, Rsh = 80 

Load supplied , Pdel = 10 kW Shunt field current,

= 10  103 W
V 200
Voltage at the load terminals = 220 V I sh = =
R sh 80
Thus load current, = 2.5A
Pdel 10  103 Load current, IL = 100 A
IL = =
V 220 Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish
= 45.5A
= 100 + 2.5
Resistance of the feeders = 0.1 
= 102.5 A
Voltage drop in the feeders = IL  0.1
= 45.5  0.1 = 4.55 V ii) Shunt generator is lap-wound, as such the
Terminal voltage across the armature number of parallel circuits in the armature
winding is equal to the number of poles.
terminals, V = 220 + 4.55
Thus number of parallel circuits a = 4
= 224.55 V Total armature current, Ia = 102.5 A
Shunt field current, Thus the current per armature path,

V' 224.55 =
102.5
I sh = =
R sh 100 4
= 2.25A = 25.625A
iii) Emf generated,
Generated emf,

E g = V + I a R a + Vbd
Eg = V' + Ia R a = 200 + 102.5  0.05 + 2
= 224.55 + 45.5  0.05 = 212.25 V
= 226.82 V
Example 4.3 A short shunt compound
Example 4.2 A 4-pole dc shunt generator generator supplies 200 A at 100 V. The
with lap-connected armature supplies a load resistance of armature, series field and shunt
of 100 A at 200 V. The armature resistance field is respectively, 0.04, 0.03 and 60 .
is 0.1  and the shunt field resistance is 80 Find the emf generated.
. Find (i) total armature current, (ii) cur-

8
Solution 1. It demagnetizes or weakens the main
flux &
Terminal voltage across the load, VL = 100
2. It cross –magnetizes or distorts it
V
Load current, IL = 200 A Let us illustrate (demonstrate) these two
Resistance of series field winding Rse = 0.03 effects of armature reaction for 2-pole d.c
 generator. For better understanding let us
see three cases.
Voltage drop in series field winding = IL
Rse Case-I: Figure 4.18 shows the distribution
of magnetic flux when there is no current
= 200 0.03 (Ia=0) in the armature conductors,. For this
=6V case

Terminal voltage across the armature, V = a) The distribution magnetic flux

VL + IL Rse symmetrical with respect to the polar
axis.
=
b) The magnetic neutral axis or place
100 + 6
(M.N.A.) coincides with geometrical
= neutral axis or plane (G.N.A)
106 V
M.N.A may be defined as the axis along
Shunt field current, which no-emf is produced in the armature
conductors because they move parallel to
the lines of flux
V 106
I sh = = or M.N.A. is the axis which is perpendicular
R sh 60
= 1.77A to the flux passing through the armature.
In this case, brushes are always placed along
Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish M.N.A and the mmf (Fm) producing the
= 200 + 1.77 main flux is directed perpendicular to
M.N.A.
= 201.77 A
Fm
Generated emf, o
Generator
E g = VL + I L R se + I a R a rotation
Field Flux due to

= 100 + 6 + 201.77  0.04 field current only

= 114.07 V
Polar-axis
4.3 ARMATURE REACTION
By armature reaction is meant the effect of
magnetic field set up by armature current on
the distribution of flux under main poles. In
M.N.A
G.N.A

other words armature reaction is meant the

effect of armature ampere-turns upon the
value and the distribution of the magnetic
flux entering and leaving the armature core. Figure 4.18 Magnetic flux distribution due to the
The armature magnetic field has two effects: main field poles only

9
Case-II: Figure 4.19, shows the field (or seen to be crowded at the trailing pole tips
flux) set up by the armature conductors but weakened or thinned out at the leading
alone, when current carrying the field coils pole tips (the pole tip which is first met
being unexcited (If = 0). The direction of the during rotation by armature conductors are
armature current is the same as it would be known as the leading pole tip and the other
when the generator is loaded & determined as trailing pole tip). In Figure 4.20 is shown
by Fleming’s Right-hand rule. Under this the resultant mmf OFR which is found by
case, the magnetic fields, which are set up vectorally combining OFm and OFa.
by armature conductor are symmetrical to
G.N.A. and the mmf of the armature o Fm
conductor (depending on the strength of Ia)
is shown separately both in magnitude and Fa FR
direction by the Vector OFa which is parallel

A
Generator
to G.N.A

.N.
rotation


wM
Trailing
pole-tip
.

Ne
o

Generator
rotation
Fa N S

Field Flux due to

field current only

A
Leading .N. Resultant Flux
wM
Polar-axis pole-tip
 distribution

G.N.A
Ne

Figure 4.20 combined magnetic flux distribution

due to armature and field
M.N.A
G.N.A

The new position of M.N.A which is always

perpendicular to the resultant mmf vector
Figure 4.19 Magnetic flux distribution due to the OFR is shown in Figure 4.20. Due to the
armature excitation only shift of M.N.A, say through an angle ,
brushes are also shifted so as to lie along the
In the above two cases, we considered the
new positions of M.N.A. Due to this brush
main mmf and armature mmf separately, as
shift (or forward, leads), the armature
if they existed independently, which is not
conductors and hence the armature current is
the case in practice under actual load
redistributed, i.e. some armature conductors,
conditions. The two cases exist
which were earlier under the influence of N-
simultaneously in generator as will be
pole, come under the influence of S-pole and
shown in case III.
vice-versa. Let us see this condition with
Case-III: Figure 4.21 shows the help of Figure 4.21.
combination of case I & II. In this case the
Now the armature mmf is now represented
main flux through the armature is no longer
by vector Fa that is no vertical but is inclined
uniform and symmetrical about the pole-
axis, rather it has been distorted. The flux is by angle  to the left (Figure 4.21). This

10
 .A.
vector can be resolved into two rectangular

M.N
components, Fd parallel to polar axis and Fc X
X
perpendicular to this axis, we find that X

1. Component Fc is at right angle to the N X S

vector OFm (Figure 4.18) X

representing the main mmf it X

produces distortion in the main field

and is hence called the cross- Fd

magnetizing or distorting component θ

of the armature Reaction. Fa FC

2. Component Fd is in direct opposition Figure 4.21 the demagnetizing and cross-

to OFm, which represents the main magnetizing components of armature mmf
mmf. It exerts a demagnetizing
influence on the main pole flux. 4.4 COMMUTATION
Hence, it is called the demagnetizing The armature conductors carry current in
or weakening component of the one direction when they are under the
armature reaction. influence of N-pole and in opposite direction
From the above discussion we can conclude when they are under S-pole. So when the
that: conductors come under the influence of the
S-pole from the influence of N-pole, the
1. The flux across the air gap is no direction of flow of current in them is
longer uniform, but weakens under reversed. This reversal of current in a coil
the leading pole tips and will take place when the two commutator
strengthened under the trailing pole segments to which the coil is connected are
tips. (The pole tip which is first met being short circuited by brush. The process
during rotation by armature of reversal of current in a coil is termed as
conductors is known as the leading commutation. The period during which the
pole tip and the other as trailing pole coil remains short-circuited is called
tip).Due to this the resultant mmf commutation period, Tc. This commutation
given rise to decreases flux. So that period is very small of the order of 0.001 to
emf in the armature under loaded 0.003s.
conditions is somewhat less than that
of under no-load conditions. If the current reversal i.e. the changes from+
I to ZERO and then to –I is completed by
2. The brushes should be shifted in the the end of short circuit or commutation
direction of rotation to avoid a heavy period, the commutation is Ideal. If current
short-circuit current and sparking at reversal is not completed by that time, then
brushes. sparking is produced between the brush and
3. The field distortion cause, an the commutator, which results in progressive
increase in the iron losses as damage to both.
compared its no-load value because Let us discuss the process of commutation in
of increases peak value of flux more detail with help of Figure 4.22 where
density in the tooth. ring winding has been used for simplicity.

11
 Motion Motion commutation, though they do help in
A B C A B C obtaining it.
ii. By the help of inter poles, neutralize
I I the self- reactance voltage by
producing reversing emf. In this
method, arrangement is made to
2I I I neutralize the reactance voltage by
a b c a b c producing a reversing emf in the

short-circuited coil under

2I 2I commutation. This reversing emf, as
the name shows, is an emf in
(a) (b) opposition to the reactance voltage
Motion and if its value is made up equal to
A B C the latter, it will completely wipe it
off, thereby producing quick reversal
of current in short-circuited coil
I I
which will result in sparkles
commutation.
2I Interpoles or Compoles
a b c
These are small poles fixed to the yoke and
Spark spaced in between the main poles. They are
2I
wound with comparatively few heavy gauge
(c) copper wire turns and are connected in
Figure 4.22 commutation process series with the armature so that they carry
Methods of improving commutation full armature current. Their polarity, in the
case of a generator, is the same as that of the
There have been adapted two practical ways
main pole ahead in the direction of rotation
of improving commutation i.e. of making
as illustrated in Figure 4.24 (a). For a motor,
current reversals in the short-circuited coil
the polarity of the interpole must be the
as sparkles as possible. The two methods
same as that of the main pole behind it in the
are:
direction of rotation as shown in Figure 4.24
i. resistance commutation and (b) .
ii. emf commutation.

This method is achieved by

i. By replacing low-resistance copper
brush by comparatively high
resistance carbon brush
(approximately 12 times that of
copper). However , it should be
clearly understood that the main
causes of the sparking commutation
is the self induced emf ,so brushes
alone do not give a sparkles

12
 the generated emf Eg at no load and at
constant given speed.
Main-Poles
N 2. External characteristic-shows the
relationship between the terminal voltage V

S
across the load and the current IL flowing in
N

the external load circuit.

S
S 3. Internal characteristic –shows the
relationship between the emf generated E
N
(after allowing for demagnetizing effect of
S

N armature reaction) at load and the armature

current Ia.
The internal or total characteristic of the
Interpoles same generator is represented by curve II in
Figure 4.33 which can be obtained by
adding the voltage drop in the armature
Main-Poles circuit including brush contact drop to
N terminal voltage (curve III). Curve I, in
Figure 4.33, shows the magnetization
N
S

characteristics of the same generator. The

S voltage drop between the curves I and II is
S caused by armature reaction.
4.10.1. Compound Generator
S
N

N The shunt generator already discussed has a

drooping external characteristic, i.e. the
terminal voltage falls with load, whereas
series generators have an external
Interpoles
characteristic, in which the terminal voltage
(a) rises with the load. Hence, a series field
(b) winding in dc generators can compensate for
Figure 4.24 polarity of Interpoles (a) in the tendency of the shunt generator to lose
generator mode; (b) in motor mode voltage with load, thus maintaining
practically a constant voltage at all loads.
For this reason, the majority of dc generators
4.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC in service have both shunt and series
GENERATORS windings. Such a dc generator having both
shunt and series windings is called a
The behavior of various types of dc
compound generator.
generators can be studies by their
characteristic. The three most important
characteristic curves of a dc generator are:
1. Magnetization characteristic or open-
circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) -shows the
relationship between the field current If and

13
VL II Over-compounded 4.34. Such a compound generator said to be
differential-compound generator.
VNL I Level (flat) compounded Differential compound generators find their
field of application in arc welding where a
large voltage drop is desirable, when the
III Under-compounded
4.6 DC MOTORS
IV
Working principle
Differential compounded
The principle upon which a dc motor works
IL
is very simple. If a current carrying
IFL
conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
Figure 4.34 the external characteristics of dc mechanical force is experienced on the
compound generator. conductor, the direction of which is given by
Fleming's left hand rule (also called motor
Curve I shows the external characteristic, in rule) and hence the conductor moves in the
which the series excitation is such that the direction of force. The magnitude of the
terminal voltage on full load is the same as mechanical force experienced n the
on no load and the terminal voltage remains conductor is given by
practically constant from no load to full
load. A dc compound generator giving such F = B Ic lc, [Newtons]
an external characteristic is called level- Where B is the field strength in Teslas
compounded generator. The external (wb/m2), Ic is the current flowing through
characteristic shown by curve II indicates the conductor in amperes and lc is the length
that the terminal voltage rises with the load. of conductor in meters. When the motor is
Such a compound generator with this connected to the dc Supply mains, a direct
external characteristic is said to be over current passes through the brushes and
compounded generator. The compound commutator to the armature winding. While
generator having an external characteristic it passes through the commutator it is
of the nature represented by curve III is converted in to a.c. so that the group of
called under compounded generator. conductors under successive field poles
In all the above three types of compound carries currents in the opposite directions, as
generators, i.e. level-compounded , over- shown in Figure 4.39. Also the direction of
compounded and under-compounded, the current in the individual conductor reverses
series field aids the shunt field and thus as they pass away from the influence of one
these compound generators can also be pole to that of the next.
called as cumulative compound generator. X
Resultant Torque

Force on each
Cumulative compound generator is most X N conductor

X
widely used in practice. Their external
characteristic can match to all classes of X X X

service. These types of generators used for X

X X
X

electric railways, for supplying current of S X

X
X
X
S
X X

incandescent lamps, etc. In case the series X X X

field opposes the shunt field, the external

X

characteristic of the generator will be highly X

drooping with large demagnetizing armature N X

reaction as shown by curve IV in Figure

14
 Figure 4.39 schematic diagram of 4-pole dc
motor X

X N
In Figure 4.39, a 4-pole d.c motor is shown X

when the filed and armature circuits are Eg

connected across dc supply mains. Let the Tback
X

current in armature conductors be outwards Rotation

under the N-poles (shown by dots) and

inwards under S-poles (shown by crosses).
By applying Fleming’s left hand rule Figure
4.40, the direction of force on each
conductor can be determined, which has
been illustrated in Figure 4.39. From Figure X

4.39 it is observed that each conductor X

S
experiences a force which tends to the motor X

armature in clock-wise direction. These

forces collectively produce a driving torque. X

Motion X N
Field X

X Tdrive
Eb
i
Current Rotation

Figure 4.40 Left-hand rule for determination of

the direction of force

4.7 COMPARISON OF MOTOR

.
X

AND GENERATOR ACTION

X
As mentioned above, dc motor and the dc X

generator are the same devices, at least X

S
theoretically. The machine operating as a
generator is driven by some external driving (a)
force and dc out put is obtained from it (b)
where as the machine operating as a motor is Figure 4.41 (a) Generator action ; (b) Motor
supplied by electric current and mechanical action
rotation is produced.
Since the armature is carrying current and
Let us first consider the generator operation. rotating in a magnetic field, Electro-
In Figure 4.41(a) dc machine driven, in a magnetic forces will be given by Fleming's
clock-wise direction, by its prime mover and left hand rule. These Electro magnetic forces
supplying direct current to external load acting on the armature conductors will
circuit is shown. The machine is working as collectively result in torque acting on the
a generator and the direction of the armature in a counter-clockwise direction (
generated emf and current flowing through see Tback in Figure 4.41(a)). This Electro-
the armature conductors, as determined by magnetic torque, therefore, opposes the
Fleming's right hand rule, will be as shown outside driving torque, which is causing the
in the Figure 4.41(a). rotation of the machine and called the
backward torque(Tback) or magnetic drag on
the conductors. The prime mover has to

15
work against this magnetic drag and the operation. However, in motor operation the
work so done is converted in to electrical Electro-magnetic torque developed causes
energy. The larger the output current, more the armature rotation, where as in a
will be the backward torque and, therefore, generator operation the Electro-magnetic
more mechanical energy will be required to torque produced opposes the rotation.
be supplied to the generator.
In Figure 4.41(b) the same machine
4.8 LOSSES IN DC MACHINES
operating as a motor is shown. This
operation takes place when the prime mover INTRODUCTION
is uncoupled from the machine and the The dc machines are used either for
machine is connected to the dc supply converting mechanical energy into electrical
mains. With the directions of field and energy, i.e. generators or for converting
armature current shown in the Figure electrical energy into mechanical energy, i.e.
4.41(b) the torque developed by Electro- motors. This conversion of energy from one
magnetic actions will rotate the machine in a form to another obviously takes place at an
clockwise direction (as determined by efficiency of less than 100 percent. A part of
Fleming's left-hand rule). The friction of the the energy consumed by machine can not be
machine and the mechanical load that the effectively utilized in the machine proper
motor is driving will exert a torque in and is dispersed in the form of heat. This
counter-clockwise direction, opposing the part of the energy is generally termed as lost
rotation of the motor. Since the armature energy or simply the losses of the machine.
conductors are revolving in the magnetic The losses in general occur (i) in electrical
field, emf is induced in the armature circuits carrying a certain current, (ii) in
conductors. The direction of emf so induced, magnetic circuits subjected to alternating
as determined by Fleming's right hand rule, magnetization and (iii) due to mechanical
is in direct opposition to the applied voltage friction. Hence the losses occurring in an
(see Eb in Figure 4.41(b)). That is why the electrical machine constitute a source of
induced emf in motor often is called the inefficiency. In addition, these are
counter emf or back emf Eb. The applied completely converted into heat, resulting in
voltage must be large enough to overcome a rise in the temperature of the machine. If
this back emf and to send the current reliable operation of an electrical machine is
through the resistance of the armature. The desired during its normal service life, then
electric energy supplied to overcome this the temperature of the various parts of the
opposition is converted into mechanical machine should not be allowed to exceed
energy development in the armature. beyond the permissible limit, decided by the
Thus we see that an emf is generated in both type of insulating material used in the
generator and motor, therefore, there is a machine. The temperature rise also decides
generator action in both motor and the capacity to which the machine can be
generator operation. However, in generator loaded safely.
operation the generated emf produces the The losses occurring in the machine have
armature current, where as, in motor also to be paid for and as such the running
operation the generated emf opposes the cost of a less efficient machine for the same
current direction. We also observe that output is more compared to an efficient
Electro-magnetic torque is developed in machine. Hence the problem of losses in the
generator as well as motor i.e. there is a machine is closely connected with the
motor action in both generator and motor,

16
problems of its service life and other armature conductors and (iii)
economic factors. The initial cost of a more additional losses caused by short
efficient machine is certainly higher than circuit currents in the coils under
that of a machine with poor efficiency. commutation and occur in (a)
However, the higher initial cost is armature teeth, (b) armature core and
compensated by the saving in running (c) armature winding.
energy charges; moreover a more efficient For smaller machines, stray losses are quite
machine is highly reliable , less subject to negligible. For fairly large machines, it may
breakdowns which is particular important be taken arbitrarily as one percent of the
when continuity of service must be rating of the machine.
maintained. Better electrical materials are
being developed and with the use of these Of these groups of losses, copper losses vary
electrical machines are undergoing a with the load on the machine, whereas iron
continuous improvement towards reduction and mechanical losses remain substantially
in losses, so as to produce more efficient constant at all loads. Stray losses are more
machines with trouble free and continuous or less negligible in small and medium
service even under more severe working. machines. Hence the total losses occurring
in a dc machine may also be classified as
i. variable losses and
ii. Constant losses.
Classification of Losses
In case of shunt or compound dc machines,
Power losses originating in dc machines even the shunt field copper losses can be
(either a motor or a generator) can be grouped with the constant losses because it
classified into the following groups remains practically constant at all loads.
1. Copper losses, caused by the current Thus for a shunt or compound dc machine,
flow and occur in (i) armature the constant and variable losses include:
winding, (ii) series field winding ,
• Constant losses including (i) iron
(iii) commutating pole winding , (iv)
losses, (ii) mechanical losses and
compensating winding , (v) shunt
(iii) shunt field Cu losses.
field winding and (vi) loss due to
brush contact resistance. • Variable losses including (i)
copper losses in armature
2. Iron losses caused by varying
winding (ii) copper losses in
magnetization and occur in (armature
series field winding (iii) copper
core and (ii) armature teeth , as
losses in commutating pole
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
winding (iv) copper losses in
3. Mechanical losses caused by the compensating winding if any and
rotation of the machine and occur as (v) losses due to brush contact
(i) bearing friction (ii) brush friction resistance.
and (iii) air friction (windage). These
Copper Losses
losses are also called friction and
windage losses. In general copper losses will occur in those
parts of dc machines that carry electric
4. Stray load losses include (i) increase
current. These losses could be further
in iron losses at load (ii) increases in
subdivided into three groups.
copper losses due to eddy currents in

17
 1. Armature copper loss Terminal voltage and Ish are practically
2. Field copper loss , and constant as such this loss can be taken into
the group of constant losses in the dc
3. Loss due to brush contact
machine.
resistance.
Losses due to Brush contact
Armature copper loss
Resistance
Let the current flowing in the armature
In dc machines, brushes makes a sliding
winding be designated Ia amperes and its
contact with the commutator and the
resistance Ra .
conduction of current is through minute
Then armature copper losses = I a2 Ra watts. arcs. The contact voltage drop for a
particular grade of brush is more or less
Moreover, series field winding, interpole constant, varying from 1 to 2 volts for
winding and compensating windings are normal carbon brushes. The brush contact
connected in series with the armature loss is equal to the product of contact
winding. As such the current flowing in voltage drop and the armature current.
these winding is also equal to the armature Strictly speaking, it is not a copper loss;
current, Ia. however it is normally included in the
Thus, the total armature copper losses classification of copper losses.

= I a2 (Ra + Rse + Ri + Rc ) Iron Losses

The reversal of magnetization of the
Where Rse, Ri and Rc are the resistance of armature core leads to iron losses in the core
series field winding, interpole winding and and the teeth of the armature structure. Iron
compensating winding respectively.
losses can further be subdivided into: i)
The armature circuit copper losses vary as hysteresis loss and ii) eddy current loss
the square of the armature current. As such
these losses could be also called variable Hysteresis loss
losses of the machine this loss is about 30 to Hysteresis loss is mainly due to the reversal
40% of full-load losses. of magnetization in the armature core and
Field Copper loss depends upon the area of the hysteresis loop
of the magnetic material used for armature
If Ish is the current flowing in the shunt field core, the volume of the core and the
winding then , Copper losses in the shunt frequency of magnetic flux reversal. Area of
field winding = Ish2 Rsh where Rsh is the the hysteresis loop again depends upon the
resistance of the shunt field winding flux density to which the material is being
however the resistance of the shunt field worked.
V
winding Rsh = Dr. Charles Steinmetz suggested an
I sh empirical formula based on a series of tests
Where, V is the terminal voltage of the dc for calculating the hysteresis loss, which
machine, i.e. voltage across the expressed as follows,

Ph = Vf (Bmax )1.6 watts .

armature terminals.
Hence, shunt field copper losses = V x Ish,
watts where,  is a constant, known as Steinmetz’s
coefficient or hysteresis coefficient for a

18
 particular material. Its value for 4% silicon The bearing friction losses occurring in dc
steel and sheet steel is 275 and 500 machine depend upon (i) the pressure on
respectively. Hysteresis loss is reduced by bearing, (ii) Peripheral speed of the shaft at
choosing a core material with low hysteresis the bearing and (iii) coefficient of friction
coefficient such as alloy steel. between the bearing and the shaft.
Eddy current losses The brush friction losses are quite
appreciable in dc machines. These losses are
As the armature core rotates relative to the
dependent upon (i) the brush pressure, (ii)
magnetic field, it cuts the flux. Thus as per
the peripheral speed of the commutator and
the lows of electromagnetic induction, a
(iii) the type of the brush.
small emf is induced in the armature core
body, which circulates a large current in the The windage losses are mainly produced by
armature core due to its small resistance. the rotation of armature. These losses
Such a circulating current is called eddy depend upon (i) peripheral speed of the
current and the power losses due to the flow armature, (ii) armature diameter, (iii)
of this current are called eddy current losses. armature core length and (iv) construction of
The resistance can be greatly increased by the machine
laminating the armature core of the dc These three components added together give
machine, thereby reducing the magnitude of the total mechanical losses occurring in the
eddy current to an appreciable value. The machine these are practically constant
eddy current losses depend upon the provided the speed remains the same during
following factors: the loading of the machine.
i. Thickness of laminations, t
EFFICIENCY
ii. Frequency of flux reversal, f
iii. Maximum value of flux density, Bmax The ratio of output of the machine to its
input is generally called the efficiency of the
iv. Volume of armature core V and machine.
v. Quality of iron.
Hence the eddy current losses occurring in output
the armature core and teeth of the dc Efficiency =
input
machine are given by
Input to the machine = output + total losses
Pc = KB2max f 2 t 2 V, watts
Thus,
Mechanical Losses Output
efficiency =
Mechanical losses are due to the rotation of Output + total losses
the armature and can be subdivided into Total losses in dc machine = constant losses
three categories. + variable losses
1. bearing friction
= Wc + Wv
2. brush friction and
Hence,
3. air friction (winding)
There are also termed as friction and Output
windage losses. efficiency η =
Output + constant losses+ variable losses

19