Sub-Engineer Soil Mechanics Note

Syllabus of Loksewa:
1. General
1.1. Soil types and classification
1.2. Three phase system of soil
1.3. Unit Weight of soil mass: bulk density, saturated density, submerged density and dry density
1.4. Interrelationship between specific gravity, void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation, percentage
of air voids air content and density index
2. Soil Water Relation
2.1. Terzaghi's principle of effective stress
2.2. Darcy's law
2.3. Factors affecting permeability
3. Compaction of soil
3.1. Factors affecting soil compaction
3.2. Optimum moisture content
3.3. Relation between dry density and moisture content
4. Shear Strength of Soils
4.1. Mohr-Coulomb failure theory
4.2. Cohesion and angle of internal friction
5. Earth Pressures
5.1. Active and passive earth pressures
5.2. Lateral earth pressure theory
5.3. Rankine's earth pressure theory
6. Foundation Engineering
6.1. Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas and their application

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Table of Contents:
1 General.................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Soil types and Classification .......................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Three Phase System of Soil ........................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Unit Weight of soil mass: bulk density, saturated density, submerged density and dry density . 6
1.4 Interrelationship between specific gravity, void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation,
percentage of air voids air content and density index ............................................................................. 7
2 Soil Water Relation ............................................................................................................................. 11
2.1 Terzaghi's principle of effective stress ........................................................................................ 11
2.2 Darcy's law .................................................................................................................................. 13
2.3 Factors affecting permeability .................................................................................................... 14
3 Compaction of Soil .............................................................................................................................. 16
3.1 Relation between dry density and moisture content ................................................................. 16
3.2 Optimum moisture content ........................................................................................................ 17
3.3 Factors affecting soil compaction ............................................................................................... 20
4 Shear strength of soils......................................................................................................................... 21
4.1 Mohr-Coulomb failure Theory .................................................................................................... 23
4.2 Cohesion (c ) and angle of internal friction ∅ ............................................................................. 27
5 Earth Pressure ..................................................................................................................................... 29
5.1 Active and passive earth pressures............................................................................................. 29
5.2 Lateral Earth Pressure Theory ..................................................................................................... 32
5.3 Rankine's earth pressure theory ................................................................................................. 32
6 Foundation Engineering ...................................................................................................................... 40
6.1 Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas and their application .......................................... 42

Note: '*' symbol and under line is used for important sentences in
perspective of objective questions.
Important formulae (for both mcq and numerical of mcq) are bolded.
Figures are for your easy understanding while reading.

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Sub-Engineer Soil Mechanics Note

1 General
➢ *To an agriculturist, soil is the substance existing on the earth's surface, which grows and
develops plants.
➢ *To a geologist, soil is the material in a relatively thin surface zone within which roots occur, and
rest of the crust is termed as rock irrespective of hardness.
➢ *To an engineer, soil is the unconsolidated (unaggregated and uncemented) material, composed
of solid particles (inorganic matters) produced by the disintegration of rocks, which may or may
not contain organic matter. The void space between the particles may contain air, water or
both.
➢ *Dr. Karl Von Terzaghi, is recognized as 'Father of Soil Mechanics', said that "Unfortunately soils
are made by nature, not by human and the product of nature are always complex."

1.1 Soil types and Classification

➢ *Basis for soil classification is grain size and plasticity characters.
➢ *The object of classifying soils is to arrange them into groups according to their properties and
behavior.
➢ *A soil classification system is meant to provide an accepted and systematic method of
describing the various types of soils eliminating personal factors.

1.1.1 Particle size Classification

➢ There are different classifications based on particle size.
o MIT system
o International Classification system
o US Bereau of soil classification (USBS)
o *Indian Standard soil classification system
➢ Among them we follow Indian Standard Classification System.

MIT = Massachusettes Institute of Technology

➢ *Finest size of soil particle is clay.

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1.1.2 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

➢ *This system of classifying soil is most popular system for general engineering
purposes.
➢ *Soil is mainly classified into following 3 categories:
I. Coarse grained Soils : more than 50% retained on No. 200 sieve (0.075mm),
E.g. Gravel, sand etc.
II. Fine grained Soils : less than 50% retained on No. 200 sieve (0.075mm), E.g.
Clay, silt etc.
III. Highly organic soils : Readily identified by colour, odour, spongy feel and
frequently by fibrous texture, composed of decayed vegetable matter, E.g.
Peat

[Note: 75 micron (𝜇) = 0.075mm]

Symbols used in USCS:

Symbols Description
Primary For Coarse Grained Soil G Gravel
S Sand
For Fine Grained Soil M Silt
C Clay
O Organic
Pt Peat
Secondary For Coarse Grained Soil W Well graded
P Poorly graded
M Non-plastic fines
C Plastic fines
For Fine Grained Soil L Low plasticity
H High Plasticity
E.g. ML = silt with low plasticity

CL = Clay with low plasticity

1.1.3 Cohesive and cohesionless soil

Cohesive soil Cohesionless soil
Cohesive soils are fine grained soils and Unlike cohesive soils, purely non-cohesive
are those whose particles aggregate or soils do not clump together in any way.
clump together. Their grains, in other words, remain
In layman’s terms, the stuff that sticks separate from one another.
together!
*Cohesive soils are more plastic and Cohesionless soils are less plastic and
compressible. compressible.

*These are product of chemical *These are product of physical/mechanical

weathering of rocks. weathering of rocks.
*Examples, clay, silt, peat, black cotton soil *Examples, gravel, sand etc.
etc.

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1.2 Three Phase System of Soil

➢ A diagram which shows mass or volume of solid particles, water and air is called phase diagram.

➢ *Generally, soil is a three-phase system because it consists of solid particles, water and air. The
diagram which shows three-phase system of soil is called three-phase diagram. The 3-phase
diagram is also known as block diagram.

In figure;
In terms of volume;
V = total volume of soil
Vs = volume of solid particles in soil
Vw = volume of water in soil
Va = volume of air in soil
Vv = volume of void (air + water) in soil = Va + Vw
In terms of mass;
M = total mass of soil
Ms = mass of solid particles in soil
Mw = mass of water in soil
Ma = mass of air in soil, which is negligible, so we take Ma =0
In terms of weight;
W = total weight of soil
Ws = weigh of solid particles in soil
Ww = weigh of water in soil

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Wa = weigh of air in soil, which is negligible, so we take Ma =0

➢ *Three phase system is concerned with partially saturated soil because partially saturated soil
consists of all solid particles, water and air. The voids are filled with air and water.
➢ *A soil becomes two-phase system in the following two cases:
a) *When soil is fully dry, there is no water phase. All the voids are filled with air only.
i.e. fully dry soil is two phase system with solid particle and air.
b) *When soil is fully saturated, there is no air phase. All the voids are filled with water
only. i.e. fully saturated soil is two phase system with solid particle and water.

1.3 Unit Weight of soil mass: bulk density, saturated density, submerged density
and dry density
1.3.1 *Bulk mass density (𝜌) = Rho
➢ Total mass (M) per unit total volume of soil (V).
𝑴
𝝆=
𝑽
1.3.2 *Saturated mass density (𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
➢ Bulk density of soil when soil is fully saturated.
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
𝑉
1.3.3 Submerged mass density / Buoyant mass density (𝜌′ 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏 )
➢ Submerged mass (Msub) per unit total volume of soil (V).
𝑀𝑠𝑢𝑏
𝜌′ =
𝑉
𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝜌′ =
𝑉

𝑀𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝜌′ = −
𝑉 𝑉
𝜌′ = 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝜌𝑤
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜌𝑤 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

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1.3.4 *Dry mass density (𝜌𝑑 )

➢ Mass of solids/dry mass of soil (Ms) per unit total volume of soil (V).
𝑴𝒔
𝝆𝒅 =
𝑽
1.3.5 Mass density of solids (𝜌𝑠 )
➢ Ratio of mass of solids (Ms) to volume of solids (Vs).
𝑀𝑠
𝜌𝑠 =
𝑉𝑠

Other Topics:
1. *Bulk unit weight (𝜸)
➢ Total weight (W) per unit total volume of soil (V).
𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉
2. *Saturated unit weight (𝛄𝐬𝐚𝐭 )
➢ Bulk unit weight of soil when soil is fully saturated.
𝑊𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
𝑉
3. Submerged unit weight / Buoyant unit weight (𝛄′ 𝐨𝐫 𝛄𝐬𝐮𝐛 )
➢ Submerged weight (Wsub) per unit total volume of soil (V).
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑏
𝛾′ =
𝑉
∗ 𝜸′ = 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 − 𝜸𝒘
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝛾𝑤 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
4. Dry unit weight (𝛄𝐝 )
➢ Weight of solids/dry weight of soil (Ws) per unit total volume of soil (V).
𝑊𝑠
𝛾𝑑 =
𝑉
5. Weight density of solids (𝛄𝐬 )
➢ Ratio of weight of solids (Ws) to volume of solids (Vs).
𝑊𝑠
𝛾𝑠 =
𝑉𝑠

1.4 Interrelationship between specific gravity, void ratio, porosity, degree of

saturation, percentage of air voids air content and density index
1.4.1 Specific gravity / Relative density (G)
➢ *Ratio of density /unit weight of solids to density /unit weight of water (distilled
water at 270C).
➢ *In another word, The ratio of the weight of given volume of soil solids to the weight
of an equal volume of distilled water at the given temperature, is known as specific
gravity of the soil.
𝜌𝑠 𝛾𝑠
𝐺= =
𝜌𝑤 𝛾𝑤

S.N. Soil type *Specific gravity (G)

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1 *Gravel 2.65 to 2.68

2 *Sand 2.65 to 2.68
3 Silty sands 2.66 to 2.70
4 Silt 2.66 to 2.70
5 Inorganic clays 2.68 to 2.80
6 Organic clays Variable, may fall below
2.00

1.4.2 Void ratio (e)

➢ Ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids.
𝑽𝒗
∗𝒆=
𝑽𝒔
➢ Its value may be <1 or =1 or >1. But never <0.
➢ void ratio (e) = 1, when ? Vv = Vs; e = 1
𝑽𝒗
➢ Vv < VS, 𝒆 = 𝑽𝒔
<𝟏
𝑽𝒗
➢ VV > Vs, 𝒆 = 𝑽𝒔
>𝟏

1.4.3 Porosity/percentage voids (n)

➢ Ratio of volume of voids to total volume of soil.
𝑽𝒗
∗𝒏 =
𝑽
𝑉𝑣
𝑛=
𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣
𝑉𝑣
⁄𝑉
𝑠
𝑛=
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑣
⁄𝑉 + ⁄𝑉
𝑠 𝑠
𝒆
∗𝒏=
𝟏+𝒆
𝑜𝑟
𝒏
∗𝒆=
𝟏−𝒏
➢ *Value of 'n' varies between 0 to 100%.
➢ Its value never be greater than 100% because volume of voids (Vv) can not be greater
than total volume of soil (V).
Type of soil Porosity (%)
Gravel 30 to 40
Sand 20 to 35
*Loose sand 40 to 50
Silt 35 to 50
Clay 33 to 60
Sand and gravel mixed 20 to 35

1.4.4 Degree of saturation (S or Sr)

➢ Ratio of volume of water to volume of voids.

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𝑽𝒘
∗𝑺=
𝑽𝒗
➢ For fully dry soil, Vw=0, then S = 0
➢ *For fully saturated soil, Vw=Vv, then S = 1 or 100%.
➢ *Generally, soil is partially saturated. Hence the degree of saturation of the soil is
generally 0% to 100%.

1.4.5 Percentage of air voids (na)

(In total volume of soil)

➢ Ratio of volume of air to total volume of soil.

𝑉𝑎
𝑛𝑎 =
𝑉
➢ For fully saturated soil, Va=0, then na=0.

1.4.6 Air content (ac)

(In total volume of void)

➢ Ratio of volume of air to the volume of void.

𝑉𝑎
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑉𝑣
𝑉𝑎 𝑉
𝑎𝑐 = ×
𝑉 𝑉𝑣
1
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑛𝑎 ×
𝑉𝑣⁄
𝑉
1
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑛𝑎 ×
𝑛
𝑛𝑎 = 𝑛 𝑎𝑐
➢ For fully saturated soil, Va=0, then ac=0.
➢ For fully saturated soil, Va=Vv, then ac=100%.
➢ Therefore value of ac varies between 0 to 100%.
➢ It can be also expressed as
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑣 − 𝑉𝑤 𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑤
∗ 𝒂𝒄 = = = − =𝟏−𝑺
𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑣
ac + S =1

1.4.7 Relative Density (Dr) or Density index (ID) or Degree of density or Relativity
➢ Density Index is the denseness of cohesionless soil.
➢ *It is ratio of difference between the void ratio of the soil in its loosest & its natural
state with difference between the void ratio of the soil in its loosest & densest state.
➢ It is given by;
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒
𝐷𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝐷 = × 100
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
Where, emax = maximum void ratio of sand in its loosest condition
emin = minimum void ratio of sand in its densest condition
e = void ratio in the natural state

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Denseness Very loose Loose Medium dense Dense Very dense

Dr % < 15 15 to 35 36 to 65 65 to 85 85 to 100
➢ *The ratio of emax and emin of silty sand, is 3.
➢ *Density index indicates degree of compaction ability of soil.

Other Topics:
1. *Water content/Moisture content (w)
➢ Ratio of mass/weight of water to mass/weight of solids.
𝑴𝒘 𝑾𝒘
*𝒘 = 𝑴𝒔
= 𝑾𝒔
For fully dry soil, Mw=0, then w = 0.
Determination of Water Content:
I. oven drying method
o most accurate method
o soil sample is dried in oven at a temperature of 1100±50C for 24 hours
o But for soil containing significant amount of organic matter, gypsum or other
bound minerals having loosely bound water of hydration, recommended
temperature is 600C to 800C.
II. Pycnometer method: suitable for coarse grained soil.
III. calcium carbide method: quickest method
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑑𝑒 (𝐶𝑎𝐶2 ) + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝐶2 𝐻2 ) + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2

Basic relationships:
S.N. Relationship in mass density Relationship in unit weight
1 𝒆 𝒆
𝒏= 𝒏=
𝟏+𝒆 𝟏+𝒆
2 𝒏 𝒏
𝒆= 𝒆=
𝟏−𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
3 𝑛𝑎 = 𝑛 𝑎𝑐 𝑛𝑎 = 𝑛 𝑎𝑐
4 *𝑺𝒆 = 𝒘𝑮 *𝑺𝒆 = 𝒘𝑮
Or Or
*𝑺𝒓 𝒆 = 𝒘𝑮 *𝑺𝒓 𝒆 = 𝒘𝑮
5 𝑮𝝆𝒘 (𝟏 + 𝒘) 𝑮𝜸𝒘 (𝟏 + 𝒘)
𝝆= 𝜸=
𝟏+𝒆 𝟏+𝒆
6 (𝑮 + 𝑺𝒆)𝝆𝒘 (𝑮 + 𝑺𝒆)𝜸𝒘
𝝆= 𝜸=
𝟏+𝒆 𝟏+𝒆
7 𝑮𝝆𝒘 𝑮𝜸𝒘
𝝆𝒅 = 𝜸𝒅 =
𝟏+𝒆 𝟏+𝒆
8 (𝐺 + 𝑒)𝜌𝑤 (𝐺 + 𝑒)𝛾𝑤
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
1+𝑒 1+𝑒
9 (𝐺 − 𝑒)𝜌𝑤 (𝐺 − 𝑒)𝛾𝑤
𝜌′ = 𝛾′ =
1+𝑒 1+𝑒
10 𝝆 𝜸
∗ 𝝆𝒅 = ∗ 𝜸𝒅 =
𝟏+𝒘 𝟏+𝒘
12 (𝟏 − 𝒏𝒂 )𝑮𝝆𝒘 (𝟏 − 𝒏𝒂 )𝑮𝜸𝒘
𝝆𝒅 = ∗ 𝜸𝒅 =
𝟏 + 𝒘𝑮 𝟏 + 𝒘𝑮

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11 𝒆(𝟏 − 𝑺𝒓 ) 𝒆(𝟏 − 𝑺𝒓 )
𝒂𝒄 = 𝒂𝒄 =
𝟏+𝒆 𝟏+𝒆
Note:- 𝜌𝑤 = 1000 kg/m3 = 1.0 gm/mL, 𝛾𝑤 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑔 = 1000 * 9.81 = 9810 N/m3 = 9.81 KN/m3 ≈ 10 KN/m3

2 Soil Water Relation

1) Free water
2) Held Water
1. Free Water/Gravitational Water:
➢ Free water is that water in soil, which moves under the influence of gravity.

2. Held water:
➢ Held water is that water in soil, which cannot move under the influence of gravitational
force.
➢ It is further dived into following types;
I. Capillary water: - The water held in the interstices of soils due to capillary forces is
called capillary water.
II. *Absorbed water / Hygroscopic water: - The amount of water in air dried soil is
defined as hygroscopic water. Air drying removes capillary water and free water.
Oven drying (heating at temperature of 1100±50C for 24 hours) removes (driven off)
all absorbed/hygroscopic water.
III. *Structural water: - The structural water is chemically combined water in the crystal
structure of mineral of the soil. A temperature more than 3000C is required for
removing the structural water. In soil engineering, structural water is considered as
an integral part of the soil solid.

2.1 Terzaghi's principle of effective stress

➢ The effective stress principle enunciated by Karl Terzaghi in 1936 forms an extremely useful
basis of the most important theories in soil engineering.
➢ The effective stress principle consists of two parts:
i. Definition of effective stress
ii. Importance of effective stress in engineering behavior of soil

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2.1.1 Definition of effective stress

➢ At depth' h' from soil surface

o Total stress (𝜎) = 𝛾ℎ
o For fully saturated soil, 𝛾 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 , then 𝜎 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ
o Pore water pressure/neutral pressure/ neutral stress (u) = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ
o *Effective stress (𝜎̅ 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 ′ ) = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎) − 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑢)
𝑜𝑟, 𝜎̅ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
𝑜𝑟, 𝜎̅ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ − 𝛾𝑤 ℎ
𝑜𝑟, 𝜎̅ = (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 )ℎ
𝑜𝑟, 𝜎̅ = 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 ℎ
o It may be noted that the effective stress is an abstract quantity, as it can not
be measured directly from laboratory. It is deduced from two physical
measurable quantities 𝜎 and 𝑢.

2.1.2 Physical interpretation

➢ *Effective stress is pressure transmitted through grain to grain at contact point. So
effective stress is also called intergranular stress. This effective stress is responsible
for the decrease in the void ratio or increases frictional resistance of the soil. In other
word, effective stress is stress shared by particles of the soil.
➢ *If the pores of a soil mass are filled with water & if a pressure induced into the pore
water tries to separate the grains. This pressure is called pore water pressure or
neutral water pressure or hydrostatic pressure or hydrodynamic pressure. The effect
of this pressure is to increase the volume or decrease the frictional resistance of the
soil mass. Pore water pressure is also called neutral pressure because it cannot resist
shear stresses. In another word, pore stress/neutral is stress shared by pore water.
➢ *Total stress is force per unit effective area of soil and given by the sum of effective
stress and pore water pressure.
Total stress (𝜎) = effective stress ̅̅̅
(𝜎) + pore water pressure (u)

2.1.3 Importance of Effective stress

➢ The effective stress controls the engineering properties of soils. Compression and
shear strength of a soil depends on effective stress.
i.e. compression = 𝑓(𝜎) and shear strength = 𝑔(𝜎)
➢ With increase in effective stress, void ratio will decreases, as a result permeability of
soil decreases to some extent.

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2.2 Darcy's law

➢ The flow of free water through soil is governed by Darcy's law.
➢ In 1856, Darcy demonstrated experimentally that for laminar flow in a homogeneous soil, the
velocity of flow (v) is given by
𝑣=𝑘𝑖
Where, k = coefficient of permeability (cm/sec or m/sec),
ℎ
𝑖 = 𝐿 = hydraulic gradient/exit gradient (no unit),
ℎ = hydraulic head (water level difference between upstream and downstream), sometimes
also called head loss
𝐿 = length of soil specimen

i.e. 𝑣 ∝ 𝑖, *velocity of flow through porous medium is directly proportional to the hydraulic
gradient.
➢ The quantity of seepage of water (discharge), q is obtained by multiplying the velocity of flow
(v) by total cross sectional area of soil (A) normal to the direction of flow. Thus
ℎ
𝑞 = 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 𝑘 𝐴
𝐿
1
*It shows that, 𝒒 ∝ 𝒌, 𝑞 ∝ 𝑖, 𝒒 ∝ 𝒉, 𝑞 ∝ 𝐴, 𝑞 ∝ 𝐿
➢ As the water flows through the soil, it exerts a force on the known as seepage force or drag
force.
pressure P) = force/ Area
Force = pressure * area
ℎ
➢ *Seepage force (J) =pore water pressure (u) * area of cross section (A) = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝐴 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐿 𝐴 × 𝐿 =
𝛾𝑤 𝑖𝐴 × 𝐿
It shows that seepage force is directly proportional to exit gradient (i), is directly proportional
to head loss (h).
➢ *Darcy's law is applicable to seepage if a soil is
o homogeneous
o isotropic
o incompressible
o Flow through soil is laminar. (maximum diameter of soil particle for the flow to be
laminar is about 0.5 mm.)
➢ *The seepage flow through a porous medium is normally laminar flow.

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➢ *For determining the velocity of flow of underground water, the most commonly used non-
empirical formula is Darcy's formula.

Permeability of soil:
➢ *Permeability is property of soil which allows to flow/percolate water through the
soil.
S.N. Soil type Coefficient of permeability (mm/sec) Drainage properties
1 Clean gravel 10+2 to 10+1 Very good
2 Coarse and medium sands 10+1 to 10-2 Good
3 Fine sands, loose silt 10-2 to 10-4 Fair
4 Dense silt, clayey silts 10-4 to 10-5 Poor
5 Silty clay, clay 10-5 to 10-8 Very poor
*In the ascending order of permeability:
Clay < silt < sand < gravel
S.N. Coefficient of permeability (mm/sec) Type of soil
1 >10-3 Pervious soil
-3 -5
2 10 to 10 Semi-pervious soil
3 <10-5 Impervious soil
2.3 Factors affecting permeability
➢ General expression for coefficient of permeability of soil is:

𝜸𝒘 𝒆𝟑
𝒌 = 𝑪( )( ) 𝑫𝟐
𝝁 𝟏+𝒆

Where,

C = a constant which depends on shape of conduit

𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water

𝜇 = viscosity of water

𝑒 = void ratio of soil

𝐷 = Diameter of soil particles

2.3.1 Particle size (D)

𝑘 𝛼 𝐷2
❖ i.e.* coefficient of permeability of a soil is proportional to the square of the particle
size (D).
❖ The permeability of coarse grained soil is very large as compared to fine grained soil.
❖ The permeability of coarse sand may be more than one million times as much that of
clay.

2.3.2 Void ratio ( e )

𝑒3
𝑘 𝛼( )
1+𝑒

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❖ For a given soil, the greater the void ratio, the higher is the value of the coefficient of
permeability.

2.3.3 Properties of water ( 𝛾𝑤 and 𝜇 )

𝛾𝑤
𝑘𝛼( )
𝜇
𝑘 𝛼 𝛾𝑤
1
𝑘𝛼
𝜇
❖ Coefficeint of permeability is directly proportional to unit weight of water (𝛾𝑤 ) and
inversely proportional to viscosity of water (𝜇).
❖ The coefficient of permeability increases with increase in temperature due to
reduction in the viscosity.

2.3.4 Structure of soil mass ( C )

𝑘𝛼𝐶
❖ The coefficient C takes into account the shape of the flow passage.
❖ The size of flow passage depends upon the structural arrangement.
❖ For the same void ratio, the permeability is more in case of flocculated structure as
compared to that in dispersed structure.
❖ Stratified soil deposits have greater permeability parallel to the plane of stratification
than that perpendicular to this plane.

2.3.5 Shape of particles

➢ Angular particles have more specific surface area and less permeability as compared
to rounded particles.

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2.3.6 Degree of saturation

➢ If the soil is not fully saturated, it contains air pockets formed due to entrapped air or
due to air liberated from percolating water that causes blockage of passage to flow.
➢ Permeability of partially saturated soil is considerably smaller than that of a fully
saturated soil.

2.3.7 Adsorbed water

➢ Adsorbed water layer is not free to move under gravity.
➢ It causes an obstruction to flow of water in the pores and hence reduces the
permeability of soils.

2.3.8 Impurities in water

➢ Any foreign matter in water has a tendency to plug the flow passage and reduce the
effective voids and hence the permeability of soils.

3 Compaction of Soil
➢ Compaction means pressing the soil particles close to each other by mechanical means.
➢ Air during compaction is expelled out from the void in soil mass, void ratio of soil is decreased,
volume of soil is decreased and therefore the mass density is increased.
➢ *The compressibility of clays, is caused due to:
o expulsion of double layer water from in between the grains
o slipping of particles to new positions of greater density
o bending of particles as elastic sheets

Consolidation
➢ *The compression resulting from the long term static load and resulting expulsion of water is
known as consolidation.
➢ Consolidation theory was enunciated by Terzaghi.
➢ Difference between consolidation and compaction:
Compaction Consolidation
In compaction, Volume of a partially saturated *In consolidation, volume of saturated soil
soil decreases because of expulsion of air from decreases due to squeezing
the voids at unaltered water content. out/expulsion/escape of water from the soil.
Compaction is rapid process of reduction of *Consolidation is gradual process of reduction
volume by mechanical means such as rolling, of volume under sustained/long term static
tamping and vibration. loading.
Compaction is artificial process which is done Consolidation is natural process which occurs

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to increase the density (unit weight) of the soil when soil deposits are subjected to static
to improve properties of soil. loadings caused by weight of buildings and
other structures.
➢ *Compression of soil occurs rapidly if voids are filled with air (no water) because expulsion of air
is rapid process than expulsion of water.

3.1 Relation between dry density and moisture content

𝝆
*Dry density, 𝝆𝒅 = 𝟏+𝒘
Where, 𝜌 = Bulk mass density of soil
w = water content of soil
If, W = the weight of soil having a moisture content ω,
V = the volume of proctor's mould,
Then
𝑊
𝜌=
𝑉
𝜌 𝑾
∗ 𝝆𝒅 = =
1 + 𝑤 𝑽(𝟏 + 𝒘)
𝜸
*Dry unit weight, 𝜸𝒅 = 𝟏+𝒘
Where, 𝜸 = Bulk unit weight of soil

3.2 Compaction tests

➢ To access the amount of compaction and the water content required in the field,
compaction tests are done on the same soil in the laboratory.
➢ The test provides a relationship between the water content and the dry density.
1. Standard Proctor Test
2. Modified Proctor Test

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3.2.1 *Standard Proctor Test

➢ Test specifications;
o Diameter of mould = 100mm
o Height of mould = 127.3mm
o Capacity of mould = 1000 ml = 1 litre
o Weight of rammer/hammer = 2.6 kg
o Free fall height of rammer = 310mm
o Face diameter of rammer = 50mm
o Collar height = 60mm
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟
o Compactive energy = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠
𝑚𝑔𝑧
=
𝑉
( )
25 × 3
𝑚𝑔𝑧 × 25 × 3
=
𝜋 × 𝑑2
4 ×ℎ
2.6 × 9.81 × 0.310 × 25 × 3
=
𝜋 × 0.12
4 × 0.1273
= 594939 𝐽⁄ 3
𝑚
𝐾𝐽
= 594.939 ⁄ 3
𝑚
𝐾𝐽
≈ 592 ⁄ 3
𝑚
3.2.2 Modified Proctor Test/Modified AASTHO test
➢ Modified proctor test is similar to standard proctor test. Only the differences are as
follow;
o Weight of rammer/hammer = 4.89 kg

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o *Free fall/drop height of rammer = 450mm

o The soil is filled in the mould in 5 equal layers and each layer is compacted
25 no of blows.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟
o Compactive effort = Compactive energy =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠
𝑚𝑔𝑧
=
𝑉
( )
25 × 5
𝑚𝑔𝑧 × 25 × 5
=
𝜋 × 𝑑2
×ℎ
4
4.89 × 9.81 × 0.450 × 25 × 5
=
𝜋 × 0.12
4 × 0.1273
= 2707124 𝐽⁄ 3
𝑚
𝐾𝐽
= 2707.124 ⁄ 3
𝑚
≈ 2700 𝐾𝐽⁄ 3
𝑚
3.3 Optimum moisture content
➢ *The water content corresponding to the maximum dry density is known as Optimum
Water Content (OWC) or Optimum Moisture Content (OMC).

Soil Type Sandy silt or silty sand *Silt Clay

Range of Optimum water content 8 to 12% 12 to 16% 14 to 20%

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3.4 Factors affecting soil compaction

3.4.1 Water Content
➢ *At low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more resistance to
compaction.
➢ As the water content is increased, the soil particles get lubricated.
The soil mass becomes more workable and the particles have closer
packing.
➢ The dry density of the soil increases with an increase in the water content
till the optimum water content is reached. At that stage, the air voids attain
approximately a constant volume.
➢ *After optimum moisture content is obtained, with further increase of
water content, the air voids do not decrease, but the total voids (air plus
water) increase and the dry density decreases.

3.4.2 Amount of compaction

➢ *For the same soil, increase in compaction effort (compactive energy)
decreases OMC for same Maximum dry density.
➢ *The line joining the peak of moisture content graphs obtained by using
different compactive energies, is called line of optimus.

3.4.3 Type of soil

➢ In general, coarse grained soils can be compacted to higher dry density than
fine grained soils.
➢ *Well graded sand attains a much higher dry density than a poorly graded
soil.
➢ Cohesive soils have high air voids. These soils attain a relatively lower
maximum dry density as compared with cohesionless soils. Optimum water
content is more for cohesive soils.

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3.4.4 *Method of compaction

➢ For same amount of compactive effort, the dry density will depend upon
whether the method of compaction utilizes kneading action, dynamic action
or static action.

3.4.5 Admixture
➢ Admixtures like lime, cement, bitumen etc are added to improve
compaction of soils.

4 Shear strength of soils

➢ The shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shear stresses just before the failure.
➢ i.e. *strength of soil is identified by ultimate shear stress.
➢ *Shear failure of the soil mass occurs when the shear stresses induced due to the applied
compressive loads exceed the shear strength of the soil.
➢ *At every point in a stressed body, there are three planes on which the shear stresses are zero.
These planes are known as principle planes. Angle between principle planes is 900 (orthogonal).

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➢ *The plane with maximum compressive stress (𝜎1 ) is called major principle plane and that with
minimum compressive stress (𝜎3 ) as the minor principle plane.
➢ The third principle plane is subjected to the value intermediate between 𝜎1 and 𝜎3 , and is
known as the intermediate principle plane.
➢ *According to Mohr's theory, failure criterion is independent of the intermediate principal stress
(𝜎2 ).
➢ In soil engineering, tensile stresses rarely occurs. To avoid negative signs, compressive stresses
are taken as positive and tensile stresses as negative.
➢ Lets take major principle plane as horizontal at which maximum compressive stress (𝜎1 ) is
acting and minor principle plane as vertical at which minimum compressive stress (𝜎3 ) is acting
as shown below in figure;

Let us consider a plane AB which is inclined at an angle 𝜃 (measured clockwise) to the major
principle plane AC.
Shear stress (𝜏) developed in the plane due to 𝜎1 and 𝜎3 is;
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜏= sin 2𝜃
2
Normal stress (𝜎) developed in the plane due to 𝜎1 and 𝜎3 is;
𝜎1 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜎= + cos 2𝜃
2 2
➢ Relation between principle stresses and angle of internal friction (∅) at failure of soil is
𝜎1 = 𝜎3 𝑁∅ + 2𝐶 √𝑁∅
∅
∗ 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑵∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 (𝟒𝟓° + ) 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆.
𝟐
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 0, 𝜎1 = 𝜎3 𝑁∅ , 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 ∅ = 0, 𝑁∅ = 1, 𝜎1 = 𝜎3 + 2𝐶

Mohr's circle:
➢ Otto Mohr, a German scientist, devised a graphical method for the determination of
stresses on a plane inclined to the principle planes. The graphical construction is
known as Mohr's circle.
➢ To draw Mohr's circle
o Normal stresses (𝜎) are plotted along horizontal axis.
o Shear stresses (𝜏) are plotted along vertical axis.
o Mark point F with OF = major principle stress (𝜎1 )
o Mark point E with OE = minor principle stress (𝜎3 )

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𝜎1 +𝜎3
o Take middle point of EF as 'C'. OC = 2
o Taking C as centre and CE or CF as radius, draw a circle. This is Mohr's circle.

o Each point on the circle gives the stresses 𝜎 and 𝜏 on a particular plane.
o It can be shown that point D on the circle gives the stresses on the plane
inclined at an angle 𝜃 to the major principle plane. The line DE makes an
angle 𝜃 with x-axis.
𝝈 −𝝈
o In figure, *radius of Mohr circle = CE = CH = 𝟏 𝟑
𝟐

4.1 Mohr-Coulomb failure Theory

4.1.1 Mohr Failure Theory
➢ According to Mohr, the failure is caused by a critical combination of the normal and
shear stresses.
➢ *Material fails essentially by shear.
➢ Shear stress on the failure plane at failure (𝜏𝑓 ) is defined as shear strength (s) of the
soil.
𝒔 = 𝝉𝒇
➢ *Shear stress on the failure plane at failure (𝜏𝑓 ) is unique function of normal effective
stress (𝜎̅) acting on that plane.
𝒔 = 𝝉𝒇 = 𝒇(𝝈 ̅)
➢ *Though the shear stress depends on the normal stress, the relation is not linear.
➢ A plot between the shear stress at failure (𝜏𝑓 ) and normal stress (𝜎) at failure can be
drawn is known as Mohr envelope as shown in figure (a);

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➢ Failure of material occurs when the Mohr circle of the stresses touches the Mohr
envelope.
➢ At the point of contact (D) of failure envelope and the Mohr circle, the critical
combination of shear stress and normal stress is reached and the failure occurs. The
plane indicated by PD is therefore the failure plane.
➢ Any Mohr's circle cannot cross the Mohr envelope as failure would have already
occurred as soon as the Mohr circle touches the envelope.
➢ Mohr's circle which does not cross the failure envelope and lies below the envelope
represents a (non-failure) stable condition.

4.1.2 Coulomb failure theory

➢ According to Coulomb, the shear strength (s) of a soil at a point on a particular plane
was expressed as a linear function of the normal stress on that plane as;
∗𝒔=𝒄+𝝈 ̅ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅
Where, c = cohesion of soil = intercept on 𝜏-axis in figure (c)
∅ = angle of internal friction of soil/intergranular friction of soil = angle made by
Coulomb's failure envelope with 𝜎-axis (horizontal axis) in fig(c)

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➢ In other word, the Mohr envelope is replaced a straight line by Coulomb as shown in
figure (b).

➢ As mentioned before, the failure occurs when the stresses are such that the Mohr
circle just touches the failure envelope as shown by point B in figure (c ).
➢ If the stresses plot as point A below the failure envelope, it represents a stable, non-
failure condition.
➢ A state of stress represented by point C above the failure envelope if not possible.

➢ *Above equation (𝑠 = 𝑐 + 𝜎̅ tan ∅) shows that shear strength of soil is

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o Directly proportional to the cohesion of soil (c)

o Directly proportional to the effective stress applied on the soil (𝜎̅) on the
plane of slip.
o Directly proportional to the tangent of angle of internal friction (𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅)
➢ *Intergranular friction (∅) and cohesion or adhesion (c) are the responsible for shear
strength of soils.
➢ *For purely cohesive soils like clay ∅ = 0, then 𝑠 = 𝑐 + 𝜎̅ tan 00 = 𝑐, i.e. shear
strength of purely cohesive soil is due to cohesion only.

➢ *For cohesionless soil (ideally pure frictional material) like sand, gravel, 𝑐 = 0, then
𝑠 = 0 + 𝜎̅ tan ∅ = 𝜎̅ tan ∅, failure envelope passes through origin.
➢ i.e. shear strength of cohesionless soil is due to internal friction and normal effective
stress only.
➢ *Normal effective stress (𝜎̅) depends upon major principle stress(𝜎1 ) and minor
principle stress/confining pressure(𝜎3 ).

➢ *When cohesive soils are wetted, value of effective cohesion (C') is decreased, then
their shear strength is decreased.

Important Characteristics of Mohr circle:

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𝜎1 −𝜎3
➢ Maximum shear stress (𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 2
➢ *Plane of maximum shear stress makes an angle of 450 with horizontal plane.
➢ From figure, we can see that, failure does not occurs at plane of maximum shear
stress.
➢ *The angle between the directions of the failure and the major principal plane (𝜽𝒇 ) =
∅
𝟒𝟓° + 𝟐

4.2 Cohesion (c ) and angle of internal friction (∅)

4.2.1 Cohesion (c )
➢ By definition, cohesion is the stress (act) of sticking together.
➢ Or, *cohesion is attraction force between molecules of soil particles.
➢ In another word, cohesion is attraction force between molecules of same particles.
➢ Adhesion is attraction force between molecules of different particles.
➢ *Shear strength is provided by both cohesion and adhesion. But we assume soil as
homogeneous and attraction is between same particles. Hence we only say cohesion
for soil.
➢ Cohesion of sand and gravel is taken zero.
➢ *Cohesion of silt > cohesion of sand.
➢ *Cohesion of soil may be more in well compacted soils, solids.
➢ *On increasing moisture content, the effective cohesive force goes on decreasing.
➢ *Cohesion is more for well compacted clays than loose clay.
➢ *Cohesive soils are more plastic and compressible.

4.2.2 Angle of internal friction/Angle of shearing resistance/Angle of Repose (∅)

➢ Angle of internal friction for a given soil is the angle on the graph (Mohr's Circle) of
the shear stress and normal effective stresses at which shear failure occurs.

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➢ *For sand, angle of internal friction (angle of repose) is the angle between horizontal
plane and slope of heap produced by pouring clean dry sand from a small height.

➢ *A plane inclined at an angle φ to the horizontal at which the soil is expected to stay
in the absence of any lateral support, is known as natural slope line or repose line or
the φ line.

➢ Angle of Internal Friction (∅), can be determined in the laboratory by the Direct Shear
Test or the Triaxial Stress Test.
➢ For purely cohesive clay, ∅ = 0
*Angle of internal friction (∅)
Rock 300
Sand 30-400
Gravel 350
Silt 340
*Clay 5-200
Loose sand 30-350
Medium sand 400
Dense sand 35-450
Gravel with some sand 34-480
Silty sand 27-330

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Because the angle of internal friction, is typically around 25-350, the coefficient of
internal friction (tan∅) is 0.5 to 0.7
* The angle of internal friction Φ for purely cohesive soils is equal to zero.
*Angle of internal friction is minimum for clay.
*The angle of internal friction is maximum for angular-grained dense sand.
➢ *The angle of internal friction depends upon
o Particle shape and roughness
o Normal direct pressure
o The amount of interlocking
➢ *The angle of repose (angle of internal friction) decreases with the increase of
moisture content of soil.

5 Earth Pressure
❖ The soil that is retained at a slope steeper than it can sustain by virtue of its shearing
strength, exerts a force on the retaining wall. This force is called the earth pressure.

5.1 Active and passive earth pressures

5.1.1 Active Earth Pressure
➢ A state of active earth pressure occurs when the soil mass yields in such a way that it
tends to stretch horizontally.
➢ *A retaining wall when moves away from the backfill, there is a stretching of the soil
mass and the active state of earth pressure exists.
➢ *Retaining wall moves away from backfill but soil moves towards retaining wall.
➢ Failure wadge moves downward.

5.1.2 Passive Earth Pressure

➢ A state of passive pressure exists when the movement of the wall is such that the soil
tends to compress horizontally.
➢ *Retaining wall moves towards backfill but soil moves away from retaining wall.
➢ Failure wadge moves upward.

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❖ Variation of Earth pressure with the wall movement is as below:

Earth pressure at rest:

➢ When the soil is prevented from strain by an unyielding retaining structure of great rigidity, the
pressure is known as the earth pressure at rest.
➢ *There is no relative movement of retaining wall and backfill.
➢ For earth pressure at rest, there will be no shear stress.
➢ e.g. Lateral pressure on basement wall of a building generally belongs to this category.

➢ The magnitude and direction of earth pressure acting on a retaining structure and foundation
depends largely upon relative strain of the soil behind the structure.
➢ If the wall is rigid and does not move with the pressure exerted on the wall, the soil behind the
wall will be in a state of elastic equilibrium.

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➢ Vertical pressure at depth 'z' form the surface rest condition is given by:
𝜎
̅̅̅𝑣 = 𝛾𝑧
➢ Lateral Earth pressure at depth 'z' form the surface rest condition is given by:
𝑝𝑜 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑜 ̅̅̅𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑜 𝛾𝑧
Where, 𝒌𝒐 = (𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅) = coefficient of earth pressure at rest
∅ = angle of shearing resistance of soil or angle of internal friction in soil
𝝁
Also, 𝒌𝒐 = 𝟏−𝝁, 𝜇 = poissions ratio of soil
➢ Earth Pressure at Bottom of wall if height of wall is 'H' is given by
𝑝𝑜 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑜 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑜 𝛾 … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
➢ Total Pressure per unit length of wall is given by area of pressure diagram.
1 1 𝝁𝜸𝑯𝟐
i.e. *Total pressure at rest, 𝑷𝒐 = 2 𝑘𝑜 𝛾𝐻 × 𝐻 = 2 𝑘𝑜 𝛾𝐻 2 = 𝟐(𝟏−𝝁)
➢ Point of application of total pressure (Po) is at c.g. of pressure diagram i.e. at H/3 form bottom of
wall.
➢ If water table exist surface of soil, then total horizontal pressure is sum of lateral earth pressure
and water pressure

➢ Vertical pressure at depth 'z' form the surface rest condition is given by:
𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾 ′ 𝑧
̅̅̅
➢ The lateral earth pressure at depth 'z' from the surface of backfill is given by
𝑝𝑜 = ̅̅̅ 𝜎𝑣 + 𝜎𝑤 = 𝑘𝑜 𝛾 ′ 𝑧 + 𝛾𝑤 𝑧
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑜 ̅̅̅
′
Where, Submerged unit weight, 𝛾 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤
➢ Earth Pressure at Bottom of wall if height of wall is 'H' is given by
𝑝𝑜 = 𝜎 ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅𝑣 + 𝜎𝑤 = 𝑘𝑜 𝛾 ′ 𝐻 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻 … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
ℎ = 𝑘𝑜 𝜎
➢ *On comparing equation (i) and (ii), we see that earth pressure is increased due to presence of
water behind the wall. Therefore, earth pressure of submerged backfill is more than that of dry
backfill.
➢ Total Pressure per unit length of wall is given by area of pressure diagram.

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1
i.e. Total pressure 𝑃𝑜 = 2 (𝑘𝑜 𝛾𝐻 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻) × 𝐻
➢ Point of application of total pressure (Po) is at c.g. of pressure diagram i.e. at H/3 form bottom of
wall.
➢ If water table exist at depth 'd' from surface of soil, then total horizontal pressure is sum of
lateral earth pressure and water pressure

➢ Vertical pressure at depth 'z' form the surface rest condition is given by:
̅̅̅𝑣 = 𝛾𝑑 + 𝛾 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑑)
𝜎
➢ The lateral earth pressure at depth 'z' from the surface of backfill is given by
𝑝𝑜 = 𝜎 ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅𝑣 + 𝜎𝑤 = 𝑘𝑜 (𝛾𝑑 + 𝛾 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑑)) + 𝛾𝑤 𝑧
ℎ = 𝑘𝑜 𝜎
Where, Submerged unit weight, 𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤
➢ Earth Pressure at Bottom of wall if height of wall is 'H' is given by
𝑝𝑜 = ̅̅̅ 𝜎𝑣 + 𝜎𝑤 = 𝑘𝑜 (𝛾𝑑 + 𝛾 ′ (𝐻 − 𝑑)) + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑜 ̅̅̅
➢ Total Pressure per unit length of wall (Po) is given by area of pressure diagram.
➢ Point of application of total pressure (Po) is at c.g. of pressure.

5.2 Lateral Earth Pressure Theory

➢ There mainly two (Coulomb & Rankine) classical earth pressure theories. They are;
1. Coulomb's earth pressure theory (1776)
2. Rankine's earth pressure theory (1857)
3. * Culman’s graphical construction of earth pressure
➢ These theories propose to estimate magnitude of two earth pressure called active earth
pressure and passive earth pressure.

5.3 Rankine's earth pressure theory

➢ *Following assumptions were made by Rankine for derivation of Rankine's earth pressure
theory;
I. The soil mass is homogeneous and semi-infinite.
II. The soil is dry and cohesionless.
III. The ground surface is plane, which may be horizontal or inclined.
IV. The back of retaining wall is smooth and vertical.
V. Wall yields about the base.
VI. The soil mass is in state of plastic equilibrium i.e. at the verge of failure.

5.3.1 Rankine's active earth pressure for cohesionless soil with horizontal
backfill surface
➢ He derived active earth pressure equation for cohesionless soil as;

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➢ Vertical pressure at depth 'z' form the surface is given by:

𝜎̅̅̅𝑣 = 𝛾𝑧
➢ Lateral active Earth pressure at depth 'z' form the surface is given by:
∗ 𝒑𝒂 = 𝜎 ̅̅̅
ℎ = 𝑘𝑎 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝒌𝒂 𝜸𝒛
(𝟏−𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅) ∅
Where,* 𝒌𝒂 = (𝟏+𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅)
= 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 (𝟒𝟓 − 𝟐) = coefficient of active earth pressure
∅ = angle of shearing resistance of soil or angle of internal friction in soil
➢ Earth Pressure at Bottom of wall if height of wall is 'H' is given by
𝑝𝑎 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑎 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐻
➢ Total Active Pressure per unit length of wall is given by area of pressure diagram.
1 1 𝜸𝑯𝟐 ∅
i.e. *Total active pressure 𝑷𝑎 = 2 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐻 × 𝐻 = 2 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐻 2 = 𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 (𝟒𝟓 − 𝟐)
*Total active earth pressure (Pa) ∝ Square of depth of soil (H2)
➢ Point of application of total pressure (Pa) is at c.g. of pressure diagram i.e. at H/3 form
bottom of wall.
➢ *If there is soil above top horizontal surface of backfill, then soil above horizontal
surface is taken as surcharge load.
➢ *Active earth pressure due to surcharge (q) only = ka q
➢ Active earth pressure due to combined surcharge (q) and backfill (Pa) = 𝑘𝑎 𝑞 + 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐻 =
𝑘𝑎 (𝑞 + 𝛾𝐻)
➢ *Surcharge load is extra load on the horizontal backfill.

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➢ *Since, 𝑘𝑎 < 1, ̅̅̅

𝜎ℎ < ̅̅̅,
𝜎𝑣 So in active state of earth pressure, Vertical stress is major
principle stress and horizontal stress is minor principles stress.

5.3.2 Rankine's passive earth pressure for cohesionless soil with horizontal
backfill surface
➢ He derived passive earth pressure equation for cohesionless soil as;

➢ *In passive state of earth pressure, horizontal stress is major principle stress and vertical
stress is minor principles stress.
➢ Vertical pressure at depth 'z' form the surface is given by:
𝜎
̅̅̅𝑣 = 𝛾𝑧
➢ Lateral passive Earth pressure at depth 'z' form the surface is given by:
𝑝𝑝 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑝 ̅̅̅𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝑧
(1+sin ∅) ∅
Where, *𝒌𝒑 = (1−sin ∅)
= 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 (𝟒𝟓 + 𝟐) = coefficient of passive earth pressure
∅ = angle of shearing resistance of soil or angle of internal friction in soil
➢ Passive Earth Pressure at Bottom of wall if height of wall is 'H' is given by
𝑝𝑝 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑝 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝐻
➢ Total Passive Pressure per unit length of wall is given by area of pressure diagram.

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1 1 𝜸𝑯𝟐 ∅
i.e. Total passive pressure 𝑷𝒑 = 2 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝐻 × 𝐻 = 2 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝐻 2 = 𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 (𝟒𝟓 + 𝟐)
*Total passive earth pressure (Pp) ∝ Square of depth of soil (H2)
➢ Point of application of total pressure (Pa) is at c.g. of pressure diagram i.e. at H/3 form
bottom of wall.
➢ *If there is soil above top horizontal surface of backfill, then soil above horizontal
surface is taken as surcharge load.
➢ *Passive earth pressure due to surcharge (q) only = kp q
➢ Passive earth pressure due to combined surcharge (q) and backfill (PP) = 𝑘𝑃 𝑞 + 𝑘𝑃 𝛾𝐻 =
𝑘𝑃 (𝑞 + 𝛾𝐻).
➢ *Surcharge load is extra load on the horizontal backfill.

➢ *Since, 𝑘𝑝 > 1, 𝜎 ̅̅̅

ℎ > 𝜎
̅̅̅,
𝑣 So in active state of earth pressure, horizontal stress is major
principle stress and vertical stress is minor principles stress.

𝑘𝑎 × 𝑘𝑝 = 1
𝟏
𝒌𝒂 =
𝒌𝒑
𝟏
𝒌𝒑 =
𝒌𝒂
(1 − sin ∅) (1 + sin ∅)
<
(1 + sin ∅) (1 − sin ∅)
∗ 𝒌𝒂 < 𝒌𝒐 < 𝒌𝒑
∗ 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝒑𝒂 ) < 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 (𝒑𝒐 )
< 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝒑𝒑 )

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5.3.3 Rankine's active earth pressure for cohesionless soil with inclined backfill
surface

➢ Lateral active Earth pressure at depth 'z' form the surface is given by:
𝑝𝑎 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑎 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝑧
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒊−√𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒊−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 ∅
Where,* 𝒌𝒂 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒊
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒊+√𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒊−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 ∅

𝑖 = inclination angle of backfill

1−√1−cos2 ∅ (1−sin ∅)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 0, cos 𝑖 = 1, 𝑘𝑎 = = (1+sin ∅)
1+√1−cos2 ∅

➢ Earth Pressure at Bottom of wall if height of wall is 'H' is given by

𝑝𝑎 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑎 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐻
➢ Total Active Pressure per unit length of wall is given by area of pressure diagram.
1 1
i.e. Total pressure 𝑃𝑎 = 2 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐻 × 𝐻 = 2 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐻 2
➢ *Point of application of total pressure (Pa) is at c.g. of pressure diagram i.e. at H/3 form
bottom of wall, in direction parallel to the sloping surface.

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5.3.4 Rankine's Passive earth pressure for cohesionless soil with inclined backfill
surface

➢ Lateral Passive Earth pressure at depth 'z' form the surface is given by:
𝑝𝑝 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑝 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝑧

cos 𝑖+√cos2 𝑖−cos2 ∅

Where, 𝑘𝑝 = cos 𝑖
cos 𝑖−√cos2 𝑖−cos2 ∅

𝑖 = inclination angle of backfill

1+√1−cos2 ∅ (1+sin ∅)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 0, cos 𝑖 = 1, 𝑘𝑝 = = (1−sin
1−√1−cos2 ∅ ∅)

➢ Passive Earth Pressure at Bottom of wall if height of wall is 'H' is given by

𝑝𝑝 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑝 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝐻
➢ Total Passive Pressure per unit length of wall is given by area of pressure diagram.
1 1
i.e. Total pressure 𝑃𝑝 = 2 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝐻 × 𝐻 = 2 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝐻 2
➢ Point of application of total pressure (Pa) is at c.g. of pressure diagram i.e. at H/3 form
bottom of wall, in direction parallel to the sloping surface.

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5.3.5 Rankine's active earth pressure in cohesive soil with horizontal backfill
surface

➢ Lateral active Earth pressure at depth 'z' form the surface is given by:
𝑝𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝑧 − 2𝑐√𝑘𝑎
(1−sin ∅) ∅
Where, 𝑘𝑎 = (1+sin ∅)
= tan2 (45 − )
2

c = cohesion of soil

At z = 0,
𝑝𝑎 = −2𝑐√𝑘𝑎

The negative sign shows that the pressure is negative i.e. it tries to pull on the wall.
Tensile crack is developed between wall and backfill from surface to a depth (z = zc), where net
pressure value becomes zero. Zc is known as depth of tensile crack.

i.e.
𝑝𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝑧𝑐 − 2𝑐√𝑘𝑎 = 0
2𝑐
𝑧𝑐 =
𝛾√𝑘𝑎
➢ Upto depth (Hc = 2zc) the vertical cut section can remain stable without any support
because net earth pressure of depth (Hc = 2zc) is zero. So this height is called critical
height of unsupported vertical cut, up to which no lateral support is required.
𝟒𝒄
∗ 𝑯𝒄 = 𝟐𝒛𝒄 =
𝜸√𝒌𝒂
*In case of purely cohesive soil,
∅ = 0°

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(1 − sin 0°) (1 − 0)
𝑘𝑎 = = =1
(1 + sin 0°) (1 + 0)
4𝑐 𝟒𝒄
∗ 𝑯𝒄 = 2𝑧𝑐 = =
𝛾√1 𝜸

5.3.6 Rankine's passive earth pressure in cohesive soil with horizontal backfill
surface

➢ Lateral passive Earth pressure at depth 'z' form the surface is given by:
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝑧 + 2𝑐√𝑘𝑝

(1+sin ∅) ∅
Where, 𝑘𝑝 = (1−sin ∅)
= tan2 (45 + )
2

c = cohesion of soil

At z = 0,
𝑝𝑎 = 2𝑐√𝑘𝑎
At Summay:

Cases Active Earth Pressure Passive Earth Pressure

Cohesionless soil 𝑝𝑎 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑎 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝑧 𝑝𝑝 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑝 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝑧
with Horizontal (1−sin ∅) (1+sin ∅)
Where, 𝑘𝑎 = (1+sin ∅) = Where, 𝑘𝑝 = =
backfill (1−sin ∅)
∅ ∅
tan2 (45 − 2
) tan2 (45 + 2)
Cohesionless soil 𝑝𝑎 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑎 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝑧 𝑝𝑝 = ̅̅̅
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑝 ̅̅̅
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝑧
with inclined backfill Where, 𝑘𝑎 = Where, 𝑘𝑝 =
cos 𝑖−√cos2 𝑖−cos2 ∅ cos 𝑖+√cos2 𝑖−cos2 ∅
cos 𝑖 cos 𝑖
cos 𝑖+√cos2 𝑖−cos2 ∅ cos 𝑖−√cos2 𝑖−cos2 ∅

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Cohesive soil with 𝑝𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝑧 − 2𝑐√𝑘𝑎 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝑧 + 2𝑐√𝑘𝑝

Horizontal backfill Where, 𝑘𝑎 =
(1−sin ∅) ∅ (1+sin ∅)
= tan2 (45 − 2) Where, 𝑘𝑝 = (1−sin ∅)
=
(1+sin ∅)
2 ∅
tan (45 + 2)

6 Foundation Engineering
➢ Bearing capacity is the maximum soil capacity to resist the load.
➢ Bearing pressure: The pressure at the interface between soil and the foundation. The pressure
is the force per unit area along the bottom of the foundation.
➢ When applied bearing pressure is greater than bearing capacity of soil, then failure of
foundation occurs. There are two major types of failure of foundation:
I. *Shear failure :– The shear stress excess the soil shear strength. Terzaghi call this
failure stability problem.
a. General shear failure
• downward movement of footing and soil around footing bulges out
• occurs in dense sand and stiff clay
• heave on side observed
b. Local shear failure
• downward movement of footing and soil near to footing only bulges out
• occurs in medium dense sand and clay of medium consistency
• heaving occurs only after considerable vertical settlement
c. punching shear failure
• downward movement of footing such that the failure surface does not reach the
ground surface
• occurs in loose sand and soft clay
• no heaving occurs

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II. Settlement failure :- The normal stress induced the soil to settle excessively. Terzaghi
call this failure elasticity problem.

Basic Definitions:
1. *Ultimate bearing capacity (qd or qu)
➢ Gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear.
➢ In another word, it is the maximum pressure which a soil can carry without
shear failure.
2. *Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)
➢ net increase in pressure at the base of foundation that causes shear failure
of the soil.
➢ In another word, it is the minimum net pressure intensity causing shear
failure of soil.
𝑞𝑛𝑢 = 𝑞𝑢 − 𝛾𝐷𝑓
3. Net safe bearing capacity (qns)
➢ The max. net soil pressure which can be safely applied to the soil
considering only shear failure. (without risk of shear failure)
𝑞𝑛𝑢
𝑞𝑛𝑠 =
𝐹
Where, F = FOS, usually taken as 3.
4. Gross safe bearing capacity (qs)
➢ *The max. gross pressure which the soil can carry safely without shear
failure.
➢ *Load intensity should beyond safe B.C. of soil should not be loaded.
𝑞𝑠 = 𝑞𝑛𝑠 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓
𝑞𝑛𝑢
𝑞𝑠 = + 𝛾𝐷𝑓
𝐹
5. Net safe settlement pressure (qnp)
➢ Net pressure which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable
settlement.
➢ Also known as unit soil pressure or safe bearing pressure.

Type of foundation Type of soil Permissible settlement value

Isolated foundation Sand 40mm
*Isolated foundation Clay 65mm
Raft foundation Sand 40-65mm
Raft foundation Clay 65-100mm
Permissible differential settlement value = 25mm on sand

*Permissible differential settlement value = 40mm on clay

6. Net allowable bearing pressure (qna)

➢ The net bearing pressure which can be used for the design of foundations.
𝑞𝑛𝑎 = 𝑞𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑞𝑛𝑝 > 𝑞𝑛𝑠
𝑞𝑛𝑎 = 𝑞𝑛𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑞𝑛𝑝 < 𝑞𝑛𝑠

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Sub-Engineer Soil Mechanics Note

➢ *Net Allowable bearing pressure is the smaller of the net safe bearing
capacity (qns) and the net safe settlement pressure (𝑞np).
7. Allowable bearing pressure (qa)
➢ The bearing pressure which can be used for the design of foundations.
𝑞𝑎 = 𝑞𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑞𝑝 > 𝑞𝑛
𝑞𝑎 = 𝑞𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑞𝑝 < 𝑞𝑠
➢ *Allowable bearing pressure is the smaller of the safe bearing capacity (qs)
and the safe settlement pressure (𝑞p).
➢ *Thus, allowable bearing pressure for foundation depends on both
allowable settlement and ultimate bearing capacity of soil.

6.1 Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas and their application

➢ *Terzaghi (1943) gave a general theory for the bearing capacity of soils under a strip
footing, making the following assumptions:
I. Soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
II. The base of footing is rough.
III. The footing is laid at shallow depth i.e. Df < B
IV. The shear strength of soil above the base of footing is neglected. The soil
above the base is replaced be a uniform surcharge 𝛾𝐷𝑓 .
V. The load in the footing is vertical and is uniformly distributed.
VI. The footing is long i.e. L/B ratio is infinite, where B is the width and L is the
length of the footing.
VII. The shear strength of the soil is governed by the Mohr-Coulomb equation.
VIII. The ground surface is horizontal.
IX. Principle of superposition is valid.
X. The failure is by general shear.
XI. Elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at ∅ = 0° to the horizontal and
plastic zones fully developed.
XII. Failure zone does not extend above the horizontal plane through the base of
footing.

➢ There are three zones:

I. Zone-I : elastic zone

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II. Zone-II : radial shear zone

III. Zone-III : Rankine passive zone
➢ *Terzaghi derived ultimate bearing capacity formula for general shear failure of
shallow strip footing as below:
𝒒𝒖 = 𝒄𝑵𝒄 + 𝜸𝑫𝒇 𝑵𝒒 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝜸𝑩𝑵𝜸
Where, c = cohesion of soil
𝛾 = unit weight of soil
𝐷𝑓 = depth of footing
B = width of footing
Nc, Nq and N𝛾 are dimensionless numbers (called bearing capacity factors) depending
upon the angle of shearing resistance (∅) of the soil. These are defined by following
equations;

𝑎2
𝑁𝑐 = cot ∅ [ − 1]
∅
2 cos 2 (45 + 2 )

𝑎2
𝑁𝑞 = [ ]
∅
2 cos 2 (45 + 2 )
3𝜋 ∅
( − ) tan ∅
𝑎=𝑒 4 2
1 𝑘𝑝
𝑁𝛾 = ( 2 − 1) tan ∅
2 cos ∅
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure.
Values of Nc, Nq and N𝛾 are can also be found from following chart by using value of
∅.
*It shows that bearing capacity factors Nc, Nq and N𝛾 are function of angle of internal
friction (∅) only.
➢ For cohesive soil,Bearing ∅ = 0, then Nq=1 & N𝛾=0,
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 … … … … … . . (𝑖)
Equation (i) is given by Skempton (1951), he uses following formula for calculating
value of 𝑁𝑐 ;
𝐷𝑓
𝑁𝑐 = 5 (1 + 0.2 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐵
*If the strip foundation is resting on ground surface over purely cohesive (frictionless
soil) soil, then
𝐷𝑓 = 0
0
𝑁𝑐 = 5 (1 + 0.2 ) = 5
𝐵
𝒒𝒖 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 = 𝑐 × 5 + 𝛾 × 0 = 𝟓𝒄

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➢ *For Square Footing

𝒒𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒄𝑵𝒄 + 𝜸𝑫𝒇 𝑵𝒒 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝜸𝑩𝑵𝜸
Where, B = dimension of each side of footing.
➢ For Circular Footing
𝑞𝑢 = 1.2 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.3𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
Where, B = diameter of footing.
Terzaghi (1943) took the shape factor as 1.3, which was later changed by Terzaghi and
Peck (1967) to 1.2. So both 1.2 and 1.3 are used in practice.
➢ For rectangular footing
𝐵 𝐵
𝑞𝑢 = (1 + 0.2 ) 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5 (1 − 0.2 ) 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
𝐿 𝐿
Where, L = length of footing & B = width of footing.
➢ *Ultimate bearing capacity formula for local shear failure of shallow strip footing as
below:
2 ̅ = 2∅
𝑐̅ = 𝑐 & ∅
3 3
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐̅𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
𝒒𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝒄𝑵𝒄 + 𝜸𝑫𝒇 𝑵𝒒 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝜸𝑩𝑵𝜸

Effect of water table on bearing capacity:

➢ *Rise of water table below base of foundation influences the bearing capacity of soil
mainly by reducing cohesion and effective unit weight of soil. So there comes
reduction factors as below;

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Sub-Engineer Soil Mechanics Note

➢ For any position of the water table

𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑅𝑤1 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 𝑅𝑤2
Where, Rw1 and Rw2 are the reduction factors for water table.
𝑧𝑤1
𝑅𝑤1 = 0.5 (1 + )
𝐷𝑓
𝑧𝑤2
𝑅𝑤2 = 0.5 (1 + )
𝐵
Value of Zw1 varies form 0 to Df and value of Zw2 varies from 0 to B.
When water table is at ground surface, Zw1=0 , Rw1 = 0.5, Zw2=0, Rw2 = 0.5

When water table is at footing level, Zw1=Df , Rw1 = 1, Zw2=0, Rw2 = 0.5

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*When water table is at B depth below footing level, Zw1=Df , Rw1 = 1, Zw2=B, Rw2 = 1

➢ *When water table is at depth equal to half of width of footing below footing level,
Zw1=Df , Rw1 = 1, Zw2=B/2, Rw2 = 0.75

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Sub-Engineer Soil Mechanics Note

➢ *From above, we can say that bearing capacity of soil primarily depends upon water
content.
➢ *For cohesionless soil, c=0
𝑞𝑢 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑅𝑤1 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 𝑅𝑤2
When no water table exist there, no correction is needed and bearing capacity will be
𝑞𝑢 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
When water table is at ground surface, Zw1=0 , Rw1 = 0.5, Zw2=0, Rw2 = 0.5
𝑞𝑢 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑅𝑤1 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 𝑅𝑤2
= 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 × 0.5 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 × 0.5
= 0.5 × (𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 )
= 50% 𝑜𝑓 (𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 )
= 50% 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
Therefore, rise of water table in cohesionless soil upto ground surface reduces the net
ultimate bearing capacity of soil by 50%.

*Factors affecting bearing capacity of soil:

𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑅𝑤1 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 𝑅𝑤2
a) *Physical features of foundations : type, size, depth and shape of foundation, area of
footing
b) The amount of total and differential settlement is one of the main controlling factors
c) Relative density (Granular soil), Consistency (Cohesive soil)
d) *Physical as well as engineering properties of soils particles such as size, shape of the
particles of soil, density, cohesion and angle of internal friction, position of water
table and original stresses.
e) Moisture content of soil

1. Bearing capacity of Granular Soils (c=0)

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Sub-Engineer Soil Mechanics Note

𝑞𝑢 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 𝑅𝑤1 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 𝑅𝑤2 ………………………..(1)

• Eqn 1 shows that the bearing capacity in sands increases as the depth and width of
foundation and soil unit weight increase.

• The presence of water table at the surface or at the base of the foundation reduces
the bearing capacity significantly.

2. Bearing capacity of Cohesive Soils (𝑁𝛾 = 0, 𝑁𝑞 = 1)

𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑅𝑤1………………………..(2)

• Eqn 2 shows that the bearing capacity in cohesive soil increases as the depth of
foundation and soil unit weight increase.

• The presence of water table at the surface or at the base of the foundation reduces
the bearing capacity significantly.

• The bearing capacity is independent of the width of foundation.

Methods of improvement on bearing capacity of soil:

➢ The following techniques can be used for improving bearing capacity of weak soil as
per the site condition;
I. Increasing depth of foundation (If water table if is very low)
II. Increasing area of footing
III. Draining the soil.
IV. Compacting the soil.
V. Confining the soil.
VI. *Replacing the poor soil with granular materials/sand, gravel etc (most
suitable for black cotton soil). Black cotton soil is not suitable for foundations
because it has high swelling and shrinkage tendency.
VII. Using grouting material.
VIII. Stabilizing the soil with chemicals
IX. By driving sand piles

*Method of determination of bearing capacity of soils in field:

I. Plate load test
• Size of of square bearing test plate = 0.3 to 0.6 m
• *Thickness of square bearing test plate = 25mm

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II. Standard penetration test (SPT)

III. Standard cone penetration test (SCPT)
IV. Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT)

Bearing capacity of different soils:

I. Cohesionless soil
a) Gravel, sand & gravel = 45 tonne/m2
b) Coarse sand compacted and dry = 45 tonne/m2
c) Medium sand = 25 tonne/m2
d) Loose sand or sand gravel = 25 tonne/m2
e) Fine sand or silt = 15 tonne/m2
f) Fine sand, loose and dry = 10 tonne/m2
II. Cohesive soil
a) Stiff clay = 45 tonne/m2
b) Medium clay = 25 tonne/m2
c) Moist clay = 15 tonne/m2
d) Black cotton soil = 15 tonne/m2
e) Soft clay = 10 tonne/m2
f) Very soft clay = 5 tonne/m2
➢ Normally, bearing capacity of clay is 15 tonne/m2.
➢ *Black cotton soil is unsuitable for foundation because its property to undergo a
volumetric change due to variation of moisture content.

Minimum depth of foundation:

➢ *The minimum depth of building foundation on

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Sub-Engineer Soil Mechanics Note

o Sandy soil is 80cm to 100cm.

o Clay soil is 90cm to 160cm.
o Rocky soil is 5cm to 50cm.
➢ *According to Rankine's analysis, minimum depth of foundation is equal to
𝒒 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝟐
𝑫𝒇 = ( )
𝜸 𝟏 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
➢ *Minimum depth of footing carrying a heavy load is given by
𝟑𝑾
𝑫𝒇 = √ (𝑳 − 𝟏)
𝟒𝒇𝑳
Where, W = total load on footing
L = length of footing
f = friction factor

Best Wishes

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