Electricity

generation

Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary
energy. For utilities in the electric power industry, it is the stage prior to its delivery (transmission,
distribution, etc.) to end users or its storage, using for example, the pumped-storage method.

A turbo generator

Usable electricity is not freely available in nature, so it must be "produced", transforming other
forms of energy to electricity. Production is carried out in power stations, also called "power
plants". Electricity is most often generated at a power plant by electromechanical generators,
primarily driven by heat engines fueled by combustion or nuclear fission, but also by other
means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources include solar
photovoltaics and geothermal power. There are exotic and speculative methods to recover
energy, such as proposed fusion reactor designs which aim to directly extract energy from
intense magnetic fields generated by fast-moving charged particles generated by the fusion
reaction (see magnetohydrodynamics).

Phasing out coal-fired power stations and eventually gas-fired power stations,[1] or, if practical,
capturing their greenhouse gas emissions, is an important part of the energy transformation
required to limit climate change. Vastly more solar power[2] and wind power[3] is forecast to be
required, with electricity demand increasing strongly[4] with further electrification of transport,
homes and industry.[5] However, in 2023, it was reported that the global electricity supply was
approaching peak CO2 emissions thanks to the growth of solar and wind power.[6]

History

Dynamos and engine installed at

Edison General Electric Company,
New York, 1895

The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered in the 1820s and early
1830s by British scientist Michael Faraday. His method, still used today, is for electricity to be
generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or Faraday disc, between the poles of a magnet.
Central power stations became economically practical with the development of alternating
current (AC) power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage
and with low loss.

Commercial electricity production started with the coupling of the dynamo to the hydraulic
turbine. The mechanical production of electric power began the Second Industrial Revolution
and made possible several inventions using electricity, with the major contributors being
Thomas Alva Edison and Nikola Tesla. Previously the only way to produce electricity was by
chemical reactions or using battery cells, and the only practical use of electricity was for the
telegraph.

Electricity generation at central power stations started in 1882, when a steam engine driving a
dynamo at Pearl Street Station produced a DC current that powered public lighting on Pearl
Street, New York. The new technology was quickly adopted by many cities around the world,
which adapted their gas-fueled street lights to electric power. Soon after electric lights would be
used in public buildings, in businesses, and to power public transport, such as trams and trains.

The first power plants used water power or coal.[7] Today a variety of energy sources are used,
such as coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, wind, and oil, as well as solar energy, tidal
power, and geothermal sources.

In the 1880s the popularity of electricity grew massively with the introduction of the
Incandescent light bulb. Although there are 22 recognised inventors of the light bulb prior to
Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison, Edison and Swan's invention became by far the most
successful and popular of all. During the early years of the 19th century, massive jumps in
electrical sciences were made. And by the later 19th century the advancement of electrical
technology and engineering led to electricity being part of everyday life. With the introduction of
many electrical inventions and their implementation into everyday life, the demand for electricity
within homes grew dramatically. With this increase in demand, the potential for profit was seen
by many entrepreneurs who began investing into electrical systems to eventually create the first
electricity public utilities. This process in history is often described as electrification.[8]

The earliest distribution of electricity came from companies operating independently of one
another. A consumer would purchase electricity from a producer, and the producer would
distribute it through their own power grid. As technology improved so did the productivity and
efficiency of its generation. Inventions such as the steam turbine had a massive impact on the
efficiency of electrical generation but also the economics of generation as well. This conversion
of heat energy into mechanical work was similar to that of steam engines, however at a
significantly larger scale and far more productively. The improvements of these large-scale
generation plants were critical to the process of centralised generation as they would become
vital to the entire power system that we now use today.

Throughout the middle of the 20th century many utilities began merging their distribution
networks due to economic and efficiency benefits. Along with the invention of long-distance
power transmission, the coordination of power plants began to form. This system was then
secured by regional system operators to ensure stability and reliability. The electrification of
homes began in Northern Europe and in the Northern America in the 1920s in large cities and
urban areas. It was not until the 1930s that rural areas saw the large-scale establishment of
electrification.[9]

Methods of generation

2021 world electricity generation by source. Total generation was 28 petawatt-hours.[10]

Coal (36%)
Natural gas (23%)
Hydro (15%)
Nuclear (10%)
Wind (7%)
Solar (4%)
Other (5%)

Several fundamental methods exist to convert other forms of energy into electrical energy.
Utility-scale generation is achieved by rotating electric generators or by photovoltaic systems. A
small proportion of electric power distributed by utilities is provided by batteries. Other forms of
electricity generation used in niche applications include the triboelectric effect, the piezoelectric
effect, the thermoelectric effect, and betavoltaics.
Generators

Wind turbines usually provide

electrical generation in
conjunction with other
methods of producing power.

Electric generators transform kinetic energy into electricity. This is the most used form for
generating electricity and is based on Faraday's law. It can be seen experimentally by rotating a
magnet within closed loops of conducting material, e.g. copper wire. Almost all commercial
electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical energy
forces a generator to rotate.
Electrochemistry

Large dams, such as Hoover Dam in

the United States, can provide large
amounts of hydroelectric power. It
has an installed capacity of 2.07 GW.

Electrochemistry is the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery.

Electrochemical electricity generation is important in portable and mobile applications.
Currently, most electrochemical power comes from batteries.[11] Primary cells, such as the
common zinc–carbon batteries, act as power sources directly, but secondary cells (i.e.
rechargeable batteries) are used for storage systems rather than primary generation systems.
Open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, can be used to extract power either from
natural fuels or from synthesized fuels. Osmotic power is a possibility at places where salt and
fresh water merge.

Photovoltaic effect
The photovoltaic effect is the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells.
Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to DC electricity. Power inverters can then convert
that to AC electricity if needed. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar power electricity is
still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power due to
the cost of the panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in cost and
multijunction cells with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now commercially available. Over
40% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental systems.[12]

Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where there is no access
to a commercial power grid, or as a supplemental electricity source for individual homes and
businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and photovoltaic technology,
combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns, have dramatically accelerated the
deployment of solar panels. Installed capacity is growing by around 20% per year[2] led by
increases in Germany, Japan, United States, China, and India.

Economics
The selection of electricity production modes and their economic viability varies in accordance
with demand and region. The economics vary considerably around the world, resulting in
widespread residential selling prices. Hydroelectric plants, nuclear power plants, thermal power
plants and renewable sources have their own pros and cons, and selection is based upon the
local power requirement and the fluctuations in demand.

All power grids have varying loads on them. The daily minimum is the base load, often supplied
by plants which run continuously. Nuclear, coal, oil, gas and some hydro plants can supply base
load. If well construction costs for natural gas are below $10 per MWh, generating electricity
from natural gas is cheaper than generating power by burning coal.[13]

Nuclear power plants can produce a huge amount of power from a single unit. However, nuclear
disasters have raised concerns over the safety of nuclear power, and the capital cost of nuclear
plants is very high. Hydroelectric power plants are located in areas where the potential energy
from falling water can be harnessed for moving turbines and the generation of power. It may not
be an economically viable single source of production where the ability to store the flow of water
is limited and the load varies too much during the annual production cycle.
Generating equipment

A large generator with the rotor removed

Electric generators were known in simple forms from the discovery of electromagnetic induction
in the 1830s. In general, some form of prime mover such as an engine or the turbines described
above, drives a rotating magnetic field past stationary coils of wire thereby turning mechanical
energy into electricity.[14] The only commercial scale forms of electricity production that do not
employ a generator are photovoltaic solar and fuel cells.
Turbines

Large dams such as Three Gorges

Dam in China can provide large
amounts of hydroelectric power; it
has a 22.5 GW capability.

Almost all commercial electrical power on Earth is generated with a turbine, driven by wind,
water, steam or burning gas. The turbine drives a generator, thus transforming its mechanical
energy into electrical energy by electromagnetic induction. There are many different methods of
developing mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. Most electric
generation is driven by heat engines.

The combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the energy to these engines, with a significant
fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources. The modern steam turbine,
invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, currently generates about 80% of the electric power in
the world using a variety of heat sources. Turbine types include:

Steam
Water is boiled by coal burned in a
thermal power plant. About 41% of
all electricity is generated this
way.[15]
 Nuclear fission heat created in a
nuclear reactor creates steam. Less
than 15% of electricity is generated
this way.
Renewable energy. The steam is
generated by biomass, solar
thermal energy, or geothermal
power.
Natural gas: turbines are driven directly
by gases produced by combustion.
Combined cycle are driven by both
steam and natural gas. They generate
power by burning natural gas in a gas
turbine and use residual heat to
generate steam. At least 20% of the
 world's electricity is generated by natural
gas.
Water Energy is captured by a water
turbine from the movement of water -
from falling water, the rise and fall of
tides or ocean thermal currents (see
ocean thermal energy conversion).
Currently, hydroelectric plants provide
approximately 16% of the world's
electricity.
The windmill was a very early wind
turbine. In 2018 around 5% of the
world's electricity was produced from
wind
Turbines can also use other heat-transfer liquids than steam. Supercritical carbon dioxide based
cycles can provide higher conversion efficiency due to faster heat exchange, higher energy
density and simpler power cycle infrastructure. Supercritical carbon dioxide blends, that are
currently in development, can further increase efficiency by optimizing its critical pressure and
temperature points.

Although turbines are most common in commercial power generation, smaller generators can
be powered by gasoline or diesel engines. These may used for backup generation or as a prime
source of power within isolated villages.

World production

Yearly generation by source[10]

Total world generation in 2021 was 28,003 TWh, including coal (36%), gas (23%), hydro (15%),
nuclear (10%), wind (6.6%), solar (3.7%), oil and other fossil fuels (3.1%), biomass (2.4%) and
geothermal and other renewables (0.33%).[10]

Production by country
China produced a third of the world's electricity in 2021, largely from coal. The United States
produces half as much as China but uses far more natural gas and nuclear.[10]
Environmental concerns
Variations between countries generating electrical power affect concerns about the
environment. In France only 10% of electricity is generated from fossil fuels, the US is higher at
70% and China is at 80%.[16] The cleanliness of electricity depends on its source. Methane leaks
(from natural gas to fuel gas-fired power plants)[17] and carbon dioxide emissions from fossil
fuel-based electricity generation account for a significant portion of world greenhouse gas
emissions.[18] In the United States, fossil fuel combustion for electric power generation is
responsible for 65% of all emissions of sulfur dioxide, the main component of acid rain.[19]
Electricity generation is the fourth highest combined source of NOx, carbon monoxide, and
particulate matter in the US.[20]

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), low-carbon electricity generation needs to
account for 85% of global electrical output by 2040 in order to ward off the worst effects of
climate change.[21] Like other organizations including the Energy Impact Center (EIC)[22] and the
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE),[23] the IEA has called for the
expansion of nuclear and renewable energy to meet that objective.[24] Some, like EIC founder
Bret Kugelmass, believe that nuclear power is the primary method for decarbonizing electricity
generation because it can also power direct air capture that removes existing carbon emissions
from the atmosphere.[25] Nuclear power plants can also create district heating and desalination
projects, limiting carbon emissions and the need for expanded electrical output.[26]

A fundamental issue regarding centralised generation and the current electrical generation
methods in use today is the significant negative environmental effects that many of the
generation processes have. Processes such as coal and gas not only release carbon dioxide as
they combust, but their extraction from the ground also impacts the environment. Open pit coal
mines use large areas of land to extract coal and limit the potential for productive land use after
the excavation. Natural gas extraction releases large amounts of methane into the atmosphere
when extracted from the ground greatly increase global greenhouse gases. Although nuclear
power plants do not release carbon dioxide through electricity generation, there are risks
associated with nuclear waste and safety concerns associated with the use of nuclear sources.

Per unit of electricity generated coal and gas-fired power life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions
are almost always at least ten times that of other generation methods.[27]

Centralised and distributed

generation
Centralised generation is electricity generation by large-scale centralised facilities, sent through
transmission lines to consumers. These facilities are usually located far away from consumers
and distribute the electricity through high voltage transmission lines to a substation, where it is
then distributed to consumers; the basic concept being that multi-megawatt or gigawatt scale
large stations create electricity for a large number of people. The vast majority of electricity used
is created from centralised generation. Most centralised power generation comes from large
power plants run by fossil fuels such as coal or natural gas, though nuclear or large
hydroelectricity plants are also commonly used.[28]

Centralised generation is fundamentally the opposite of distributed generation. Distributed

generation is the small-scale generation of electricity to smaller groups of consumers. This can
also include independently producing electricity by either solar or wind power. In recent years
distributed generation as has seen a spark in popularity due to its propensity to use renewable
energy generation methods such as rooftop solar.[29]

Technologies
Centralised energy sources are large power plants that produce huge amounts of electricity to a
large number of consumers. Most power plants used in centralised generation are thermal
power plants meaning that they use a fuel to heat steam to produce a pressurised gas which in
turn spins a turbine and generates electricity. This is the traditional way of producing energy.
This process relies on several forms of technology to produce widespread electricity, these
being natural coal, gas and nuclear forms of thermal generation. More recently solar and wind
have become large scale.
Solar

The 40.5 MW Jännersdorf Solar Park

in Prignitz, Germany

A photovoltaic power station, also known as a solar park, solar farm, or solar power plant, is a
large-scale grid-connected photovoltaic power system (PV system) designed for the supply of
merchant power. They are different from most building-mounted and other decentralized solar
power because they supply power at the utility level, rather than to a local user or users. Utility-
scale solar is sometimes used to describe this type of project.

This approach differs from concentrated solar power, the other major large-scale solar
generation technology, which uses heat to drive a variety of conventional generator systems.
Both approaches have their own advantages and disadvantages, but to date, for a variety of
reasons, photovoltaic technology has seen much wider use. As of 2019, about 97% of utility-
scale solar power capacity was PV.[30][31]

In some countries, the nameplate capacity of photovoltaic power stations is rated in megawatt-
peak (MWp), which refers to the solar array's theoretical maximum DC power output. In other
countries, the manufacturer states the surface and the efficiency. However, Canada, Japan,
Spain, and the United States often specify using the converted lower nominal power output in
MWAC, a measure more directly comparable to other forms of power generation. Most solar
parks are developed at a scale of at least 1 MWp. As of 2018, the world's largest operating
photovoltaic power stations surpassed 1 gigawatt. At the end of 2019, about 9,000 solar farms
were larger than 4 MWAC (utility scale), with a combined capacity of over 220 GWAC.[30]
Most of the existing large-scale
photovoltaic power stations are owned
and operated by independent power
producers, but the involvement of
community and utility-owned projects is
increasing.[32] Previously, almost all were
supported at least in part by regulatory
incentives such as feed-in tariffs or tax
credits, but as levelized costs fell
significantly in the 2010s and grid parity
has been reached in most markets,
external incentives are usually not needed.
Wind

The San Gorgonio Pass wind farm in California, United

States.

The Gansu Wind Farm in China is the largest wind farm in

the world, with a target capacity of 20,000 MW by 2020.

A wind farm or wind park, also called a wind power station or wind power plant,[33] is a group of
wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. Wind farms vary in size from a
small number of turbines to several hundred wind turbines covering an extensive area. Wind
farms can be either onshore or offshore.

Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in China, India, and the United
States. For example, the largest wind farm in the world, Gansu Wind Farm in China had a
capacity of over 6,000 MW by 2012,[34] with a goal of 20,000 MW[35] by 2020.[36] As of December
2020, the 1218 MW Hornsea Wind Farm in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the
world.[37] Individual wind turbine designs continue to increase in power, resulting in fewer
turbines being needed for the same total output.
Because they require no fuel, wind farms
have less impact on the environment than
many other forms of power generation and
are often referred to as a good source of
green energy. Wind farms have, however,
been criticised for their visual impact and
impact on the landscape. Typically they
need to be spread over more land than
other power stations and need to be built
in wild and rural areas, which can lead to
"industrialization of the countryside",
habitat loss, and a drop in tourism. Some
critics claim that wind farms have adverse
health effects, but most researchers
consider these claims to be
pseudoscience (see wind turbine
syndrome). Wind farms can interfere with
radar, although in most cases, according
to the US Department of Energy, "siting
and other mitigations have resolved
conflicts and allowed wind projects to co-
exist effectively with radar".[38]

Coal

Bełchatów Power Station in

Bełchatów, Poland

Frimmersdorf Power Station in

Grevenbroich, Germany
 Coal-fired power station diagram

Share of electricity production from

coal

A coal-fired power station or coal power plant is a thermal power station which burns coal to
generate electricity. Worldwide there are over 2,400 coal-fired power stations, totaling over 2,130
gigawatts capacity.[39] They generate about a third of the world's electricity,[40] but cause many
illnesses and the most early deaths,[41] mainly from air pollution.[42][43] World installed capacity
doubled from 2000 to 2023 and increased 2% in 2023.[44]

A coal-fired power station is a type of fossil fuel power station. The coal is usually pulverized
and then burned in a pulverized coal-fired boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to
steam, which is then used to spin turbines that turn generators. Thus chemical energy stored in
coal is converted successively into thermal energy, mechanical energy and, finally, electrical
energy.

Coal-fired power stations emit over 10

billion tonnes of carbon dioxide each
year,[45] about one fifth of world
greenhouse gas emissions, so are the
single largest cause of climate change.[46]
More than half of all the coal-fired
electricity in the world is generated in
China.[47] In 2020 the total number of
plants started falling[48][49] as they are
being retired in Europe[50] and America[51]
although still being built in Asia, almost all
in China.[52] Some remain profitable
because costs to other people due to the
health and environmental impact of the
coal industry are not priced into the cost
of generation,[53][54] but there is the risk
newer plants may become stranded
assets.[55] The UN Secretary General has
said that OECD countries should stop
generating electricity from coal by 2030,
and the rest of the world by 2040.[56]
Vietnam is among the few coal-dependent
fast developing countries that fully
pledged to phase out unbated coal power
by the 2040s or as soon as possible
thereafter.[57]

Natural gas
Natural gas is ignited to create pressurised gas which is used to spin turbines to generate
electricity. Natural gas plants use a gas turbine where natural gas is added along with oxygen
which in turn combusts and expands through the turbine to force a generator to spin.

Natural gas power plants are more efficient than coal power generation, they however contribute
to climate change, but not as highly as coal generation. Not only do they produce carbon dioxide
from the ignition of natural gas, the extraction of gas when mined releases a significant amount
of methane into the atmosphere.[58]

Nuclear
Nuclear power plants create electricity through steam turbines where the heat input is from the
process of nuclear fission. Currently, nuclear power produces 11% of all electricity in the world.
Most nuclear reactors use uranium as a source of fuel. In a process called nuclear fission,
energy, in the form of heat, is released when nuclear atoms are split. Electricity is created
through the use of a nuclear reactor where heat produced by nuclear fission is used to produce
steam which in turn spins turbines and powers the generators. Although there are several types
of nuclear reactors, all fundamentally use this process.[59]

Normal emissions due to nuclear power plants are primarily waste heat and radioactive spent
fuel. In a reactor accident, significant amounts of radioisotopes can be released to the
environment, posing a long term hazard to life. This hazard has been a continuing concern of
environmentalists. Accidents such as the Three Mile Island accident, Chernobyl disaster and the
Fukushima nuclear disaster illustrate this problem. [60]

Electricity generation
capacity by country
The table lists 45 countries with their total electricity capacities. The data is from 2022.
According to the Energy Information Administration, the total global electricity capacity in 2022
was nearly 8.9 terawatt (TW), more than four times the total global electricity capacity in 1981.
The global average per-capita electricity capacity was about 1,120 watts in 2022, nearly two and
a half times the global average per-capita electricity capacity in 1981.

Iceland has the highest installed capacity per capita in the world, at about 8,990 watts. All
developed countries have an average per-capita electricity capacity above the global average
per-capita electricity capacity, with the United Kingdom having the lowest average per-capita
electricity capacity of all other developed countries.
 Total capacity Average per capita capacity
Country
(GW) (watts)

World 8,890 1,120

1 China 2,510 1,740

2 United States 1,330 3,940

European Union 1,080 2,420

3 India 556 397

4 Japan 370 2,940

5 Russia 296 2,030

6 Germany 267 3,220

7 Brazil 222 1,030

8 Canada 167 4,460

9 South Korea 160 3,130

10 France 148 2,280

11 Italy 133 2,230

12 Spain 119 2,580

13 United Kingdom 111 1,640

14 Turkey 107 1,240

15 Mexico 104 792

16 Australia 95.8 3,680

17 Saudi Arabia 85.3 2,380

18 Iran 83.3 977

19 Vietnam 72.2 721

20 South Africa 66.7 1,100

21 Poland 64 1,690

22 Thailand 63 901

23 Ukraine 62.2 1,440

24 Egypt 61.1 582

 Total capacity Average per capita capacity
Country
(GW) (watts)

25 Taiwan 58 2,440

26 Netherlands 53.3 3,010

27 Sweden 52.1 5,100

28 Argentina 51.9 1,130

29 Pakistan 42.7 192

30 Norway 41.7 7,530

31 United Arab Emirates 40.7 4,010

32 Malaysia 37.9 1,110

33 Chile 37 1,930

34 Venezuela 34.1 1,210

35 Kazakhstan 29.6 1,600

36 Switzerland 27.8 2,960

37 Austria 26.7 2,890

38 Algeria 25.9 590

39 Greece 24.4 2,400

40 Israel 23.7 2,520

41 Finland 22.2 3,980

42 Denmark 21.3 3,710

43 Ireland 13.3 2,420

44 New Zealand 11.6 2,320

45 Iceland 3.24 8,990

See also

Glossary of power Energy

generation portal
Renewable
Cogeneration: the use of energy
portal
a heat engine or power
Engineering
station to generate portal

electricity and useful heat

at the same time.
Cost of electricity by source
Diesel generator
Engine-generator
Generation expansion planning
Steam-electric power station
 World energy supply and consumption

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