MTU

A text book of

Machine Element-I

Tesfaye O. Terefe Tesfaye O. Terefe

[email protected]
 By: Tesfaye Olana

TITLE PAGE

A textbook of

Machine Element-I

Tesfaye O. Terefe

This textbook is prepared based on the Ethiopian Ministry of Science and

higher education (MoSHE) harmonized curriculum for undergraduate
students of Mechanical Engineering.

Mizan-Tepi University

© Copyright: Tesfaye O. Terefe, Mizan-Tepi University, 2020.

All rights are reserved.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page .....................................................................................................................................i
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... ii
About the Author ........................................................................................................................ v
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................ vii
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. The design process ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Machine elements ........................................................................................................ 2
1.3. Engineering Materials .................................................................................................. 9
1.4. Summary .................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................. 22
STRESS CALCULATION ....................................................................................................... 22
2.1. Design for Static Load ................................................................................................... 22
2.2. Design for dynamic load ................................................................................................ 37
2.3. A cyclic (variable) stress ............................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................. 51
STRENGTH CALCULATION AND DIMENSIONING OF JOINTS ................................... 51
3.1. RIVETED JOINTS ........................................................................................................ 51
3.1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 51
3.1.2. Methods of Riveting ............................................................................................... 52
3.1.3. Types of Rivet Heads ............................................................................................. 53
3.1.4. Material of Rivets ................................................................................................... 55
3.1.5. Types of Riveted Joints .......................................................................................... 55
3.1.6. Important Terms Used in Riveted Joints ................................................................ 56
3.1.7. Failures of a Riveted Joint ...................................................................................... 57
3.1.8. Strength of a riveted joint ....................................................................................... 61
3.1.9. Efficiency of a Riveted Joint .................................................................................. 61
3.1.10. Calculation of hole diameter and pitch ............................................................... 61
3.2. WELDED JOINTS ........................................................................................................ 70
3.2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 70
3.2.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Welded Joints .................................................. 70
3.2.3. Welding processes .................................................................................................. 71
3.2.4. Stress-relieving of welded joints ............................................................................ 73
3.2.5. Butt joints ............................................................................................................... 73
3.2.6. Fillet joints .............................................................................................................. 75
3.2.7. Strength of butt welds............................................................................................. 76
3.2.8. Strength of parallel fillet welds .............................................................................. 77

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3.2.9. Strength of transverse fillet welds .......................................................................... 78

3.2.10. Axially loaded unsymmetrical welded joints ..................................................... 79
3.2.11. Eccentric load in plane of welds ......................................................................... 80
3.2.12. Welded joint subjected to bending moment ....................................................... 82
3.3. SCREWED JOINTS ...................................................................................................... 97
3.3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 97
3.3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Screwed Joints................................................. 97
3.3.4. Designation of Screw Threads ............................................................................... 98
3.3.5. Standard Dimensions of Screw Threads ................................................................ 99
3.3.6. Stresses in Screwed Fastening due to Static Loading ............................................ 99
3.3.7. Initial Stresses due to Screwing up Forces ............................................................. 99
3.3.8. Stresses due to External Forces ............................................................................ 103
3.3.9. Combined tension and shear stress ....................................................................... 103
3.3.10. Eccentric Load Acting Perpendicular to the Axis of Bolts............................... 106
3.3.11. Eccentric Load Acting Parallel to the Axis of Bolts......................................... 108
3.3.12. Elastic analysis of bolted joints ........................................................................ 116
CHAPTER 4 ........................................................................................................................... 122
TORQUE TRANSMITTING JOINTS ................................................................................... 122
4.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................. 122
4.2. Keys ............................................................................................................................. 122
4.3. Design of square and flat keys ..................................................................................... 128
4.4. Splines.......................................................................................................................... 131
4.5. Interference-Fit Joints .................................................................................................. 134
CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................................................... 139
PRESSURE VESSELS ........................................................................................................... 139
5.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................. 139
5.2. Thin cylindrical vessel subjected to internal pressure ................................................. 139
5.3. Stresses in a thin cylindrical vessel subjected to internal pressure .............................. 140
5.4. Expression for circumferential stress (or hoop stress) ................................................. 140
5.5. Expression for longitudinal stress ................................................................................ 141
5.6. Efficiency of a joint ..................................................................................................... 146
5.7. Pressure Vessels Equations.......................................................................................... 149
CHAPTER 6 ........................................................................................................................... 156
MECHANICAL SPRINGS .................................................................................................... 156
6.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 156
6.2. Types of Springs ...................................................................................................... 156
6.3. Material for Helical Springs ..................................................................................... 158

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6.4. Terms used in Compression Springs ........................................................................ 159

6.5. Stresses in Helical Springs of Circular Wire ........................................................... 161
6.6. Deflection of Helical Springs of Circular Wire ....................................................... 164
6.7. Eccentric Loading of Springs ................................................................................... 165
6.8. Buckling of Compression Springs ........................................................................... 166
6.9. Surge in Springs ....................................................................................................... 166
6.10. Leaf Springs ......................................................................................................... 171
References............................................................................................................................... 184

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Tesfaye Olana Terefe received his B.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering
from Adama Science and Technology University in 2015 G.C., and his
Master’s Degree in Design of Mechanical Systems from Jimma Institute
of Technology, Jimma University in 2018 G.C.

His field of interest is in designing of Mechanical systems, modeling and

finite element analysis, study with artificial intelligence and robotics,
computer-aided designs, and related.

He was an assistant lecturer after receiving his first degree for one year
and continued for his second degree. After completion of his Master’s
degree he is working as a Lecturer in Mizan Tepi University department
of Mechanical Engineering, in the College of Engineering and
Technology. He is collaboratively working with national and
international researchers.

Including his first and second degree he contributed a scientific paper to

international journals individually and with his colleagues. His first-
degree paperwork is about Design of impact stone crusher machine, and
his second degree is on synthesis and analysis of walking machine
(robot) on a rough surface.

Mr. Tesfaye O. Terefe is working also as Community Development and

Support Office of Tepi Campus Coordinator since 2019 G.C.

Some of his work published online is given here next to this page

Tesfaye O. Terefe

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The author’s publications

 Tesfaye Olana, Gemechu Gutema and Tsega Tadesse (2017), “Design of impact
stone crusher machine”, Lambert Academic Publishing, November 14, ISBN-10:
6202060468, ISBN-13: 978-6202060462
 Tesfaye O. Terefe (2018), “Synthesis and Analysis of walking machine (robot)
leg mechanisms on a rough terrain” Jimma University, Ethiopia
 Tesfaye Olana (2017) “Review of Basic Principles of Embodiment Design”,
International Journal of Business Intelligent, Vol. 6, Issue 1, pp. 1-5, DOI:
10.20894/IJBI.105.006.001.001, ISSN: 2278-2400
 Tesfaye Olana Terefe (2017), “Design and Development of Manually Operated
Reaper Machine”, International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications
(IJARP), Volume 1 - Issue 2, 15-21 #ijarp
 Tesfaye O. Terefe and Hirpa G. Lemu (2018), “Solution Approaches to
Differential Equations of Mechanical Systems Dynamics: A case study of car
suspension system”, Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal.
Volume 12 - Issue 2
 Tesfaye O. Terefe and Getaw A. Tefera (2019), “Design of impact stone crusher
machine” International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 10
– Issue 5, pp:904-909
 Tesfaye O. Terefe, Hirpa G. Lemu, Addisu K/Mariam and Tadele B. Tuli (2019),
“Kinematic Modeling and analysis of walking machine (Robot) leg mechanism
on a rough terrain” Advances in Science and Technology Research Journal.
Volume 10 - Issue 3
 Tadele B. Tuli and Tesfaye O. Terefe* (2019) “A simplified parametric motion
control of industrial robots for human-robot collaborative environment” 23rd
Annual Conference of Ethiopian Society of Mechanical Engineers “The Role of
Mechanical Engineering in Improving Industrial Competitiveness in Ethiopia”
May 12, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
 Tesfaye O. Terefe, Hirpa G. Lemu* and Addisu K/Mariam (2019), Review and
synthesis of a walking machine (Robot) leg mechanism, 8th Int. Conf. on
Manufacturing Science and Education – MSE 2019 “Trends in New Industrial
Revolution” June 5-7, Sibiu, Romania.

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PREFACE
The textbook provides a unified and detailed course material on the
Machine Element-I for engineers and university students to solve problems in
mechanical engineering. The book aims to provide the necessary concepts,
theories, and techniques designing the Machine elements for readers, such that,
they can understand. Important fundamental and classical theories are
introduced in a straightforward and easy to understand way. The coverage
includes both theoretical and numerical analysis. The primary objective of
writing the book is to equip mechanical engineering students with the necessary
theoretical background to understand components of machine elements and
their design procedure. Secondly, it aims to furnish practical applications of
machine elements thereby introducing the student to various machines. With
these two objectives in mind, it is envisaged that the book will be of some help
in assisting students and practicing engineers alike in the design of machine
elements.

The subject matter discussed in the textbook includes the design process
of machine elements, classification of engineering material in the first chapter.
Chapter two is about stress calculation at static and dynamic analysis. Further
the variable stress is discussed in this chapter. The third chapter mainly focuses
on joints in mechanical systems and their classifications. The strength
calculation and dimensioning, their mode of failure through the analytical
method is discussed. The fourth chapter talks about the torque transmitting
joints: keys and their classification, design, and application area. In chapter five
about pressure vessels: thin and thick cylinder pressure vessel analysis is
illustrated here in this chapter. The final chapter deals with the designing of
different mechanical springs. Most of the materials in the module are selected
from lecture notes prepared for classes. Those lecture notes were written using
materials from many excellent, existing books on the Machine Elements. The
materials have indeed been presented to readers/audiences of various
backgrounds. The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to the
authors of all the existing Machine Elements books, which some of these
materials may have been referenced from (they are listed in the Reference
section without explicitly citing them). Machine Elements has been well
developed and documented in detail in various existing books. The author has

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benefited from discussions with colleagues and students who have used the
teaching material on the same subject previously and made valuable comments
regarding the presentation and formatting of the text and express his
appreciation to all who have contributed in one way or the other. The author is
grateful to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering
and Technology for making it possible to write the book. Thanks are also due to
the Research and Publications Office, Mizan-Tepi University, for granting
financial assistance for word processing of the manuscript.

Tesfaye O. Terefe

May 2020

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Fundamentally, Design is the process of problem-solving. Mechanical design means the design
of things and systems of mechanical nature, such as machines products, structures, devices, and
instruments to meet the desired needs [1].

As applied to machines alone, the usual name given is machine design (or design of machine
elements). It is a decision-making process in which the basic sciences, mathematics,
Engineering-mechanics sciences and material sciences are applied to convert resources optimally
to meet a stated objective.

Among the fundamental elements of the design process are the establishment of objectives and
criteria, synthesis, construction, testing, and evaluation.

1.1. The design process

Machine design is an iterative process in which we proceed through several steps. The design
process, as we will describe it, involves the six-step procedure. Let us look at the activity that
takes place during each of these steps [2].

Step 1: Recognize the need

The products and processes created by engineering design are a direct response to the specific
needs of society. At this step a complete statement of the problem, indicating the need, aim, or
purpose of the machine or product to be designed is made.

Step 2: Prepare product specifications

This step consists of preparing a complete list of the requirements of the product. The
requirements include the output capacity of the machine, service life, cost, and reliability.

In some cases, the overall dimensions and weight of the product are specified.

Step 3: Selection of mechanism

After careful study of the requirements, the designer prepares rough sketches of different
possible mechanisms for the product. For example, while designing a blanking or piercing press,
the following mechanisms are possible:

i) Mechanism involving crank and connecting rod, converting the rotary motion of the
electric motor into reciprocating motion of the punch;

ii) Mechanism involving nut and screw, which is simple and cheap configuration but
having poor efficiency; and

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iii) Mechanism consisting of hydraulic cylinder, piston and valves which is costly
configuration but highly efficient.

Step 4: Layout of configuration

At this step a block diagram showing the general layout of the selected configuration is prepared.
Here the designer specifies joining methods, such as riveting, bolting, or welding to connect
individual components. Rough sketches of shapes of the individual parts are prepared.

Step 5: Design of individual components

The design of individual components or machine elements is an important step in the design
process. It consists of following stages [3]:

i) Determine the forces acting on the component;

ii) Select proper material for the component depending upon the functional
requirements such as strength, rigidity, hardness and wear resistance;

iii) Determine the likely mode of failure for the component and depending upon it,
select the criterion of failure, such as yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
endurance limit or permissible deflection; and

iv) Determine the geometric dimensions of the component using a suitable factor of
safety and modify the dimensions from assembly and manufacturing considerations.

The stage involves detailed stress and deflection analysis. The subject ‘machine design’ or
‘elements of machine design’ covers mainly the design of machine elements or individual
components of the machine.

Step 6: Preparation of drawings

The last in the design process is to prepare drawings of the assembly and the individual
components. On these drawings, the material of the component, its dimensions, tolerances,
surface finish grades, and machining symbols are specified. The designer prepares two separate
lists of components: Standard components to be purchased directly from the market and special
components to be machined in the factory.

In many cases, a prototype model is prepared for the product and thoroughly tested before
finalizing the assembly drawings.

1.2. Machine elements

A machine is an assemblage of parts (or elements) interposed between the source of power and
the work to be accomplished. Each part of a machine, which has a motion with respect to some

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other part, is called a machine element. It is important to note that each machine element is
manufactured separately. For example, a rolling contact bearing is a machine element and it
consists of the inner race, outer race, cage, and rolling element like balls [4].

Machine elements can be classified into two groups

I. General-purpose
II. Special purpose machine elements

General-purpose machine elements include shafts, couplings, clutches, bearings, springs, gears,
and machine frames. Special purpose machine elements include pistons, valves, or spindles.
Special purpose machine elements are used only in certain types of applications. On the contrary,
general-purpose machine elements are used in several applications.

The broad objective of designing a machine element is to ensure that it preserves its operating
capacity during the stipulated service life with minimum manufacturing and operating costs.

1.2.1. Machine element requirements

To achieve this objective, the machine element should satisfy the following basic requirements:

a. Strength: This is the ability of an element to resist break down or plastic deformation
under applied loads. A machine part should have sufficient strength to avoid failure due
to fracture or due to general yielding.
b. Rigidity: this is the ability of a part to resist deformation under load. A rigid component
withstands deflection or bending due to forces or moments that act upon it. A
transmission shaft is many times, designed based on lateral and torsional rigidities. In
this case maximum permissible deflection and permissible angle of twist are the criterion
for design.
c. Wear Resistance: Wear is the main reason that puts the machine part out of order. It
reduces the useful life of the components. Wear also leads to the loss of accuracy of
machine tools. There are different types of wear such as abrasive wear, corrosive wear,
and pitting. Surface hardening can increase the wear resistance of the machine
components, such as gears and cams.
d. Minimum dimensions and weight: A machine part should be sufficiently strong, rigid,
and wear-resistant and at the same time, with minimum possible dimensions and weight.
This will result in minimum material cost.
e. Manufacturability: Manufacturability is the ease of fabrication and assembly. The
shape and material of the machine part should be selected in such a way that it can be
produced with minimum labor cost.

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f. Safety: The shapes and dimensions of the machine parts should ensure safety to the
operator of the machine. The designer should assume the worst possible conditions and
apply the ‘fail-false’ or ‘redundancy’ principle in such cases.
g. Conformance to standards: A machine part should conform to the national or
international standard, covering its profile, dimensions, grade, and material.
h. Reliability: Reliability is the probability that a machine part will perform its intended
functions under desired operating conditions over a specified period. A machine part
should be reliable, i.e. it should perform its function satisfactorily over its lifetime.
i. Maintainability: A machine part should be maintainable. Maintainability is the ease
with which a machine part can be serviced or repaired.
j. Minimum life cycle cost: The life cycle cost of the machine part is the total cost to be
paid by the purchaser for purchasing the part and operating and maintaining it over its
life span. It will be observed that the above-mentioned requirements serve as the basis
for design projects in many cases.

1.2.2. Design of machine elements

The design of machine elements is the most important step in the complete procedure of machine
design. To ensure the basic requirements of machine elements, calculations are carried out to
find out the dimensions of the machine elements. The basic procedure of the design of machine
elements consists of the following steps [5]:

Step 1: Specification of function

The design of the machine element begins with the specification of the function of some of the
machine element. Example of functions of some of the machine elements are as follows:

a. Bearing: to support the rotating shaft and confine its motion.

b. Key: to transmit the torque between the shaft and the adjoining machine part like gear,
pulley or sprocket.
c. Screw fastening: to hold two or more machine parts together.

Step 2: Determination of forces

In many cases, a free body diagram of forces is constructed to determine the forces acting on
different parts of the machine. Examples of the external and internal forces that act on machine
elements are as follows:

a. The external force due to energy, power, or torque transmitted by the machine part. It is
often called ‘useful ‘load.

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b. Force due to frictional resistance.

c. Inertia force due to change in linear or angular velocity.
d. Force due to particular shape of the part such as stress concentration due to abrupt change
in cross-section.

Step 3: Selection of Material

The four basic factors, which are considered in selecting the material are availability, cost,
mechanical properties, and manufacturing considerations.

For example, flywheel, housing of gearbox or engine block have complex shapes. These
components are made of cast iron because the casting process produces complicated shapes
without involving machining operations. Transmission shafts are made of plain carbon steels,
because they are available in the form of rods, besides their higher strength.

Step 4: Failure Criterion

Before finding out the dimensions of the component, it is necessary to know the type of failure
by which the component will fail when put into the service. The machine component is said to
have ‘failed’ when it is unable to perform its functions satisfactorily. The three basic types of
failure are as follows: failure by elastic deflection, failure by general yielding; and failure by
fracture.

Step 5: Determination of Dimensions

The shape of the machine element depends upon two factors, viz, the operating conditions and
the shape of the adjoining machine element. For example, an involute profile is used for gear
teeth because it satisfies the fundamental law of gearing. V-belt has trapezoidal cross-section
because it results in wedge action and increases the force of friction between the surfaces of the
belt and the pulley. On the other hand, the pulley of the V-belt should have a shape, which will
match with the adjoining belt.

Step 6: Design Modifications

The geometric dimensions of the machine element are modified from assembly and
manufacturing considerations. Revised calculations are carried out for operating capacity,
margin of safety at critical cross-sections, and resultant stresses, taking into consideration the
effect of stress concentration. When these values differ from desired values, the dimensions of
the component are modified. The process is continued until the desired values of operating
capacity, a factor of safety, and stresses at critical cross-sections are obtained.

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Step 7: Working Drawing

The last step in the design of the machine element is to prepare a working drawing of the machine
element showing dimensions, tolerances, surface finish grades, geometric tolerances, and special
production requirements like heat treatment. The working drawing must have enough views and
cross-sections to show all details. The main view of the machine element should show a position;
it is required to occupy in service. Every dimension must be given. There should not be a place
of guesswork and no necessity for scaling the drawing. All dimensions that are important for
proper assembly and interchangeability must be provided with tolerances.

1.2.3. Use of standards in design

Standardization is defined as obligatory norms, to which various characteristics of a product
should conform. The characteristics include materials, dimensions, and shape of the component,
method of testing and method of marking, packing and storing of the product.

There are two words-standard and code-that are often used in standards [6].

A Standard is defined as a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes. The objective
of the standard is to reduce the variety and limit the number of items to a reasonable level. On
the other hand, a code is defined as a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture,
testing, and erection of the product. The purpose of code is to achieve a specified level of safety.

There are three types of standards used in the design office. They are as follows:

i) Company standards that are used in a particular company or a group of sister

concerns.
ii) National standards such as B.I.S. (Bureau of Indian Standards), D.I.N.
(German), A.I.S.I. or S.A.E. (USA) or B.S. (UK) standards.
iii) International standards prepared by the International Standards Organization
(I.S.O.).

Standardization offers following advantages:

i. The reduction in types and dimensions of identical components, to a rational number,

makes it possible to manufacture the standard component on a mass scale in a centralized
process. For example, a specialized factory-like Associated Bearing Company (SKF)
manufactures ball and roller bearings, which are required by all engineering industries.
The manufacture of standard components on mass production reduces the cost.
ii. Since the standard component is manufactured by a specialized factory, it relieves
machine-building plant from the laborious work of manufacturing that part. Availability

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of standard components like bearings, seals, knobs, wheels, roller chains, belts, hydraulic
cylinders, and valves have considerably reduced the manufacturing facilities required by
an individual organization.
iii. Standard parts are easy to replace when worn out due to interchangeability. This
facilitates servicing and maintenance of machines. The availability of standard spare
parts is assured always. The work of servicing and maintenance can be carried out even
at an ordinary service station. These factors reduce the maintenance cost of machines.
iv. The application of standard machine elements and especially the standard units (e.g.
couplings, cocks, pumps, and pressure reducing valves and electric motors) reduce the
time and effort needed to design a new machine. It is no longer necessary to design,
manufacture, and test these elements and units and all that the designer has to do is to
select them from the manufacturer’s catalogs. On the other hand, an enormous amount
of work would be required to design a machine if all the screws, bolts, nuts, bearings,
etc. had to be designed anew each time. Standardization results in substantial savings in
the designer’s effort.
v. The standards of specifications and testing procedures of machine elements improve their
quality and reliability. Standard components like SKF bearings, Dunlop belts, or
Diamond chains have a long reputation for their reliability in the engineering industry.
The use of standard components improves the quality and reliability of the machine to be
designed.

In designing, the aim is to use as many standard components as possible for a given machine.
The selection of standard parts in no way restricts the creative initiative of the designer and
prevents him from finding better and more rational solutions.

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Exercise
1. Define machine design.
2. What is the outcome of the machine design process?
3. What are the steps in the machine design process?
4. Name the various requirements of a product giving a suitable example.
5. How will you select a mechanism for the product?
6. Prepare a block diagram showing the general layout of electrically /operated overhead
traveling crane and give names of various sub-assemblies.
7. What type of information is given on the final drawings of a product?
8. What are the basic requirements of the machine element?
9. What are the steps involved in the design of the machine element?
10. What is standardization?
11. What are the three basic types of standards used in the design office?
12. What are the advantages of standardization?
13. What do you understand by the size of the product? Give examples.

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1.3.Engineering Materials
The choice of materials for a machine element depends very much on its properties, cost,
availability, and such other factors. It is therefore important to have some idea of the common
engineering materials and their properties. Common engineering materials are normally
classified as metals and nonmetals. Metals may conveniently be divided into ferrous and non-
ferrous metals. Important ferrous metals for the present purpose are [7]:

i) cast iron (CI)

ii) wrought iron and
iii) steel.

Fig. 1. Classification of Engineering materials

Some of the important non-ferrous metals used in engineering design are:

a. Light metal group such as aluminum and its alloys, magnesium, and manganese alloys.
b. Copper-based alloys such as brass (Cu-Zn), bronze (Cu-Sn).
c. White metal group such as nickel, silver, white bearing metals eg. SnSb7Cu3, Sn60Sb11Pb,
zinc etc.

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1.3.1. Metals: Ferrous materials

I. Cast iron

It is an alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon and it is hard and brittle. Carbon content may be within
1.7% to 3% and carbon may be present as free carbon or iron carbide Fe3C. In general, the types
of cast iron are (a) grey cast iron and (b) white cast iron (c) malleable cast iron (d) spheroidal or
nodular cast iron (e) austenitic cast iron (f) abrasion-resistant cast iron [8].

(a) Grey cast iron- Carbon here is mainly in the form of graphite. This type of cast iron is
inexpensive and has high compressive strength. Graphite is an excellent solid lubricant and this
makes it easily machinable but brittle. Some examples of this type of cast iron are FG20, FG35
or FG35Si15. The numbers indicate ultimate tensile strength in MPa and 15 indicates 0.15%
silicon.

(b) White cast iron- In these cast irons carbon is present in the form of iron carbide (Fe3C)
which is hard and brittle. The presence of iron carbide increases hardness and makes it difficult
to machine. Consequently, these cast irons are abrasion-resistant.

(c) Malleable cast iron- These are white cast irons rendered malleable by annealing. These are
tougher than grey cast iron and they can be twisted or bent without fracture. They have excellent
machining properties and are inexpensive. Malleable cast iron is used for making parts where
forging is expensive such as hubs for wagon wheels, brake supports. Depending on the method
of processing they may be designated as black heart BM32, BM30 or white heart WM42, WM35
etc.

(d) Spheroidal or nodular graphite cast iron- In these cast irons graphite is present in the
form of spheres or nodules. They have high tensile strength and good elongation properties.
They are designated as, for example, SG50/7, SG80/2 etc. where the first number gives the
tensile strength in MPa and the second number indicates percentage elongation.

(e) Austenitic cast iron- Depending on the form of graphite present these cast iron can be
classified broadly under two headings: Austenitic flake graphite iron designated, for example,
AFGNi16Cu7Cr2, Austenitic spheroidal or nodular graphite iron designated, for example,
ASGNi20Cr2. These are alloy cast irons and they contain small percentages of silicon,
manganese, Sulphur, phosphorus etc. They may be produced by adding alloying elements viz.
nickel, chromium, molybdenum, copper and manganese in sufficient quantities. These elements
give more strength and improved properties. They are used for making automobile parts such as
cylinders, pistons, piston rings, brake drums etc.

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(f) Abrasion-resistant cast iron- These are alloy cast iron and the alloying elements render
abrasion resistance. A typical designation is ABR33 Ni4 Cr2 which indicates a tensile strength
in kg/mm2 with 4% nickel and 2% chromium.

II. Wrought iron

This is a very pure iron where the iron content is of the order of 99.5%. It is produced by re-
melting pig iron and some small amount of silicon, Sulphur, or phosphorus may be present. It is
tough, malleable and ductile and can easily be forged or welded. It cannot however take sudden
shock. Chains, crane hooks, railway couplings and such other components may be made of this
iron.

III. Steel

This is by far the most important engineering material and there is an enormous variety of steel
to meet the wide variety of engineering requirements. The present note is an introductory
discussion of a vast topic. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content can
be less than 1.7% and carbon is present in the form of iron carbide to impart hardness and
strength. Two main categories of steel are (a) Plain carbon steel and (b) alloy steel.

(a) Plain carbon steel- The properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on the carbon
percentages and other alloying elements are not usually present in more than 0.5 to 1% such as
0.5% Si or 1% Mn etc. There is a large variety of plane carbon steel and they are designated as
C01, C14, C45, C70 and so on where the number indicates the carbon percentage. Following
categorization of these steels is sometimes made for convenience:

 Dead mild steel- up to 0.15% C

 Low carbon steel or mild steel- 0.15 to 0.46% C
 Medium carbon steel- 0.45 to 0.8% C.
 High carbon steel- 0.8 to 1.5% C

Detailed properties of these steels may be found in any standard handbook but in general, higher
carbon percentage indicates higher strength.

(b) Alloy steel- these are steels in which elements other than carbon are added in sufficient
quantities to impart desired properties, such as wear resistance, corrosion resistance, electric or
magnetic properties. Chief alloying elements added are usually nickel for strength and toughness,
chromium for hardness and strength, tungsten for hardness at elevated temperature, vanadium
for tensile strength, manganese for high strength in hot rolled and heat-treated condition, silicon

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for high elastic limit, cobalt for hardness and molybdenum for extra tensile strength. Some
examples of alloy steels are 35Ni1Cr60, 30Ni4Cr1, 40Cr1Mo28, 37Mn2.

Stainless steel is one such alloy steel that gives good corrosion resistance. One important type of
stainless steel is often described as 18/8 steel where chromium and nickel percentages are 18 and
8 respectively. A typical designation of a stainless steel is 15Si2Mn2Cr18Ni8 where the carbon
percentage is 0.15.

Specifications

Several systems for grading steel exist in different countries. The American system is usually
termed as SAE (Society of Automobile Engineers) or AISI (American Iron and Steel Industries)
systems. For example, a steel denoted as SAE 1020 indicates 0.2% carbon and 13% tungsten. In
this system the first digit indicates the chief alloying material. Digits 1,2,3,4 and 7 refer to carbon,
nickel, nickel/chromium, molybdenum and tungsten respectively. More details may be seen in
the standards. The second digit or second and third digits give the percentage of the main alloying
element and the last two digits indicate the carbon percentage. This, therefore, explains that
SAE71360 indicates an alloy steel with 0.6% carbon and the percentage of main alloying
material tungsten is 13. In British system steels are designated by the letters En followed by a
number such as 1,2…16, 20 etc. Corresponding constituent elements can be seen from the
standards but in general En4 is equivalent to C25 steel, En6 is equivalent to C30 steel and so on.

1.3.2. Metals: Non-ferrous materials

Metals containing elements other than iron as their chief constituents are usually referred to as
non-ferrous metals. There is a wide variety of non-ferrous metals in practice. However, only a
few exemplary ones are discussed below [9]:

Aluminium- This is the white metal produced from Alumina. In its pure state it is weak
and soft but the addition of small amounts of Cu, Mn, Si and Magnesium makes it hard
and strong. It is also corrosion-resistant, low weight and non-toxic.

Duralumin- This is an alloy of 4% Cu, 0.5% Mn, 0.5% Mg and aluminium. It is widely
used in automobile and aircraft components.

Y-alloy- This is an alloy of 4% Cu, 1.5% Mn, 2% Ni, 6% Si, Mg, Fe and the rest is Al.
It gives large strength at high temperatures. It is used for aircraft engine parts such as
cylinder heads, piston etc.

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Magnalium- This is an aluminium alloy with 2 to 10 % magnesium. It also contains

1.75% Cu. Due to its lightweight and good strength it is used for aircraft and automobile
components.

Copper alloys- Copper is one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals in industry. It
is soft, malleable and ductile and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. The
following two important copper alloys are widely used in practice:

Brass (Cu-Zn alloy)- It is fundamentally a binary alloy with Zn upto 50%. As Zn

percentage increases, ductility increases up to ~37% of Zn beyond which the ductility
falls. This is shown in figure-2. A small amount of other elements viz. leads or tin imparts
other properties to brass. Lead gives good machining quality and tin imparts strength.
Brass is highly corrosion-resistant, easily machinable and therefore a good bearing
material.

Fig. 2. Variation of ductility of brass with the percentage of zinc.

Bronze (Cu-Sn alloy)-This is mainly a copper-tin alloy where tin percentage may vary
between 5 to 25. It provides hardness but tin content also oxidizes resulting in brittleness.
Deoxidizers such as Zn may be added. Gunmetal is one such alloy where 2% Zn is added
as a deoxidizing agent and typical compositions are 88% Cu, 10% Sn, 2% Zn. This is
suitable for working in a cold state. It was originally made for casting guns but used now
for boiler fittings, bushes, glands and other such uses.

1.3.3. Non-metals
Non-metallic materials are also used in engineering practice due to principally their low cost,
flexibility and resistance to heat and electricity. Though there are many suitable non-metals, the
following are important few from a design point of view:

Timber- This is a relatively low-cost material and a bad conductor of heat and electricity.
It has also good elastic and frictional properties and is widely used in foundry patterns
and as water-lubricated bearings.

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Leather- This is widely used in engineering for its flexibility and wear resistance. It is
widely used for belt drives, washers and such other applications.

Rubber- It has high bulk modulus and is used for drive elements, sealing, vibration
isolation and similar applications.

Plastics-These are synthetic materials that can be molded into desired shapes under
pressure with or without application of heat. These are now extensively used in various
industrial applications for their corrosion resistance, dimensional stability and relatively
low cost. There are two main types of plastics:

(a) Thermosetting plastics- Thermosetting plastics are formed under heat and pressure.
It initially softens and with increasing heat and pressure, polymerization takes place. This
results in the hardening of the material. These plastics cannot be deformed or remolded
again under heat and pressure. Some examples of thermosetting plastics are phenol-
formaldehyde (Bakelite), phenol-furfural (Durite), epoxy resins, phenolic resins etc.

(b) Thermoplastics- Thermoplastics do not become hard with the application of heat
and pressure and no chemical change takes place. They remain soft at elevated
temperatures until they are hardened by cooling. These can be re-melted and remolded
by the application of heat and pressure. Some examples of thermoplastics are cellulose
nitrate (celluloid), polythene, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) etc.

1.3.4. Mechanical properties of common engineering materials

The important properties from design point of view are[8] [10]:

(a) Elasticity- This is the property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed. All materials are plastic to some
extent but the degree varies, for example, both mild steel and rubber are elastic materials
but steel is more elastic than rubber.

(b) Plasticity- This is associated with the permanent deformation of the material when
the stress level exceeds the yield point. Under plastic conditions materials ideally deform
without any increase in stress. A typical stress-strain diagram for an elastic-perfectly
plastic material is shown in the figure-3. Mises-Henky criterion gives a good starting
point for plasticity analysis.

The criterion is given as (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 2 y2 , where σ1,

σ2, σ3 and σy are the three principal stresses at a point for any given loading and the stress
at the tensile yield point respectively. A typical example of plastic flow is the indentation

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test where a spherical ball is pressed in a semi-infinite body where 2a is the indentation
𝑃
diameter. In a simplified model we may write that if > 𝑃𝑚 plastic flow occurs
𝜋𝑎2

where, 𝑃𝑚 is the flow pressure. This is also shown in figure 2.

Fig. 3. Stress-strain diagram of an elastic-perfectly plastic material and the plastic

indentation.

(c) Hardness- Property of the material that enables it to resist permanent deformation,
penetration, indentation etc. Size of indentations by various types of indenters are the
measure of hardness e.g. Brinnel hardness test, Rockwell hardness test, Vickers hardness
(diamond pyramid) test. These tests give hardness numbers which are related to yield
pressure (MPa).

(d) Ductility- This is the property of the material that enables it to be drawn out or
elongated to an appreciable extent before rupture occurs. The percentage elongation or
percentage reduction in the area before the rupture of a test specimen is the measure of
ductility. Normally if the percentage elongation exceeds 15% the material is ductile and
if it is less than 5% the material is brittle. Lead, copper, aluminum, mild steel is typical
ductile materials.

(e) Malleability- It is a special case of ductility where it can be rolled into thin sheets but
it is not necessary to be so strong. Lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminum
are some materials in order of diminishing malleability.

(f) Brittleness- This is opposite to ductility. Brittle materials show little deformation
before fracture and failure occurs suddenly without any warning. Normally if the
elongation is less than 5% the material is considered to be brittle. E.g. cast iron, glass,
ceramics are typical brittle materials.

(g) Resilience- This is the property of the material that enables it to resist shock and
impact by storing energy. The measure of resilience is the strain energy absorbed per unit
volume. For a rod of length L subjected to tensile load P, a linear load-deflection plot is
shown in figure-4.

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1 1 𝑃 𝛿𝑙 1
Strain energy (energy stored) = 𝑃𝛿𝑙 = = 𝜎𝜀𝑉
2 2𝐴 𝐿 2
1
Strain energy/unit volume = 2 𝜎𝜀

Fig. 4. A linear load-deflection plot.

(h) Toughness- This is the property that enables a material to be twisted, bent or stretched
under impact load or high stress before rupture. It may be considered to be the ability of
the material to absorb energy in the plastic zone. The measure of toughness is the amount
of energy absorbed after being stressed up to the point of fracture.

(i) Creep- When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long period it undergoes
a slow permanent deformation and this is termed as “creep”. This is dependent on
temperature. Usually at elevated temperatures creep is high.

1.4.Summary
In this lesson the properties and uses of different types of metals and nonmetals,

generally used in machine design, are discussed. Primarily ferrous and non-ferrous metals and
some non-metals are discussed. Mechanical properties of some common engineering materials
are also discussed briefly.

Allowable working stress-factor of safety

When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum or
ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as the working
stress or design stress. It is also known as safe or allowable stress.

Note: By failure it is not meant the actual breaking of the material. Some machine parts are said
to fail when they have plastic deformation set in them, and they no more perform their function
satisfactorily.

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Factor of safety

While designing a component, it is necessary to provide sufficient reserve strength. This is

achieved by taking a suitable factor of safety (fs, or n, or F.S.). It is defined, in general, as the
ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress. Mathematically,

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑠 =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

In the case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor
of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,

𝑦𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝐹𝑠 =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

In the case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile
materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on the ultimate stress.

𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑠 =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

This relation may also be used for ductile materials.

Note: The above relations for the factor of safety are for static loading.

There are several factors, that are difficult to evaluate accurately in design analysis. Some of the
factors are as follows:

(i) uncertainty in the magnitude of external force acting on the component;

(ii) variations in the properties of materials like yield strength or ultimate strength, and

(iii) variations in the dimensions of the component due to imperfect workmanship.

In addition to these factors, the number of assumptions made in design analysis, to simplify the
calculations, may not be exactly valid in working conditions. The factor of safety ensures against
these uncertainties and unknown conditions.

The magnitude of factor of safety depends upon following factors:

(i) Effect of Failure: Sometimes, the failure of the machine element involves only a little
inconvenience or loss of time, e.g. failure of the ball bearing in the gearbox. On the other hand,
in some cases, there is substantial financial loss or danger to human life, e.g. failure of the valve
in a pressure vessel. The factor of safety is high in applications where failure of the machine part
may result in serious accidents.

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(ii) Type of Load: The factor of safety is low when the external force acting on the machine
element is static, i.e. a load which does not vary in magnitude or direction with respect to time.
On the other hand, a higher factor of safety is selected when the machine element is subjected to
impact load. This is because the impact load is suddenly applied to the machine component,
usually at high velocities.

(iii) Degree of Accuracy in Force Analysis: When the forces acting on the machine component
are precisely determined, a low factor of safety can be selected. On the contrary, a higher factor
of safety is necessary when the machine component is subjected to a force, whose magnitude or
direction is uncertain and unpredictable.

(iv) Material of Component: When the component is made of homogeneous ductile material
like steel, yield strength is the criterion of failure. The factor of safety is usually small in such
cases. On the other hand, cast iron component has a non-homogeneous structure and a higher
factor of safety, based on ultimate tensile strength, is chosen.

(v) Reliability of Component: In certain applications, like continuous process equipment,

power stations, or defense equipment, high reliability of components is expected. The factor of
safety increases with increasing reliability.

(vi) Cost of Component: As the factor of safety increases, dimensions of component, material
requirement and cost increase. The factor of safety is low for cheap machine parts.

(vii) Testing of Machine Element: A low factor of safety can be chosen when the machine
component can be tested under actual conditions of service and operation. A higher factor of
safety is necessary, when it is not possible to test the machine part or where there is a deviation
between test conditions and actual service conditions.

(viii) Service Conditions: When the machine element is likely to operate in a corrosive
atmosphere or high-temperature environment, a higher factor of safety is necessary.

(ix) Quality of Manufacture: When the quality of manufacture is high, variations in dimensions
of machine components are less and a low factor of safety can be selected. Conversely, a higher
factor of safety is required to compensate for poor manufacturing quality.

The selection of magnitude of the factor of safety is one of the difficult tasks faced by the
designer. The guidelines for selection of quantitative values of the factor of safety are as follows:

(i) For cast iron components, ultimate tensile strength is considered to be the failure criterion.
Failure occurs when the maximum stress in the component due to external force exceeds the
ultimate tensile strength even once. Cast-iron components have a non-homogeneous structure.

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Many times, there are residual stresses in the component. To account for these factors, a large
factor of safety, usually 3 to 5, based on ultimate tensile strength, is used in the design of cast
iron components.

(ii) For components made of ductile materials like steel, and which are subjected to external
static forces, yield strength is considered to be the criterion of failure. When such components
are overloaded and the stress due to external force exceeds the yield strength of the material,
there is a small amount of plastic deformation, which usually does not put the component out of
service. Ductile components have a homogeneous structure and the residual stresses can be
relieved by proper heat treatment. The stress analysis is more precise in the case of static forces.
Due to these reasons, the factor of safety is usually small in such cases. The recommended factor
of safety is 1.5 to 2, based on the yield strength of the material.

(iii) For components made of ductile materials and which are subjected to external
fluctuating forces, endurance-limit is considered to be the criterion of failure. Such components
fail on account of fatigue. Fatigue failure depends upon the amplitude of fluctuating stresses and
the number of stress cycles. Several factors affect endurance limit, such as stress concentration,
notch sensitivity, surface finish, and even the size of the component. Therefore, the endurance
limit of the component is reduced to account for these factors. The recommended factor of safety
based on this endurance limit of component is usually 1.3 to 1.5.

(iv) The design of certain components such as cam and follower, gears, rolling contact bearings
or rail and wheel is based on the calculation of contact stresses by Hertz’ theory. The failure of
such components is usually in the form of small pits on the surface of the component. Pitting is
surface fatigue failure, which occurs when contact stress exceeds the surface endurance limit.
The damage due to pitting is local and does not put the component out of operation. The surface
endurance limit can be improved by increasing the surface hardness. The recommended factor
of safety for such components is 1.8 to 2.5 based on surface endurance limit.

(v) Certain components, such as piston rod, power screws or studs, are designed based on
buckling consideration. Buckling is elastic instability, which results in a sudden large lateral
deflection. The critical buckling load, when buckling takes place, depends upon yield strength,
modulus of elasticity, end conditions and radius of gyration of the column. The recommended
factor of safety is 3 to 6 based on the critical buckling load of such components.

The above-mentioned values of factors of safety are based on experience. They are applicable
under normal circumstances.

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However, a higher factor of safety is chosen under the following conditions: -

a. The magnitude and nature of external forces acting on the machine component cannot be
precisely estimated.
b. The material of machine component likely has a non-homogeneous structure.
c. The machine component is subjected to impact force in service.
d. There is a possibility of residual stresses in the machine component.
e. The machine component is working in a corrosive atmosphere.
f. The machine part is subjected to high temperatures during operation.
g. The failure of machine part may hazard the lives of people (hoist, lifting machinery
boilers) and there is variation in actual conditions and standard test conditions.
h. Higher reliability is demanded in applications like components of aircraft.
i. There is a possibility of abnormal variation in external load on some occasions.
j. The quality of manufacture of the machine part is poor.
k. The exact mode of failure of the component is unpredictable.
l. There is stress concentration in the machine component.

A higher factor of safety increases the reliability of the component. However, it increases the
dimensions, the volume of material and consequently the cost of the machine component. In
recent years, attempts have been made to obtain precise values of factor of safety based on
statistical considerations and reliability analysis.

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Exercise
1. Classify common engineering materials.
2. What are the advantages of malleable cast iron over white or grey cast iron?
3. A standard alloy steel used for making engineering components is 20Cr18 Ni2. State the
composition of the steel.
4. Name two important copper alloys and give their typical compositions.
5. How is plain carbon steel designated?
6. List at least five important non-metals commonly used in machine design.
7. State at least 5 important mechanical properties of materials to be considered in machine
design.
8. Define resilience and discuss its implication in the choice of materials in machine design.

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CHAPTER 2
STRESS CALCULATION
2.1. Design for Static Load
2.1.1. Stress-strain relationship
When a mechanical component is subjected to an external static force, a
resisting force is set up within the component. The internal resisting force
per unit area of the component is called stress [3]. The stresses are called
tensile when the fibres of the component tend to elongate due to the
external force. On the other hand, when the fibres tend to shorten due to
the external force, the stresses are called compressive stresses. A tension Fig.1.
rod subjected to an external force P is shown in Fig.1. The tensile stress
is given by:
𝑃
𝜎𝑡 = 𝐴 ……(1)

where,

𝜎𝑡 = tensile stress (N/mm2)

𝑃 = external force (N)

𝐴 = cross-sectional area (mm2)

Many times, the unit for stress or strength is taken as MPa.

1 MPa = 1 mega Pascal = 106 Pascal = (106) (N/m2) = (106)(N/[103 mm]2) = 1N/mm2

Therefore, two units (N/mm2) and (MPa) are the same. The strain is deformation per unit
length. It given by

𝛿 ……(2)
𝜀=
𝑙
where,

𝜀= strain (mm/mm)

𝛿 = elongation of tension rod (mm)

I = original length of the rod (mm)

According to Hooke’s law, the stress is directly proportional to the strain, within the elastic
limit. Therefore,

𝜎𝑡 = 𝐸𝜀 ……(3)

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where E is constant of proportionality known as Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity (in

N/mm2 or MPa).

For carbon steels 𝐸 = 207 𝐺𝑃𝑎

For grey cast iron 𝐸 = 100 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Substituting Eqs (1) and (2) in Eq. (3), we get

𝑃𝐿
𝛿= ……(4)
𝐴𝐸
A component subjected to a compressive force is shown in Fig. 2. The compressive stress ϭc is
given by,

𝑃 …..(5)
𝜎𝑐 =
𝐴

Fig. 2.

The following assumptions are made in the above analysis of stress and strain:

a. The material is homogeneous;

b. The load is gradually applied;
c. The line of action of force P passes through the geometric axis of the cross-section;
d. The cross-section is uniform; and
e. There is no stress concentration.

2.1.2. Shear stress and shear strain

When the external force acting on a component tends to slide the adjacent planes with respect
to each other, the resulting stresses on these planes are called direct shear stresses [10]. Two
plates held together through a rivet are shown in Fig.3 (a). The average shear stress in the rivet
is given by:

𝑃
𝜏= …..(6)
𝐴
where,

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𝜏 = shear stress (N/mm2 or MPa)

A = cross-sectional area of the rivet (mm2)

Fig.3. (a) Riveted Joint (b) Shear Deformation (c) Shear Stress

A plane rectangular element, cut from the component and subjected to shear force, is shown in
Fig. 4(a). Shear stresses distort the original right angles. The shear strain (γ) is defined as the
change in the right angle of a shear element. Within the elastic limit, the stress-strain
relationship is given by:

𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 ….(7)

where,
𝛾 = shear strain (radians)

Fig.4. (a) Element Loaded in Pure Shear (b) Shear Strain

𝐺 is constant of proportionality known as shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (in N/mm 2 or

MPa). For carbon steels 𝐺 = 80 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and for grey cast iron 𝐺 = 40 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

The relationship between the modulus of elasticity, the modulus of rigidity and the Poisson’s
ratio is given by:

𝐸 = 2𝐺 (1 + 𝜇) …. (8)

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where μ is Poisson’s ratio. The Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of strain in the lateral direction to that
in the axial direction.

For carbon steels 𝜇 = 0.29

For grey cast iron 𝜇 = 0.21

The permissible shear stress is given by, …. (9)

𝑆𝑠𝑦
𝜏=
𝑓𝑠

where,

𝑆𝑠𝑦 = yield strength in shear (N/mm2 or MPa)

It will be proved at a later stage that the yield strength in shear is 50% of the yield strength in
tension, according to the principal shear stress theory of failure.

2.1.3. Stresses due to bending moment

A straight beam subjected to a bending moment Mb is shown in Fig. 5 (a). The beam is subjected
to a combination of tensile stress on one side of the neutral axis and compressive stress on the
other. Such a stress distribution can be visualized by bending a thick leather belt. Cracks will
appear on the outer surface, while folds on the inside. Therefore, the outside fibres are in
tension, while the inside fibres in compression. The bending stress at any fibre is given by,
𝑀𝑏 𝑦
𝜎𝑏 = ….(10)
𝐼

where,

𝜎𝑏 = bending stress at a distance of y from the neutral axis

𝑀𝑏 = applied bending moment (N-mm)

𝐼 = moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis (mm4)

Fig.5. (a) Distribution of Bending Stresses (b) Section at XX

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The bending stress is maximum in a fibre which is farthest from the neutral axis. The
distribution of stresses is linear and the stress is proportional to the distance from the neutral
axis.

Equation (10) is based on the following assumptions:

i. The beam is straight with uniform cross-section;

ii. The forces acting on the beam lie in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the
beam;
iii. The material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooke’s law; and
iv. Plane cross-sections remain plane after bending.

The moment of inertia in Eq. (10) is the area moment of inertia.

For a rectangular cross-section,
𝑏𝑑3 ….(11)
𝐼=
12
b = distance parallel to the neutral axis (mm)
d = distance perpendicular to the neutral axis (mm)
For a circular cross-section,

𝑏𝑑4 ….(12)
𝐼=
64
where, d is the diameter of the cross-section.

When the cross-section is irregular, as shown in Fig. 6, the moment of inertia about the
centroidal axis 𝑋𝑔 is given by,

𝐼𝑥𝑔 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 …….(13)

Fig. 6. Parallel-axis Theorem

The parallel-axis theorem for this area is given by the expression,

𝐼𝑥𝑙 = 𝐼𝑥𝑔 + 𝐴𝑦𝑙2 ….(14)

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Where

𝐼𝑥𝑙 = moment of inertia of the area about X1 axis, which is parallel to axis 𝑋𝑔 ,
and located at a distance y1 from 𝑋𝑔
𝐼𝑥𝑔 = moment of inertia of the area about its own centroidal axis
A = area of the cross-section

Fig 7. Bending Moment diagram

In the design of machine elements like transmission shaft, axle or lever, it is required to find
out maximum bending moment by constructing the bending moment diagram. There is a
particular sign convention for the bending moment diagram, which is illustrated in Fig.7. For
positive bending, the bending moment diagram is constructed on the positive side of the Y-axis.
For negative bending, the diagram is on the negative side of the Y-axis. There is a simple way
to remember positive bending-imagine the crescent-shaped moon and it is positive bending.

2.1.4. Stresses due to torsional moment

A transmission shaft, subjected to an external torque; is shown in Fig. .8 (a). The internal
stresses, which are induced to resist the action of twist, are called torsional shear stresses [10].
The torsional shear stress is given by,

𝑀𝑡 𝑟
𝜏= ….(15)
𝐽

where,

𝜏 = torsional shear stress at the fibre (N/mm2 or MPa)

𝑀𝑡 = applied torque (N-mm)
𝑟 = radial distance of the fibre from the axis of rotation (mm)
𝐽 = polar moment of inertia of the cross-section about the axis of rotation (mm4)
The distribution of torsional shear stresses is shown in Fig. 8 (b).

The stress is maximum at the outer fibre and zero at the axis of rotation. angle of twist is given
by,

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𝑀𝑡 𝑙
….(16)
𝜃= 𝐽𝐺

Where, 𝜃 = angle of twist (radians) = length of the shaft (mm)

Fig. 8. (a) Shaft subjected to Torsional Moment b) Distribution of Torsional Shear Stresses

Equations (15) and (16) are based on the following assumptions:

i. The shaft is straight with a circular cross-section;

ii. A plane transverse section remains plane after twisting; and
iii. The material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooke’s law.

The polar moment of inertia of a solid circle of diameter d is given by

𝜋𝑑 4 ….(17)
𝐽=
32
For a hollow circular cross-section,
4 4
𝜋(𝑑0 −𝑑𝑖 )
𝐽= ….(18)
32
Substituting Eqs (17) and (18) in Eq. (16) and converting θ from radians to degrees,

584𝑀𝑡 𝑙
𝜃= (deg) ….(19)
𝐺𝑑 4
584𝑀𝑡 𝑙
𝜃= (deg)
𝐺(𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) ….(20)

In many problems of machine design, it is required to calculate torque from the power
transmitted and the speed of rotation. This relationship is given by:

2𝜋𝑛𝑀𝑡
𝑘𝑊 = ….(21)
60𝑥106
where,

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𝑘𝑊 = transmitted power (kW)

𝑀𝑡 = torque (N-mm)

𝑛 = speed of rotation (rpm)

Examples

1. A mild steel rod supports a tensile load of 50 kN. If the stress in the rod is limited to
100 MPa, find the size of the rod when the cross-section is 1. circular, 2. square, and 3.
rectangular with width = 3 × thickness.

Solution. Given: P = 50 kN = 50 × 103 N; σt = 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2

a. Size of the rod when it is circular

Let d = Diameter of the rod in mm.

Area, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 0.7854𝑑2

We know that tensile load (P),

50 × 103 = σt × A = 100 × 0.7854 d2 = 78.54 d2

d2 = 50 × 103 / 78.54 = 636.6 or d = 25.23 mm

b. Size of the rod when it is square

Let x = Each side of the square rod in mm.

Area, A = x × x = x2

We know that tensile load (P),

50 × 103 = σt × A = 100 × x2

x2 = 50 × 103/100 = 500 or x = 22.4 mm

c. Size of the rod when it is rectangular

Let t = Thickness of the rod in mm, and

b = Width of the rod in mm = 3t ...(Given)

Area, A = b × t = 3t × t = 3t 2

We know that tensile load (P),

50 × 103 = σt × A = 100 × 3t 2 = 300t2

t2 = 50 × 103 / 300 = 166.7 or t = 12.9 mm

and b = 3t = 3 × 12.9 = 38.7 mm

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2. A wrought iron bar 50 mm in diameter and 2.5 m long transmits a shock energy of 100
N-m. Find the maximum instantaneous stress and the elongation. Take E = 200 GN/m2.

Solution. Given: d = 50 mm ; l = 2.5 m = 2500 mm ; U = 100 N-m = 100 × 103 N-mm

; E = 200 GN/m2 = 200 × 103 N/mm2

Maximum instantaneous stress

Let 𝜎 = Maximum instantaneous stress.

We know that volume of the bar,

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑉= 𝑥𝑑 𝑥𝑙 = 𝑥502 𝑥2500 = 4.9𝑥106 𝑚𝑚3
4 4
We also know that shock or strain energy stored in the body (U),

𝜎 2 𝑥𝑉 𝜎 2 𝑥. 9𝑥106
100000 = = = 12.25𝜎 2
2𝐸 2𝑥200𝑥103
𝜎 2 = 100 × 103 / 12.25 = 8163 or 𝜎= 90.3 N/mm2 Ans.

Elongation produced

Let 𝛿𝑙 = Elongation produced.

We know that Young's modulus,

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 𝜎
𝐸= = =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 𝛿𝑙/𝑙

𝜎𝑥𝑙 90.3𝑥2500
𝛿𝑙 = = = 1.13 𝑚𝑚
𝐸 200𝑥103
3. A pump lever rocking shaft is shown in the figure below. The pump lever exerts forces
of 25 kN and 35 KN concentrated at 150 mm and 200 mm from the left and right hand
bearing respectively. Find the diameter of the central portion of the shaft, if the stress is
not to exceed 100 MPa.

Solution. Given:  b = 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2

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Let RA and RB = Reactions at A and B respectively.

Taking moments about A, we have

RB x 950 = 35 x 750 + 25 x 150 = 30 000

RB = 30 000 / 950 = 31.58 kN = 31.58 x 103 N

RA= (25 + 35) – 31.58 = 28.42 kN = 28.42 x 103 N

Bending moment at

C= RA x 150 = 28.42 x 103 x 150 = 4.263 x 106 Nmm

and bending moment at

D = RB x 200 = 31.58 x 103 x 200 = 6.316 x 106 Nmm

We see that the maximum bending moment is at D, therefore maximum bending

moment, Mb = 6.316 x 106 N-mm.

Let d = Diameter of the shaft.

Section modulus,

Z= x d 3  0.0982d 3
32
We know that bending stress (sb),

M b 6.316  106 64.32  106

100 = = 
Z 0.0982d 3 d3
d 3  64.32  106 / 100  643.2  103 or d  86.3 say 90 mm

4. A hollow shaft is required to transmit 600 KW at 110 r.p.m., the maximum torque being
20% greater than the mean. The shear stress is not to exceed 63 MPa and twist in a
length of 3 meters not to exceed 1.4 degrees. Find the external diameter of the shaft, if
the internal diameter to the external diameter is 3/8. Take modulus of rigidity as 84 GPa.

Solution. Given: P = 600 kW = 600 x 103 W; N = 110 rpm.; Tmax = 1.2 Tmean;  = 63
MPa = 63 N/mm2; l = 3 m = 3000 mm;  = 1.4 x  /180 = 0.024 rad; k = d1/d0 = 3/8;
C = 84 GPa = 84 x 109 N/m2 = 84 x 103N/mm2

Let Tmean = Mean torque transmitted by the shaft,

d0 = External diameter of the shaft, and

di = Internal diameter of the shaft.

We know that power transmitted by the shaft (P),

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2N .Tmean 2  110  Tmean

600 x 103 =   11.52Tmean
60 60

Tmean  600103 /11.52  52 103 N  m  52 106 N  mm

And maximum torque transmitted by the shaft,

Tmax  1.2 Tmean = 1.2 x 52 x 106 = 62.4 x 106 N-mm

Now let us find the diameter of the shaft considering strength and stiffness.

a. Considering the strength of the shaft

We know that maximum torque transmitted by the shaft,


Tmax =   (d 0 )3 (1  K 4 )
16

   3 4 
 63  d0  1      12.12d0 
3 3
62.4 x 106 =
16   8  
d0 3  62.4  106 / 12.12  5.15  106 or d0 = 172.7 mm …(i)

b. Considering stiffness of the shaft

We know that polar moment of inertia of a hollow circular section,
  d 4 
J=

  
d 0   di   d 0  1   i  
4 4 4

32 32   d 0  

  
d0 4 1  k 4   d0 4 1   3    0.0962d0 4
4

=
32 32   8  
We also know that
T C .

J l
62.4  10 6
84  103  0.024 648  106
 or  0.672
0.0962d0  d0 4
4
3000
d0 4  648.6 106 / 0.672  964106 or d0  176.2 mm …(ii)

Taking larger of the two values, we shall provide

d0 = 176.2 say 180 mm Ans.

5. A shaft, as shown in Fig.1, is subjected to a bending load of 3 kN. Pure torque of 1000
N-m and an axial pulling force of 15 kN. Calculate the stresses at A and B.

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Fig. 1

Solution. Given W = 3 kN = 3000 N; T= 1000 N-m = 1 x 106 N-mm; P = 15 kN = 15 x

103 N ; d = 50 mm; x = 250 mm;

We know that cross-sectional area of the shaft,

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴= 𝑥𝑑 = (50)2 = 1964𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Tensile stress due to axial pulling at points A and B,
𝑃 15000
𝜎𝑜 = = = 7.64𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 1964
Bending moment at points A and B,
𝑀 = 𝑊. 𝑥 = 300𝑥250 = 750𝑥103 𝑁𝑚𝑚
Section modulus for the shaft,
𝜋 𝜋
𝑍= 𝑥𝑑 3 = 𝑥(50)3 = 12.27𝑥103 𝑚𝑚3
32 32
Bending stress at points A and B,
𝑀 750𝑥103 61.1𝑁
𝜎𝑏 = = 3
= = 61.1𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑍 12.27𝑥10 𝑚𝑚2
This bending stress is tensile at point A and compressive at point B.

Resultant tensile stress at point A,

𝜎𝐴 = 𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑜 = 61.1 + 7.64 = 68.74𝑀𝑃𝑎

And resultant compressive stress at point B,

𝜎𝐴 = 𝜎𝑏 − 𝜎𝑜 = 61.1 − 7.64 = 53.46𝑀𝑃𝑎

We know that the shear stress at points A and B due to the torque transmitted,

16𝑇 16𝑥1𝑥106
𝜏= = = 40.74𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋(50)3

Stresses at point A

We know that maximum principal (or normal) stress at point A,

𝜎𝐴 1
𝜎𝐴(max) = + [√(𝜎𝐴 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 2

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68.74 1
𝜎𝐴(max) = + [√(68.74)2 + 4(40.74)2 ] = 87.67𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
2 2
Minimum principal (or normal) stress at point A,
𝜎𝐴 1
𝜎𝐴(min) = − [√(𝜎𝐴 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 2
68.74 1
𝜎𝐴(min) = − [√(68.74)2 + 4(40.74)2 ] = −18.93𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
2 2
and maximum shear stress at point A, (𝜎𝐴 )2
1
𝜏𝐴(max) = [√(𝜎𝐴 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
𝜏𝐴(max) = [√(68.74)2 + 4(40.74)2 ] = 53.3𝑀𝑃𝑎

Stresses at point B

We know that maximum principal (or normal) stress at point B,

𝜎𝐵 1
𝜎𝐵(max) = + [√(𝜎𝐵 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 2
53.46 1
𝜎𝐵(max) = + [√(53.46)2 + 4(40.74)2 ] = 75.46𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
Minimum principal (or normal) stress at point B,
𝜎𝐵 1
𝜎𝐵(max) = − [√(𝜎𝐵 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2 2
53.46 1
𝜎𝐵(max) = − [√(53.46)2 + 4(40.74)2 ] = −22𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
and maximum shear stress at point B,
1
𝜏𝐵(max) = [√(𝜎𝐵 )2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
𝜏𝐵(max) = [√(53.46)2 + 4(40.74)2 ] = 48.73𝑀𝑃𝑎

6. A C-clamp is subjected to a maximum load of W, as

shown in the figure below. If the maximum tensile
stress in the clamp is limited to 140 MPa, find the
value of load W.

Solution. Given: σt(max) = 140 MPa = 140 N/mm2 ; Ri

= 25 mm ; Ro = 25 + 25 = 50 mm ; bi = 19 mm ; ti = 3
mm ; t = 3 mm ; h = 25 mm. We know that area of
section at X-X,

A = 3 × 22 + 3 × 19 = 123 mm2

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We know that radius of curvature of the neutral axis,

𝑡𝑖 (𝑏𝑖 − 𝑡) + 𝑡. ℎ
𝑅𝑛 =
𝑅
(𝑏𝑖 − 𝑡)𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ((𝑅𝑖 + 𝑡𝑖 ) + 𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑜 ))
𝑅𝑖
123
𝑅𝑛 = = 31.64 𝑚𝑚
16𝑥0.113 + 3𝑥0.693
and radius of curvature of the centroidal axis,

1 2 1
ℎ . 𝑡 + 2 𝑡𝑖 2 (𝑏𝑖 − 𝑡)
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑖 + 2
ℎ . 𝑡 + 𝑡𝑖 (𝑏𝑖 − 𝑡)

1 2 1
25 . 3 + 2 𝑥32 (19 − 3)
𝑅 = 25 + 2 = 33.2 𝑚𝑚
25𝑥3 + 3(19 − 3)

Distance between the centroidal axis and neutral axis,

e = R – Rn = 33.2 – 31.64 = 1.56 mm
and distance between the load W and the centroidal axis,
x = 50 + R = 50 + 33.2 = 83.2 mm
Bending moment about the centroidal axis,
M = W.x = W × 83.2 = 83.2 W N-mm
The various distances are shown in figure below,

The section at X-X is subjected to a direct tensile load of W and a bending moment of 83.2 W.

The maximum tensile stress will occur at point P (i.e. at the inner fibre of the section).

Distance from the neutral axis to the point P,

𝑦𝑖 = 𝑅𝑛 – 𝑅𝑖 = 31.64 – 25 = 6.64 𝑚𝑚

Direct tensile stress at section X-X,

𝑊 𝑊
𝜎𝐴 = = = 0.008𝑊 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 123

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 By: Tesfaye Olana

and maximum bending stress at point P,

𝑀. 𝑦𝑖 83.2𝑊 6.64
𝜎𝑏𝑖 = = = 0.15𝑊 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴. 𝑒. 𝑅𝑖 123𝑥1.56𝑥25

We know that the maximum tensile stress σt(max),

140 = 𝜎𝑡 + 𝜎𝑏𝑖 = 0.008 W + 0.115 W = 0.123 W

𝑊 = 140/0.123 = 1138 𝑁 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

Note: We know that distance from the neutral axis to the outer fibre,

𝑦𝑜 = 𝑅𝑛 – 𝑅𝑖 = 50 – 31.64 = 18.36 mm

∴ Maximum bending stress at the outer fibre,

𝑀. 𝑦𝑜 83.2𝑊𝑥 18.36
𝜎𝑏𝑜 = = = 0.16𝑊 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴. 𝑒. 𝑅𝑜 123𝑥1.56𝑥50

and maximum stress at the outer fibre,

= 𝜎𝑡 − 𝜎𝑏0 = 0.008 W – 0.16 W = – 0.152 W MPa (compressive)

From above we see that stress at the outer fibre is larger in this case than at the inner fibre, but
this stress at outer fibre is compressive.

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2.2. Design for dynamic load

2.2.1. Stress Concentration
Stress concentration is defined as the concentration of stress in a machine member either due
to change in cross-section or due to irregularities in the member. It is not practically possible to
have machine elements without change in the cross-section. Some examples are key ways in
shafts, step in the shaft to accommodate bearings, gears etc. Due to the irregularities or due to
change in cross-section, the stress-induced in the member is much higher than the one that is
calculated using the known theories. The ratio of the maximum stress induced to the theoretical
or nominal stress calculated is defined as the stress concentration factor [10].

Stress concentration factor,

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑘𝜎 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝜏 =
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚

Where,
𝑘𝜎 =is used for axial and bending stresses

𝑘𝜏 =is used for shear stresses

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 or 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 is maximum stress-induced and

𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 or 𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚 is nominal or theoretical stress

𝐹
For axial loads, 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝐴
𝑀𝑏 𝐶
For bending loads, 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝐼
𝑀𝑡 𝑟
For torsional load, 𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝐽

2.2.2. Stress concentration and methods to reduce stress concentration

Figures below show the stress concentration and some methods to reduce stress concentration.

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Fig. 2. Shafts

Published data in the form of charts (or tables) is available in various books for the
determination of stress concentration factors for different types of specimens under various
loading conditions. Some of the important charts (or tables) are given in a separate sheet please
refer for necessary calculations.

Examples
1. Determine the maximum stress induced in the following cases taking stress
concentration into account.
i. A rectangular plate 80 mm wide, 12 mm thick with a central hole of diameter 16
mm subjected to a tensile load of 30 kN.
ii. A stepped shaft stepped down from 60 mm diameter to 40 mm diameter with a
fillet radius of 8 mm subjected to a twisting moment of 120 kNm.

Solution

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(i) Plate with hole subjected to tensile force refer to Fig. 1 (or chart 1),

Fig. 1.
𝑑 16
Plates
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = = 0.2
𝑤 80
Stress concentration factor, kϭ = 2.5 from chart (at d/w = 0.2)

For axial load,

𝐹 𝐹
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = =
𝐴 (𝑤 − 𝑑)ℎ

30𝑥103
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = = 39.06𝑀𝑃𝑎
(80 − 16)𝑥12
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑊𝐾𝑇, 𝑘𝜎 = ( )
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚

Maximum stress-induced, = 𝑘𝜎 𝑥𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2.5 x 39.06 = 97.65 MPa

(ii) Stepped shaft subjected to torque (refer fig. 2)

D = 60, d = 40, Mt = 120 kNM = 120 x 103 N-mm.

𝑟 8
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = = 0.2
𝑑 40
𝐷 60
= = 1.5
𝑑 40
Stress concentration factor, 𝑘𝜏 = 1.25 (approx) from chart (at 𝑟/𝑑 = 0.2 and 𝐷/𝑑 =
1.5)

For torsion

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 By: Tesfaye Olana

𝑀𝑡 𝑀𝑡 120𝑥103
𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚 = = = = 9.55𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑥403
𝐶 16 16
But
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑘𝜏 = ( )
𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚

Max. shear stress-induced, 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘𝜏 𝑥𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.25 x 9.55 = 11.94 MPa.

2. A rectangular plate 70 mm wide with the same circular groove of 12 mm radius is

subjected to:

(i) A tensile load of 10 kN,

(ii) A bending moment of 15 N-m.

Determine the thickness in each case separately taking allowable stress as 120 MPa.

Given data: 𝐷 = 70 𝑚𝑚
𝑟 = 12 𝑚𝑚
𝑑 = 𝐷 – 2𝑟
= 70 − 2 𝑥 12 = 46 𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 120 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(i) Plate subjected to tension:

𝐹 = 10 𝑥 103 𝑁

Refer Fig. (or Chart )

𝑟 12
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = = 0.261
𝑑 46
𝐷 70
= = 1.522
𝑑 46
Stress concentration factor, 𝑘𝜎 = 1.87

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 120
𝑘𝜎 = = = 1.87
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚

120
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = = 64.17𝑀𝑃𝑎
1.87
For tensile load

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 By: Tesfaye Olana

𝐹 𝐹
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = =
𝐴 ℎ𝑑
10000
64.17 =
ℎ𝑥46
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 ℎ = 3.39 𝑚𝑚

(ii) Plate subjected to bending moment,

Mb = 15 N-m = 15 x 103 N-mm

Refer the chart

𝑟 𝐷 90
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 0.261 and 𝑑 = 46 = 1.52
𝑑

Stress concentration factor, 𝑘𝜎 = 1.55

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 120
𝑘𝜎 = = = 1.87
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 120
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = = = 77.42 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑘𝜎 1.55

For bending load

𝑀𝑏 𝐼 ℎ𝑑 2
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝐼/𝐶 𝐶 6

15𝑥103
77.42 =
ℎ𝑥462
6
Thickness, ℎ = 0.549 𝑚𝑚

2.3. A cyclic (variable) stress

Variable stresses may be classified as: (a) fluctuating stress, (b) repeated stress, (c) reversed
stress and (d) alternating stress, [4] as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. shows various types of variable stresses.

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜎𝑚 = mean stress =
2

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𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜎𝑎 = amplitude stress =
2
(Amplitude stress is also known as variable stress).

2.3.1. Notch sensitivity

Notch sensitivity ‘q’ of a material can be used to determine the actual stress concentration factor
𝑘𝜎𝑎 as a function of theoretical stress concentration factor 𝑘𝜎 for the case of fluctuating loads
[11]

𝑘𝜎𝑎 − 1
𝑞=
𝑘𝜎 − 1

or actual or real stress concentration factor

𝑘𝜎𝑎 = 1 + 𝑞(𝑘𝜎 − 1)

or

𝑘𝜏𝑎 = 1 + 𝑞(𝑘𝜏 − 1)

where q = notch sensitivity factor (q = 0 to 1.0)

𝑘𝜎 = theoretical stress concentration factor from graphs

2.3.2. Endurance limit

The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of completely
reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without
fatigue failure [12] [13].

Fig. 4. Typical S-N diagram for steels.

The endurance limit of a material is frequently determined experimentally by rotating a test

specimen while it is loaded in bending. A graph is drawn for stress (S) versus no. of cycles (N)
called S-N curve. A typical S-N curve for stress is shown in Fig. 4.

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For steel and iron, the S-N diagram becomes horizontal at some point. The strength at this point
is called endurance limit ϭe or ϭ-1. This occurs close to105 to 106 cycles for typical steels.
Number of cycles 1 to 1000 is called low-cycles fatigue and high-cycles fatigue is concerned
with the failure corresponding to cycles greater than103 cycles.

There are two equations popularly used for fluctuating loads.

(i) Soderberg’s relation (ii) Goodman’s relation

𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚
𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =1 𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =1
𝜎−1𝑑 𝜎𝑦𝑑 𝜎−1𝑑 𝜎𝑢𝑑
𝜏𝑎 𝜏𝑚 𝜏𝑎 𝜏𝑚
𝑘𝜏𝑎 + =1 𝑘𝜏𝑎 + =1
𝜏−1𝑑 𝜏𝑦𝑑 𝜏−1𝑑 𝜏𝑢𝑑

where

kϭa = actual stress concentration factor in tension and bending

kτa = actual stress concentration factor in torsion

𝑘𝜎𝑎 = 1 + 𝑞(𝑘𝜎 − 1)

𝑘𝜏𝑎 = 1 + 𝑞(𝑘𝜏 − 1)

𝑘𝜎 or 𝑘𝜏 = theoretical stress concentration factor from graphs

𝑞 = notch sensitivity index.

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
variable sress = 𝜎𝑎 =
2
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
mean stress = 𝜎𝑚 =
2
Similarly
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜏𝑎 =
2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜏𝑚 =
2
𝜎−1𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 𝜎−1
design endurance limit 𝜎−1𝑑 = =
𝐹𝑜𝑆 𝐹𝑜𝑆
𝜎−1𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =Actual endurance stress =𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 𝜎−1
𝜎𝑢
𝜎−1 = 𝜎𝑒𝑛 = endurance stress in reverse bending = for steels
2
𝑘𝑙 = load factor = 1

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for bending loads = 0.7

for axial loading = 0.6

𝐾𝑧 = size factor = 0.85 for size ranging from 12.5 mm to 50 mm

𝐾𝑠 = surface correction factor = 1,

for polished specimen = 0.8 to 0.9 depending on endurance strength and type of surface
(≈ 0.85)
𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑦𝑑 =design stress based on yield stress = 𝐹𝑜𝑆

𝜎𝑦 =yield stress

𝜎𝑢𝑑 = design stress based on ultimate stress

𝜎𝑢 =ultimate stress

N = factor of safety = FOS (1.25 to 3)

Substituting

Soderberg’s relations are:

𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚 1
𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =
𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 𝜎−1 𝜎𝑦 𝑁

𝜏𝑎 𝜏𝑚 1
𝑘𝜏𝑎 + =
𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 𝜏−1𝑑 𝜏𝑦 𝑁

Goodman’s relations are:

𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚 1
𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =
𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 𝜎−1 𝜎𝑢 𝑁

𝜏𝑎 𝜏𝑚 1
𝑘𝜏𝑎 + =
𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 𝜏−1𝑑 𝜏𝑢 𝑁

Note

 Ϭ-1 = endurance stress in reverse bending.

 It is used for axial load, ϭ-1Axial = ϭ-1 x kl and kl = 0.7 for axial loads.
 It is used for torsional load, Τ-1 = ϭ-1. kl, and kl = 0.6 for torsional loads.

2.3.3. Derivation of Soderberg’s relation

Figure 5 shows a graph drawn for ϭa Vs ϭm. Line AB is Soderberg’s failure line. Line CD is
safe Soderberg’s line. Consider any point P (ϭm, kϭϭa) on line CD. Drop a perpendicular PE
from P. Δls COD and PED are similar [10].

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𝑃𝐸 𝐷𝐸
= 𝑂𝐷
𝑂𝐶

𝐷𝐸 = 𝑂𝐷 − 𝑂𝐸

𝑃𝐸 𝑂𝐷 − 𝑂𝐸 𝑂𝐸
= = 1−
𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐷 𝑂𝐷
Where PE = y coordinate of P = 𝑘𝜎𝑎

OC = 𝜎−1𝑑

OE = x coordinate of E = 𝜎𝑚 Fig. 5
OD = 𝜎𝑦𝑑

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝜎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑚 =
2 2
Substituting for
𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚
𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =1
𝜎−1𝑑 𝜎𝑦𝑑

𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 𝜎−1 𝜎𝑦
𝜎−1𝑑 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑦𝑑 =
𝐹𝑜𝑆 𝐹𝑜𝑆
𝐹𝑜𝑆 = factor of safety

2.3.4. Derivation Goodman’s relation

Figure 6 shows a graph drawn for ϭa Vs ϭm. Line AB is Goodman’s failure line. Line CD is safe
Goodman’s line. Consider any point P(ϭm ,kϭϭa) on line CD. Drop a perpendicular PE [10].

Δls COD and PED are similar.

𝑃𝐸 𝐷𝐸
=
𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐷
𝐷𝐸 = 𝑂𝐷 − 𝑂𝐸

𝑃𝐸 𝑂𝐷 − 𝑂𝐸 𝑂𝐸
= =1−
𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐷 𝑂𝐷
𝑃𝐸 𝑂𝐸
+ =1
𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐷
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑚 = Fig. 6
2 2
Substituting for

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𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚
𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =1
𝜎−1𝑑 𝜎𝑢𝑑

𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 𝜎−1 𝜎𝑢
𝜎−1𝑑 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑢𝑑 =
𝐹𝑜𝑆 𝐹𝑜𝑆
𝐹𝑜𝑆 = factor of safety

(By using τ in place of ϭ, similar equations can be derived for shear loads)

Examples

1. An SAE 1045 steel rod is subjected to a tensile load that varies from 60 to 120 kN. The
material has ultimate stress of 586 MPa, the yield stress of 309.9 MPa and endurance
stress of 290 MPa. Find the diameter of the rod taking factor of safety as 2.

Given data: Fmax = 120 kN = 120 x 103 N, Fmin = 60 kN = 60 x 103 N, Ϭu = 586 MPa

Ϭy = 309.9MPaϬ-1 = 290 MPa, FOS = 2

For axial loads, load factor, 𝑘𝑙 = 0.7

Assume size factor, 𝐾𝑧 = 0.85 and

Surface factor, 𝐾𝑠 = 0.85

Since there is no change in the area of c/s.

𝜎𝑢 586
𝜎𝑢𝑑 = = = 293𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑆 2
𝜎𝑦 309.9
𝜎𝑦𝑑 = = = 154.95 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑆 2
𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 𝜎−1 290𝑥0.7𝑥0.85𝑥0.85
𝜎−1𝑑 = = = 73.33 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑆 2
Stress concentration factor, kϭ = kϭa = 1

For axial loads stress

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 120000 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 60000

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
120000 60000
𝑀𝑃𝑎 + 𝐴 𝑀𝑃𝑎 90000
𝜎𝑚 = 𝐴 = 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 𝐴
120000 60000
𝑀𝑃𝑎 − 𝐴 𝑀𝑃𝑎 30000
𝜎𝑎 = 𝐴 = 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 𝐴

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From Goodman’s relation

𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚
𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =1
𝜎−1𝑑 𝜎𝑢𝑑

1 𝑥 30 000 90000
+ =1
𝐴𝑥73.33 𝐴 𝑥 293
𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴 = 716.28 =
4
𝑑 = 30.2 ≈ 31 𝑚𝑚

From Soderberg’s relation

𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚
𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =1
𝜎−1𝑑 𝜎𝑦𝑑
1 𝑥 30 000 90000
+ =1
𝐴𝑥73.33 𝐴 𝑥 154.93
𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴 = 989.94 =
4
𝑑 = 35.5 ≈ 36 𝑚𝑚

2. A steel connecting rod of rectangular cross-section having side ratio as 2, is subject to

a completely reversed axial load 18 kN. The normal endurance stress for the material of
the connecting rod is 300 MPa and yield stress is 420 MPa. Determine suitable cross-
sectional dimensions of the connecting rod. Taking factor of safety as 1.8, the size factor
may be taken as 0.9 stress concentration factor is 1.5. Neglect column effect.

Given data: Rectangular cross-section d = 2 b

Completely reversed load of 18 kN = 18000 N

Fmax = +18,000 N, Fmin = -18,000 N, Ϭ-1 = 300 MPa ϭy = 420 MPa

FOS = 1.8 Size factor, kz = 0.9

𝜎𝑦 420
𝜎𝑦𝑑 = = = 293𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑆 2
𝜎𝑦 309.9
𝜎𝑦𝑑 = = = 233.33 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑆 1.8
𝜎−1 𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 300𝑥0.7𝑥0.85𝑥0.9
𝜎−1𝑑 = = = 89.25 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑆 1.8
For axial loads, load factor, kl = 0.7

Assume surface factor, ks = 0.85

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Stress concentration factor, kϭ = 1.5

Since notch sensitivity is not given, kϭs = kϭ = 1.5

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 +18000 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 −18000

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
+18000 −18000
+
𝜎𝑚 = 𝐴 𝐴 =0
2
+18000 −18000
− 18000
𝜎𝑎 = 𝐴 𝐴 = 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 𝐴
From Soderberg’s relation
𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚
𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =1
𝜎−1𝑑 𝜎𝑦𝑑
18000
1.8 𝑥 +0=1
𝐴𝑥89.25
𝐴 = 363.025 = 𝑏𝑑 = 𝑏 𝑥 2𝑏, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝑏 = 13.47 ≈ 14𝑚𝑚,

𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ, 𝑑 = 2𝑏 = 28 𝑚𝑚.

3. The figure below shows a cantilever beam made of C40 steel (ϭu = 620 MPa and ϭy =
328.6 MPa) is subjected to a transverse load that varies from 60 kN to 120 kN. The
material has a notch Sensitivity of 0.9. The size factor may be taken as 0.83 and the
specimen is polished. Determine the diameter taking factor of safety as 2.

Fmax = 120kN = 120 x 103N

Fmin = 60 kN = 60 x 103 N

Ϭu = 620 MPa

Ϭy = 328.6MFa

1 1
𝜎𝑒𝑛 = 𝜎−1 = 𝜎𝑢 = 𝑥 620 = 310𝑀𝑃𝑎
1 2
Notch sensitivity factor, q = 0.9
size factor, kz = 0.83
For polished specimen, surface factor ks = 1
For bending loads, load factor kl = 1
Factor of safety = 2
𝜎𝑢 620
𝜎𝑢𝑑 = = = 310 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑆 2

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𝜎𝑦 328.6
𝜎𝑦𝑑 = = = 164.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑆 2
𝑘𝑙 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑧 𝜎−1 310𝑥1𝑥1𝑥0.83
𝜎−1𝑑 = = = 128.65 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑆 2
Mb ⋅c
for bending loads, σ= I

Mbmax ⋅ c
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
I
Mbmax = Fmax . 𝑙 = 120000 𝑥 300 = 36 𝑥 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚

36 𝑥 106 ⋅ d/2 366.69 𝑥106

σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
π𝑑 4 /64 𝑑3

Mbmax ⋅ c
σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
I
Mbmin ⋅ c
σ𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
I
Mbmin = Fmin . 𝑙 = 60000 𝑥 300 = 18 𝑥 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚

18 𝑥 106 ⋅ d/2 183.35 𝑥106

σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
π𝑑 4 /64 𝑑3

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 91.67𝑥 106

𝜎𝑎 = =
2 𝑑3
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 275.02𝑥 106
𝜎𝑚 = =
2 𝑑3
From the chart of stress concentration factor,
𝑟 0.1𝑑 𝐷 1.5𝑑
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = = 0.1 and 𝑑 = = 1.5
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑

Stress concentration factor, kϭ = 1.77

With notch sensitivity, actual stress concentration factor,

kϭa = 1 + q(kϭ -1)= 1 + 0.9(1.77-1) = 1.693

From Goodman’s relation

𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚
𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =1
𝜎−1𝑑 𝜎𝑢𝑑

1.693 𝑥 91.7 𝑥 106 275.05 𝑥 106

+ =1
𝑑 3 𝑥 128.65 𝑑 3 𝑥 310
𝑑 ≈ 128 𝑚𝑚

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From Soderberg’s relation

𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑚
𝑘𝜎𝑎 + =1
𝜎−1𝑑 𝜎𝑦𝑑

1.693 𝑥 91.7 𝑥 106 275.05 𝑥 106

+ 3 =1
𝑑 3 𝑥 128.65 𝑑 𝑥 164.3
𝑑 ≈ 143 𝑚𝑚

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CHAPTER 3
STRENGTH CALCULATION AND DIMENSIONING OF JOINTS
Often small machine components are joined together to form a larger machine part. Design of
joints is as important as that of machine components because a weak joint may spoil the utility
of a carefully designed machine part.

The joints may be classified into the following two groups:

i. Permanent joints, and

ii. Temporary or detachable joints.

The permanent joints are those joints that cannot be disassembled without destroying the
connecting components. The examples of permanent joints are soldered, brazed, welded and
riveted joints.

The temporary or detachable joints are those joints that can be disassembled without
destroying the connecting components. The examples of temporary joints are screwed, keys,
cotters, pins and splined joints.

3.1. RIVETED JOINTS

Learning objectives

At the end of this chapter you should:

 Understand the purposes of riveting;

 Describe the methods to be applied for riveting;
 Identify materials for rivets;
 Identify types and characteristics of riveted joints;
 Explain failures of riveted joints;
 Design riveted joints. Fig.1
3.1.1. Introduction
A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. The cylindrical portion of the rivet is
called shank or body and the lower portion of the shank is known as tail, as shown in Fig.1. The
rivets are used to make permanent fastening between the plates such as in structural work,
shipbuilding, bridges, tanks and boiler shells. The riveted joints are widely used for joining light
metals [14].

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3.1.2. Methods of Riveting

The function of rivets in a joint is to make a connection that has strength and tightness. strength
is necessary to prevent failure of the joint. The tightness is necessary to contribute strength and
to prevent leakage as in a boiler or a ship hull.

When two plates are to be fastened together by a rivet as shown in Fig.2 (a) the holes in plates
are punched and reamed or drilled. Punching is the cheapest method and is used for relatively
thin plates and in structural work. Since punching injures the material around the hole, therefore
drilling is used in most pressure-vessel work. In structural and pressure vessel riveting, the
diameter of the rivet hole is usually 1.5 mm larger than the nominal diameter of the rivet [6].

Fig. 2. Methods of riveting (a) Initial position (b) Final position

The plates are drilled together and then separated to remove any burrs or chips to have a tight
flush joint between the plates. A cold rivet or a red hot rivet is introduced into the plates and
the point (i.e. second head) is then formed. When a cold rivet is used, the process is known as
cold riveting and when a hot rivet is used, the process is known as hot riveting. The cold riveting
process is used for structural joints while hot riveting is used to make leak-proof joints.

The riveting may be done by hand or by a riveting machine. In hand riveting, the original rivet
head is backed up by a hammer or heavy bar and then the die or set, as shown in Fig.2(a), is
placed against the end to be headed and the blows are applied by a hammer. This causes the
shank to expand thus filling the hole and the tail is converted into a point as shown in Fig.2 (b).

As the rivet cools, it tends to contract. The lateral contraction will be slight, but there will be a
longitudinal tension introduced in the rivet which holds the plates firmly together. In machine
riveting, the die is a part of the hammer which is operated by air, hydraulic or steam pressure
[15].

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Notes:

i. For steel rivets up to 12 mm diameter, the cold riveting process may be used while
for larger diameter rivets, hot riveting process is used.
ii. In the case of long rivets, only the tail is heated and not the whole shank.

3.1.3. Types of Rivet Heads

According to Indian standard specifications, the rivet heads are classified into the following
three types [6]

i. Rivet heads for general purposes (below 12 mm diameter), according to IS: 2155 – 1982
(Reaffirmed 1996).

Fig Rivet heads for general purposes (below 12 mm diameter)

ii. Rivet heads for general purposes (From 12 mm to 48 mm diameter), according to IS:
1929 – 1982 (Reaffirmed 1996).

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Fig. Rivet heads for general purposes (from 12 mm to 48 mm diameter)

iii. Rivet heads for boiler work (from 12 mm to 48 mm diameter, according to IS: 1928 –
1961 (Reaffirmed 1996).

Fig. Rivet heads for boiler

work.
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3.1.4. Material of Rivets

The material of the rivets must be tough and ductile. They are usually made of steel (low carbon
steel or nickel steel), brass, aluminium or copper, but when strength and a fluid-tight joint is the
main consideration, then the steel rivets are used.

3.1.5. Types of Riveted Joints

The following are the two types of riveted joints, depending upon how the plates are connected
[6].

i) Lap Joint

A lap joint is that in which one plate overlaps the other and the two plates are then riveted
together.

ii) Butt Joint

A butt joint is that in which the main plates are kept in alignment butting (i.e. touching) each
other and a cover plate (i.e. strap) is placed either on one side or on both sides of the main
plates. The cover plate is then riveted together with the main plates. Butt joints are of the
following two types:

i) Single strap butt joint, and ii) Double strap butt joint.

In a single strap butt joint, the edges of the main plates butt against each other and only one
cover plate is placed on one side of the main plates and then riveted together. In a double strap
butt joint, the edges of the main plates butt against each other and two cover plates are placed
on both sides of the main plates and then riveted together.

In addition to the above, the following are the types of riveted joints depending upon the number
of rows of the rivets.

i. Single riveted joint, and ii. Double riveted joint.

A single riveted joint is that in which there is a single row of rivets in a lap joint as shown in
Fig.3 (a) and there is a single row of rivets on each side in a butt joint as shown in Fig. 5.

A double-riveted joint is that in which there are two rows of rivets in a lap joint as shown in
Fig. 3(b) and (c) and there are two rows of rivets on each side in a butt joint as shown in Fig.6.

Notes: i) When the rivets in the various rows are opposite to each other, as shown in Fig.3 (b),
then the joint is said to be chain riveted. On the other hand, if the rivets in the adjacent rows are
staggered in such a way every rivet is in the middle of the two rivets of the opposite row as
shown in Fig.3 (c), then the joint is said to zig-zag riveted.

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Fig.3

Similarly, the joints may be triple-riveted or quadruple riveted.

Fig.4. Triple riveted lap joint

ii) Since the plates overlap in lap joints, therefore the force P acting on the plates are not in the
same straight line but they are at a distance equal to the thickness of the plate. These forces will
form a couple which may bend the joint. Hence the lap joints may be used only where small
loads are to be transmitted. On the other hand, the forces P in a butt joint act in the same straight
line, therefore will be no couple. Hence the butt joints are used where heavy loads are to be
transmitted.

3.1.6. Important Terms Used in Riveted Joints

The following terms in connection with the riveted joints are important from the subject point
of view [6]:

a. Pitch. It is the distance from the center of one rivet to the center of the next rivet measured
parallel to the seam as shown in Fig.3. It is usually denoted by p.

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b. Back pitch. It is the perpendicular distance between the center lines of the successive rows
as shown in Fig.3. It is usually denoted by Pb .

c. Diagonal pitch. It is the distance between the centers of the rivets in adjacent rows of zig-
zag riveted joint as shown in Fig.3. It is usually denoted by Pd .

Fig.5. Single riveted double strap butt joint

Fig.6. Double riveted double strap (equal) butt joints Fig.7. Double riveted double strap
(unequal) butt joint with zig-zag riveting.
d. Margin or marginal pitch. It is the distance between the centers of the rivet hole to the
nearest edge of the plate as shown in Fig. 3. It is usually denoted by m.

3.1.7. Failures of a Riveted Joint

A riveted joint may fail in the following ways [6]:

a. Tearing of the plate at an edge. A joint may fail due to the tearing of the plate at an
edge as shown in Fig. 8. This can be avoided by keeping the margin, m = 1.5d, where d
is the diameter of the rivet hole.

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Fig.8. Tearing of the plate at an Fig.9. Tearing of the plate across

edge. the rows of rivets.

b. Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets. Due to the tensile stresses in the main
plates, the main plate or cover plates may tear off across a row of rivets as shown in
Fig.9. In such cases, we consider only one pitch length of the plate, since every rivet is
responsible for that much length of the plate only.

The resistance offered by the plate against tearing is known as tearing resistance or tearing
strength or tearing value of the plate. Let

p = Pitch of the rivets,

d = Diameter of the rivet hole,

t = Thickness of the plate, and

 t = Permissible tensile stress for the plate material.

We know that tearing area per pitch length,

𝐴𝑡 = (𝑝 − 𝑑) 𝑡

 Tearing resistance or pull required to tear off the plate per pitch length,

𝑃𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 .  t ` = (𝑝 − 𝑑) 𝑡 .  t

When the tearing resistance (Pt) is greater than or equal to the applied load (P) per pitch
length, then this type of failure will not occur.

c. Shearing of the rivets. The plates which are connected by the rivets exert tensile stress
on the rivets, and if the rivets are unable to resist the stress, they are sheared off as shown
in Fig.10.

It may be noted that the rivets are in single shear in a lap joint and in a single cover butt
joint, as shown in Fig.10. But the rivets are in double shear in a double cover butt joint as

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shown in Fig.11. The resistance offered by a rivet to be sheared off is known as shearing
resistance or shearing strength or shearing value of the rivet.

Fig.10. Shearing of rivets.

Fig. 11. Shearing off a rivet in double cover butt joint.

Let d = Diameter of the rivet hole,

 = Safe permissible shear stress for the rivet material, and
n = Number of rivets per pitch length.
𝜋
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑥 𝑑2 in single shear
4
𝜋
𝐴𝑠 = 2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑑 2 theoreetically, in double shear
4
𝜋
𝐴𝑠 = 1.875 𝑥 𝑥 𝑑 2 in double shear, according to IBR
4
We know that the shearing area,

Shearing resistance or pull required to shear off the rivet per pitch length,
𝜋
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑛 𝑥 4 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥 𝜏 in single shear
𝜋
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑛2𝑥2 𝑥 4 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥 𝜏 Theoretically, in double shear
𝜋
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑛 𝑥 1.875 𝑥 4 𝑥 𝑑 2 𝑥 𝜏

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When the shearing resistance (Ps) is greater than or equal to the applied load (P) per pitch length,
then this type of failure will not occur.

d. Crushing of the plate or rivets. Sometimes, the rivets do not shear off under the tensile
stress, but are crushed as shown in Fig.12. Due to this, the rivet hole becomes oval and hence
the joint becomes loose. The failure of rivets in such a manner is also known as bearing failure.
The area which resists this action is the projected area of the hole or rivet on diameteral plane.
The resistance offered by a rivet to be crushed is known as crushing resistance or crushing
strength or bearing value of the rivet.

Let d = Diameter of the rivet hole,

t = Thickness of the plate,

 c = Safe permissible crushing stress for the rivet

n = Number of rivets per pitch length under crushing.

We know that crushing area per rivet (i.e. projected area per rivet),

𝐴𝑐 = 𝑑. 𝑡

Total crushing area = 𝑛. 𝑑. 𝑡

and crushing resistance or pull required to crush the rivet per pitch length,

𝑃𝑐 = 𝑛. 𝑑. 𝑡. 𝜎𝑐

When the crushing resistance (Pc) is greater than or equal to the applied load (P) per pitch
length, then this type of failure will not occur.

Note: The number of rivets under shear shall be equal to the number of rivets under crushing.

Fig.12. Crushing of a rivet.

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3.1.8. Strength of a riveted joint

The strength of a joint may be defined as the maximum force, which it can transmit, without
causing it to fail. We have seen in the previous section that Pt, Ps, and Pc are the pulls required
to tear off the plate, shearing off the rivet and crushing off the rivet. A little consideration will
show that if we go on increasing the pull on a riveted joint, it will fail when the least of these
three pulls is reached, because a higher value of the other pulls will never reach since the joint
has failed, either by tearing off the plate, shearing off the rivet or crushing off the rivet [6].

If the joint is continuous as in the case of boilers, the strength is calculated per pitch length. But
if the joint is small, the strength is calculated for the whole length of the plate.

3.1.9. Efficiency of a Riveted Joint

The efficiency of a riveted joint is defined as the ratio of the strength of riveted

joint to the strength of the un-riveted or solid plate.

We have already discussed that strength of the riveted joint = Least of 𝑃𝑡 , 𝑃𝑠 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑃𝑐

Strength of the un-riveted or solid plate per pitch length,

𝑃 = 𝑝𝑥𝑡. 𝜎𝑡

Efficiency of the riveted joint,

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑡 , 𝑃𝑠 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑐
𝜂=
𝑝𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡

Where, p = Pitch of the rivets,

t = Thickness of the plate, and

 t = Permissible tensile stress of the plate material.

3.1.10. Calculation of hole diameter and pitch

For an ideal joint the rivet should be equally strong against shearing and crushing. Hence, from
Eqs. (3.3) and (3.7), making 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑐
𝜋
𝑑 2 𝜏𝑠 = 𝑑𝑡𝜎𝑡 ….(1)
4

𝜎𝑐
𝑑 = 1.274 𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟) …(2)
𝜏𝑠

If rivet is in double shear, also from the equations below

𝜎𝑐 …(3)
𝑑 = 0.637 𝑡
𝜏𝑠

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Generally 𝜏𝑠 = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑐 = 130 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Giving 𝑑 = 2.75 𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑 = 1.37 𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝜋 2
(𝑝 − 𝑑)𝑡𝜎𝑡 = 𝑑 𝜏𝑠
4
Substituting for 𝜏𝑠 = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑡 = 75 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑑2
𝑝 = 0.628 +𝑑
𝑡
Using Eq. (3) in above equation

p = 2.73 d (in single shear)

p = 1.86 d (in double shear) . . (4)

From equations below

2𝑚𝑡𝜏𝑠 = 𝑑𝑡 𝜎𝑐

𝑑 𝜎𝑐
𝑚=
2 𝜏𝑠

Substituting

𝜎𝑐 = 130 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜏𝑠 = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑚 = 1.08 𝑑

There are several practical considerations due to which the design dimensions are modified.
Most important of these is the pressure tightness of the joint, which is mainly achieved by
caulking of the plate edges. The caulking becomes easier with short pitches and smaller rivets.
It also makes it desirable that the margin should be 1.5 d but not greater. The results in this
section are indicative of calculation procedure and by no means be treated as standard formulae.
These results are valid only for a particular case and permissible stresses adopted. As a common
practice for plate thickness greater than 8 mm the diameter of the rivet hole is determined by
Unwin’s formula.

𝑑 = 6√𝑡

It has been pointed out in the last sections that no attempt was made to derive formulae. The
expressions for various load-carrying capacities were written by examining the geometry.

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Therefore, you must see that in each problem the geometry is understood and then the
expressions for forces are written. In the examples here we would see how we can approach to
design a riveted joint.

Examples
1. A double-riveted lap joint is made between 15 mm thick plates. The rivet diameter and
pitch are 25 mm and 75 mm respectively. If the ultimate stresses are 400 MPa in tension,
20 MPa in shear and 640 MPa in crushing, find the minimum force per pitch which will
rupture the joint. If the above joint is subjected to a load such that the factor of safety is
4, find out the actual stresses developed in the plates and the rivets.

Solution.

Given: t = 15 mm; d = 25mm ; p =75 mm;  tu = 400 MPa = 400 N/mm2 ;  = 320

MPa = 320 N/mm2  u = 640 MPa = 640 N/mm2

Minimum force per pitch which will rupture the joint

Since the ultimate stresses are given, therefore we shall find the ultimate values of the
resistances of the joint. We know that ultimate tearing resistance of the plate per pitch,

𝑃𝑡𝑢 = (𝑝 − 𝑑)𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡𝑢 = (75 − 25)15𝑥400 = 300 𝑘𝑁

Ultimate shearing resistance of the rivets per pitch,

𝜋252
𝑃𝑠𝑢 = 𝑛𝑥𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥𝜏𝑢 = 2𝑥 ( ) 𝑥320 = 314 𝑘𝑁
2

and ultimate crushing resistance of the rivets per pitch,

𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑐𝑢 = 2𝑥25𝑥640 = 480 𝑘𝑁

From above we see that the minimum force per pitch which will rupture the joint is

300 000 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 300 𝑘𝑁.

Actual stresses produced in the plates and rivets

Since the factor of safety is 4, therefore safe load per pitch length of the joint

= 300 000/4 = 75 𝑘𝑁

Let  ta ,  a , and  ca be the actual tearing, shearing and crushing stresses produced with
a safe load of 75 000 N in tearing, shearing and crushing. We know that actual tearing
resistance of the plates (Pta),

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75000 = (𝑝 − 𝑑)𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡𝑎 = (75 − 25)15𝑥𝜎𝑡𝑎

75000
𝜎𝑡𝑎 = = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎
750
Actual shearing resistance of the rivets (Psa),

𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋(25)2
75000 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑥𝜏𝑎 = 2𝑥 𝜏𝑎
4 4
75000
𝜏𝑎 = = 76.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
982
Actual crushing resistance of the rivets (Pca),

75000 = 𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑐𝑎 = 2𝑥25𝑥15𝑥𝜎𝑐𝑎 = 750𝜎𝑐𝑎

75000
𝜎𝑐𝑎 = = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎
750
2. Find the efficiency of the following riveted joints
i. Single riveted lap joint of 6 mm plates with 20 mm diameter rivets having a pitch of
50 mm.
ii. Double riveted lap joint of 6 mm plates with 20mm diameter rivets having a pitch
of 65 mm.

Assume,

Permissible tensile stress in plate = 120 MPa

Permissible shearing stress in rivets = 90 MPa

Permissible crushing stress in rivets = 180 MPa

Solution: Given: t = 6 mm ; d = 20 mm  t = 120 MPa = 120 N/mm2

 = 90 MPa = 90 N/mm2 ,180 MPa = 180 N/mm2

i. Efficiency of the first joint

Pitch, p = 50 mm …(Given)

First of all, let us find the tearing resistance of the plate, shearing and crushing
resistances of the rivets.

a. Tearing resistance of the plate

We know that the tearing resistance of the plate per pitch length,

𝑃𝑡 = (𝑝 − 𝑑)𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡 = (50 − 20)6𝑥120 = 21.6 𝑘𝑁

b. Shearing resistance of the rivet

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Since the joint is a single riveted lap joint, therefore the strength of one rivet in single
shear is taken. We know that shearing resistance of one rivet,
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥𝜏 = 𝑥(20)2 𝑥90 = 28.278 𝑘𝑁
4 4
c. Crushing resistance of the rivet

Since the joint is a single riveted, therefore strength of one rivet is taken. We know that
crushing resistance of one rivet,

𝑃𝑐 = 𝑑𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑐 = 20𝑥6𝑥180 = 21. 6 𝑘𝑁

Strength of the joint = 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑡 , 𝑃𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑐 = 21600 𝑁

We know that strength of the unriveted or solid plate,

𝑃 = 𝑝𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡 = 50𝑥6𝑥120 = 36 𝑘𝑁

 Efficiency of the joint,

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑡 , 𝑃𝑠 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑐 21.6

𝜂= = = 0.60 = 60%
𝑝𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡 36

ii. Efficiency of the second joint

Pitch, p = 65 mm

a. Tearing resistance of the plate,

We know that the tearing resistance of the plate per pitch length,

𝑃𝑡 = (𝑝 − 𝑑)𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡 = (65 − 20)6𝑥120 = 32.4 𝑘𝑁

b. Shearing resistance of the rivets

Since the joint is a double riveted lap joint, therefore strength of two rivets in single
shear is taken. We know that shearing resistance of the rivets,
𝜋
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑥𝑑 2 𝑥𝜏 = 2𝑥𝜋𝑥(20)2 𝑥90 = 56.556 𝑘𝑁
4
c. Crushing resistance of the rivet

Since the joint is double riveted, therefore strength of two rivets is taken. We know that
crushing resistance of rivets,

Strength of the joint,

= Least of Pt, Ps, and Pc = 32 400N

𝑃𝑐 = 𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑐 = 2𝑥20𝑥6𝑥180 = 43.2 𝑘𝑁

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We know that the strength of the unriveted or solid plate,

𝑃 = 𝑝𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡 = 65𝑥6𝑥120 = 46.8 𝑘𝑁

Efficiency of the joint,

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑡 , 𝑃𝑠 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑐 32.4

𝜂= = = 0.692 = 69.2%
𝑝𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡 46.8

3. Design a double riveted lap joint for MS plates 9.5 mm thick. Calculate the efficiency
of the joint. The permissible stresses are:

𝜎𝑡 = 90 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏𝑠 = 75 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑐 = 150 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Solution

The joint to be designed is shown schematically in Figure below;

a. Dia. of Rivet Hole d: It is determined by Unwin’s formula, Eq. (3.18)

𝑑 = 6√𝑡 = 𝑑 = 6√9.5 = 18.5 𝑚𝑚 … … … … … … … … … . (𝑖)

b. Pitch of the Joint, p:

In a double riveted joint there are 4 rivets in a pitch length. The rivet diameter will be
taken as diameter of the hole as difference between them is small. The rivets can fail in
shear or due to crushing. We will first determine the shearing and crushing strength of
a rivet and equate the smaller of two to the plate tearing strength to determine p.

Shearing strength of one rivet

𝜋 2 𝜋
= 𝑑 𝜏𝑠 = (18.5)2 75 = 20.16 𝑘𝑁
4 4
Crushing strength of one rivet

= 𝜎𝑐 𝑑𝑡 = 150𝑥18.5𝑥9.5 = 26.36 𝑘𝑁

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From (a) and (b) it is seen that the rivet is weaker in shear.

We will equate the tearing strength of the plate with the shearing strength of rivets in a
pitch length. There are two rivets in the pitch length.
𝜋 2
(𝑝 − 𝑑)𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡 = 𝑑 𝜏𝑠
4
determine 𝑝 from equation and

𝑝 = 65.55𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑎𝑦 65.7𝑚𝑚

Riveted Joints The pitch should be such that head forming operation is not hindered.
The practice dictates that 𝑝 ≥ 3 𝑑 so that head forming is permitted. 3 𝑑 = 55.5 𝑚𝑚,
and hence the value of p obtained in (ii) is acceptable.

c. The back Pitch pb : It must be between 2.5 d to 3.0 d. For chain riveting, the higher
value is preferred for the reason of head forming
𝑃𝑏 = 3𝑑 = 3𝑥18.5 = 55.5 𝑚𝑚
d. Margin, m: m is determined by equating shearing strength of rivet (smaller of
shearing and crushing strengths of rivet). Remember that there are two rivets per
pitch length:
𝜋
2𝑚𝑡𝜏𝑠 = 2𝑥 𝑑 2 𝜏𝑠
4
𝜋 𝑑 2 𝜋 (18.5)2
𝑚= = = 28.3 𝑚𝑚
4 𝑡 4 𝑡
The minimum acceptable value of m is 1.5 d = 27.5 mm hence m = 28.3 mm is
acceptable. Thus the design is completed with d = 18.5 mm, p = 65.7 mm, pb = 55.5
mm, m = 28.3 mm. The diameter is standardized, apparently based on drill size.
Normally fractions like 18.5 mm may not be accepted. The rivet diameters are less than
the hole diameter by 1 mm. Yet the head formation process increases rivet diameter.
We are not yet describing standard hole and rivet diameters. We postpone it for the time
being.

e. Efficiency of Joint

Tensile strength of plate without holes, per pitch length

𝑃 = 𝑝𝑥𝑡. 𝜎𝑡 = 65.7𝑥95𝑥90 = 56.2 𝑘𝑁

Shearing strength of rivets in a pitch length

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𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝑠 = 2𝑥 𝑥𝑑2 𝑥𝜏𝑠 = 2𝑥 𝑥(18.5)2 𝑥75 = 40.3 𝑘𝑁
4 4
Crushing strength of rivets in a pitch length

𝑃𝑐 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑐 = 2𝑥150𝑥18.5𝑥9.5 = 52.7 𝑘𝑁 = 21. 6 𝑘𝑁

The tearing strength of plate with one hole in a pitch length

𝑃𝑡 = (𝑝 − 𝑑)𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡 = (65.7 − 18.5)9.5𝑥90 = 40.36 𝑘𝑁

The shearing strength of margin

𝑃𝑚𝑠 = 2𝑚𝑡𝜏𝑠 = 2𝑥2.3𝑥9.5𝑥75 = 40.32 𝑘𝑁

Out of all Ps, Pc, Pt and Pms, the lowest is Ps

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑡 , 𝑃𝑠 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑐 40.3

𝜂= = = 71.7%
𝑝𝑥𝑡𝑥𝜎𝑡 56.2

The design values are

d = 18.5 mm, p = 65.7 mm, pb = 55.5 mm, m = 28.3 mm, η = 71.7%

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Exercises
1. A single riveted lap joint is made in 15 mm thick plates with 20 mm diameter rivets.
Determine the strength of the joint, if the pitch of rivets is 60 mm. Take σt = 120 MPa;
τ = 90 MPa and σc = 160 MPa. [Ans.28 280 N]
2. Two plates 16mm thick are joined by a double riveted lap joint. The pitch of each row
of rivets is 90 mm. The rivets are 25 mm in diameter. The permissible stresses are as
follows: σt = 140 MPa τ= 110 MPa and σc = 240 MPa, Find the efficiency of
the joint. [Ans. 53.5 %]
3. A single riveted double cover butt joint is made in 10 mm thick plates with 20 mm
diameter rivets with a pitch of 60 mm. Calculate the efficiency of the joint, if σt = 100
MPa; τ = 80 MPa and σc = 160 MPa. [Ans. 53.8%]
4. A double-riveted double cover butt joint is made in 12 mm thick plates with 18 mm
diameter rivets. Find the efficiency of the joint for a pitch of 80 mm, if σt = 115 MPa;
τ = 80 MPa and σc = 160 MPa [Ans. 62.6%]
5. A double-riveted lap joint with chain riveting is to be made for joining two plates 10
mm thick. The allowable stresses are: σt = 60 MPa τ = 50 MPa and σc = 80 MPa. Find
the rivet diameter, pitch of rivets, and distance between rows of rivets. Also find the
efficiency of the joint. [Ans. d =20 mm; p =73mm; Pb = 38 mm; η =71.7%]

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3.2. WELDED JOINTS

Learning objectives

At the end of this chapter you should:

 Understand the purposes of welded joint;

 Describe the processes to be applied for welded joint;
 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of welded joints;
 Identify types and characteristics of welded joints;
 Design welded joints.

3.2.1. Introduction
A welded joint is a permanent joint which is obtained by the fusion of the edges of the two parts
to be joined together, with or without the application of pressure and a filler material. The heat
required for the fusion of the material may be obtained by burning of gas (in case of gas
welding) or by an electric arc (in case of electric arc welding). The latter method is extensively
used because of the greater speed of welding [16].

Welding is extensively used in fabrication as an alternative method for casting or forging and
as a replacement for bolted and riveted joints. It is also used as a repair medium e.g. to reunite
metal at a crack, to build up a small part that has broken off such as gear tooth or to repair a
worn surface such as a bearing surface [7].

3.2.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Welded Joints

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of welded joints over riveted joints.

A) Advantages

a. The welded joints provide maximum efficiency (maybe 100%) which is not possible
in case of riveted joints.
b. The welded structures are usually lighter than riveted structures. This is due to that
in welding, gussets or other connecting components are not used.
c. Alterations and additions can be easily made in the existing structures.
d. As the welded structure is smooth in appearance, therefore it looks pleasing.
e. In welded connections, the tension members are not weakened as in the case of a
riveted joint.
f. A welded joint has a great strength. Often a welded joint has the strength of parent
metal itself.

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g. Sometimes, the members are of such a shape (i.e. circular steel pipes) that they
afford difficulty for riveting. But they can be easily welded.
h. The welding provides very rigid joints. This is in line with the modern trend of
providing rigid frames.
i. It is possible to weld any part of a structure at any point. But riveting requires enough
clearance.
j. The process of welding takes less time than the riveting.

B. Disadvantages

a. Since there is an uneven heating and cooling during fabrication, therefore the
members may get distorted or additional stresses may develop.
b. It requires highly skilled labor and supervision.
c. Since no provision is kept for expansion and contraction in the frame, therefore there
is a possibility of cracks developing in it.
d. The inspection of welding work is more difficult than riveting work.

3.2.3. Welding processes

Welding processes are broadly classified into the following two groups [1]:

 Welding processes that use heat alone to join the two parts.
 Welding processes that use a combination of heat and pressure to join the two parts.

3.2.3.1. Fusion welding process

The welding process that uses heat alone is called. In this method, the parts to be joined are
held in position and molten metal is supplied to the joint. The molten metal can come either
from the parts themselves called parent metal or external filler metal is supplied to the joint.
The joining surfaces of the two parts become plastic or even molten under the action of heat.
When the joint solidifies, the two parts fuse into a single unit.

Fusion welding is further classified into three groups viz. thermit welding, gas welding, and
electric arc welding.

Namely:

i) Thermit Welding

In this method, a mold is prepared around the joint and thermit placed in the reservoir of the
mold. Thermit consists of a mixture of finely divided iron oxide and aluminium. When the
thermit is ignited, there is a chemical reaction, that converts iron oxide into molten steel. This
molten steel flows into the mold, melts the parts and form the joint on solidifying. The

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advantage of thermit welding is that all parts of the weld section are molten at the same time
and cool at a uniform rate. This minimizes the stresses induced in the joint. Thermit welding is
used to weld heavy sections such as rails in the field, where it is uneconomical to transport
welding equipment. It is particularly suitable to join parts of large casting or forging that are
complicated to make in one piece. Thermit welding is used to repair heavy steel parts such as
heavy machinery frames, locomotive frames, and ship structures, where it is not possible to
relieve the stresses in the joints. Due to the uniform rate of cooling thermit welding is ideally
suitable for these assemblies.

ii) Gas Welding

In the gas welding process, oxygen-hydrogen or oxygen-acetylene gas is burned in a torch to

create a pointed flame. This flame is directed upon the, surfaces to be joined. The intense heat
of the flame heats the adjoining parts of the joint to fusion temperature and simultaneously
melts the welding rod to supply the molten metal to the joint. A flux is used to remove the slag.
There is a basic difference between gas welding and electric arc welding. In gas welding, the
rate of heating is slow compared with electric arc welding. Therefore, the operator has more
control over both heating and cooling rates. The gas welding is preferred for joining thin parts
due to the low rate of heating.

iii) Electric Arc Welding:

In this method, the heat required for the fusion, is generated by an electric arc between the parts
to be joined and an electrode. This electrode can be made of filler metal and consumed as the
welding progresses or the electrode can be non-consumable type. Filler metal is separately fed
to the joint in case of non-consumable electrodes. In some cases, the consumable electrode is
coated with a flux material that vaporizes to form a gaseous shield around the joint and prevents
the molten metal from absorbing oxygen or nitrogen from the atmosphere. If not prevented, the
absorption of oxygen or nitrogen adversely affects the mechanical properties of the weld.
Electric arc welding is popular in machine-building industries as well as for structural work
because of consistently high quality of welding.

3.2.3.2. Welding Process by heat and pressure

Welding processes that use a combination of heat and pressure to join the two parts are
classified into the following two groups, viz,

i) Forge Welding:
In forge welding, the parts are heated to reach the plastic stage and the joint is prepared by
impact force. The impact force is produced either by a hand hammer or a press. Wrought iron

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or low carbon steel can be forge welded. This process has limited use in present time. It is used
in the fabrication of wrought iron pipes.

ii) Electric Resistance Welding:

In electric resistance welding, the parts to be connected are clamped together and a high
amperage electric current is passed from one part to another. Resistance of metallic parts to
electric current creates heat. This heat is utilized for melting the adjoining parts. No filler
material is used in this process. There are two terms related to electric resistance welding, viz,
spot welding and seam welding. When a lap joint is formed by applying pressure by two
electrodes, one on each side of overlapped plates, a spot weld is produced. If two rollers are
substituted for the point electrodes and the plates are pulled between the rollers, a seam weld is
produced. Electric resistance welding can be easily automated and is often used as a mass
production technique. Therefore, it is commonly used in automobile industries.

3.2.4. Stress-relieving of welded joints

Welded joints are subjected to residual stresses due to non-uniform heating of the parts being
joined. There is always a possibility that localized thermal stresses may result from uneven
heating and cooling during fusion and subsequent cooling. This also results in distortion. The
magnitude of residual stresses cannot be predicted with any degree of certainty. This is the
major disadvantage of welded joints. Following two methods can reduce the residual stresses
[17]:

i. Preheating of the weld area to retard cooling of the metal in the vicinity of the joint.
ii. Stress-relieving of the weld area by using proper heat treatment such as normalizing and
annealing in the temperature range of 550o to 675°.

One of the methods of stress-relieving is hand peening. It consists of hammering the weld along
the length with the peen of the hammer while the joint is hot. It reduces residual stresses and
induces residual compressive stresses on the surfaces. This improves the fatigue strength of the
joint.

3.2.5. Butt joints

Welded joints are divided into two groups: butt joint and fillet joints.

A butt joint can be defined as a joint between two components lying approximately in the same
plane. Butt joint connects the ends of the two plates. The types of butt joint are illustrated in
Fig.1. The selection of the types of butt joint depends upon the plate thickness and the
reliability. Some guidelines are as follows:

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i. When the thickness of the plates is less than 5 mm, it is not necessary to bevel the edges
of the plates. There is no preparation for the edges of the plates before welding. The
edges are square with respect to the plates. Therefore, the joint is called a square butt
joint. It is illustrated in Fig.1(a).
ii. When the thickness of the plates is between 5 to 25 mm, the edges are beveled before
the welding operation. The edges of two plates form V shape. Therefore, the joint is
called V-joint or single welded V-joint. This joint is welded only from one side. It is
illustrated in Fig.1(b).
iii. When the thickness of the plates is more than 20 mm, the edges of the two plates are
machined to form U shape. The joint is welded from one side. It is called a single welded
U- joint. It is shown in Fig.1(c).
iv. When the thickness of the plates is more than 30 mm, a double welded V-joint is used.
The joint is welded from both sides of the plate. It is shown in Fig.1(d).
v. When the welding is to be done only from one side, a single welded V-joint with a
backing strip is used to avoid the leakage of the molten metal on the other side. There
are two types of the backing strip: permanent steel backing and removable copper
backing. This type of joint is shown in Fig.1(e).

In applications like pressure vessels, the reliability of the joint is an important consideration.
Single welded V-joint is more reliable than a square butt joint. Single welded V-joint with
backing strip is more reliable than single welded V-joint without backing strip. Double welded
V-joint is more reliable than a single welded V-joint with a backing strip. The cost also increases
with the reliability of the joint.

Fig. 1. Types Butt joints

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3.2.6. Fillet joints

Fillet joint, also called a lap joint, is a joint between two overlapping plates or components. A
fillet weld consists of an approximately triangular cross-section joining two surfaces at right
angles to each other.

There are two types of fillet joints: transverse and parallel, as shown in Fig.2. A fillet weld
called transverse, if the direction of the weld is perpendicular to the direction of the force acting
on the joint. It is shown in Fig.2(a) and (b). Single transverse fillet joint is not preferred because
the edge of the plate, which is not welded, can warp out the shape.

In Fig.2(a), the edge of the lower plate is free to deflect. Therefore, a double transverse fillet
weld, as shown in Fig.2(b), is preferred. A fillet weld is called parallel or longitudinal, if the
direction of the weld is parallel to the direction of the force acting on the joint. It is shown in
Fig. 2(c).

Fig.2
There are two types of cross-section for fillet weld: normal and convex, as shown in Fig.3. The
normal weld consists of an isosceles triangle: a triangle having two equal sides. It is shown in
Fig.3(a). A convex weld is shown in Fig.3(b).

Fig.3

Convex weld requires more filler material and more labor. There is more stress concentration
in convex weld compared with triangular weld. Therefore, normal weld is preferred over
convex weld.

In addition to butt and fillet joints, there are some other types of welded joints, that are shown
in Fig.4. A tee-joint is a joint between two components located at right angles to each other in
the form of a T. In this case, the end face of one component is welded to the side of the other

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component through a fillet weld as shown in Fig. 4(a). A corner joint is a joint between two
components, that are at right angles to each other in the form of an angle. The adjacent edges
are joined through fillet weld as shown in Fig. 4(b). An edge joint is a joint between the edges
of two or more parallel components as shown in Fig. 4(c). It is used for thin plates subjected to
light loads.

Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Butt Weld in Tension

3.2.7. Strength of butt welds
A butt welded joint, subjected to tensile force P, is shown in Fig.5. The average tensile stress
in the weld is given by [10],

𝑃
𝜎𝑡 = ….(1)
ℎ𝑙
where,

 t = tensile stress in the weld (N/mm2)

P = tensile force on the plates (N)

h = throat of the butt weld (mm)

l = length of the weld (mm)

The throat of the weld does not include the bulge or reinforcement. The reinforcement is
provided to compensate for flaws in the weld. Equating the throat of the weld h to the plate
thickness t in Eq. (1), the strength equation of butt joint can be written as,

𝑃 = 𝜎𝑡 𝑡𝑙 ….(2)
where,

P = tensile force on plates (N)

 t = permissible tensile stress for the weld (N/mm2)

t = thickness of the plate (mm)

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There are certain codes, like code for unfired pressure vessels, that suggest reduction in strength
of butt welded joint by a factor called efficiency of the joint. Where the strength is to be reduced,
Eq. (2) is modified and rewritten in the following way,

𝑃 = 𝜎𝑡 𝑡𝑙𝜼
….(3)
Where,  = efficiency of welded joint (infraction)

Butt-welded joint, when properly made, has equal or better strength than the plates and there is
no need for determining the stresses in the weld or the size and the length of the weld. All that
is required is to match the strength of weld material to the strength of the plates.

3.2.8. Strength of parallel fillet welds

A parallel fillet weld subjected to tensile force P is shown in Fig.6(a). The enlarged view of a
fillet weld is shown in Fig.6(c). There are two terms related to the dimensions of the fillet weld,
viz, leg h and throat t. The size of the weld is specified by the leg length. As explained in section
3, the cross-section of the fillet weld consists of a right angle triangle having two equal sides.
The length of each of the two equal sides is called a leg. As a rule, the leg length h is equal to
the plate thickness. The throat is the minimum cross-section of weld located at 45° to the leg
….(4)
dimension [6]. Therefore,

𝑡 = ℎ(cos 45) or 𝑡 = 0.707 ℎ ….(4)

Failure of the fillet weld occurs due to shear along the minimum cross-section at the throat. For
parallel fillet weld, the inclination of the plane where maximum shear stress is induced is 45°
to the leg dimension. The shear failure of the weld is shown in Fig.6(b). The cross-sectional
area at the throat is (tl) or (0.707 hl). The shear stress in the fillet weld is given by,
𝑃
𝜏 = 0.707ℎ𝑙
….(5)

Fig. 6. Parallel fillet weld in shear

Rearranging the terms of Eq. (5), the strength equation of the parallel fillet weld is written in
the following form, 𝑃 = 0.707ℎ𝑙𝜏 ….(6)

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where,

P = tensile force on plates (N)

h = leg of the weld (mm)

l = length of the weld (mm)

τ = permissible shear stress for the weld (N/mm2)

Usually, there are two welds of equal length on two sides of the vertical plate.

In that case,

𝑃 = 2(0.707ℎ𝑙𝜏) Or 𝑃 = 1.414ℎ𝑙𝜏 ….(7)

In determining the required length of the weld, 15 mm should be added to the length of each
weld calculated by Eqs (6) and (7) to allow for the starting and stopping of the weld run. In the
case of static load, the permissible shear stress for the fillet welds is taken as 94 N/mm2 as per
the code of the American Welding Society (AWS).

3.2.9. Strength of transverse fillet welds

A transverse fillet weld subjected to tensile force P is shown in Fig.7(a). The transverse fillet
welds are subjected to tensile stress. The minimum cross-section of the weld is at the throat.
Therefore, the failure due to tensile stress will occur at the throat section. The cross-sectional
area at the throat is (tl). The tensile stress in the transverse fillet weld is given by,

𝑃
𝜎𝑡 =
𝑡𝑙

Fig. 7. Failure of Fillet Weld

Substituting Eq. (4) in the above equation,

𝑃
𝜎𝑡 = 0.707 ℎ𝑙 …(8)

Rearranging the terms of Eq. (8), the strength equation of the transverse fillet weld is written in
the following form,

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𝑃 = 0.707 ℎ𝑙𝜎𝑡 …(9)

where,

 = permissible tensile stress for the weld (N/mm2)

Usually, there are two welds of equal length on two sides of the plate as shown in Fig. 7(a). In
such cases,
….(10)
𝑃 = (20.707ℎ𝑙𝜎𝑡 ) Or 𝑃 = 1.414ℎ𝑙𝜎𝑡

The nature of stresses in the cross-section of the transverse fillet weld is complex. The weld is
subjected to normal stress as well as shear stress. Besides, the throat is subjected to a bending
moment, which adds to the complications. Theoretically, it can be proved that for transverse
fillet weld, the inclination of the plane, where maximum shear stress is induced, is 67.5° to the
leg dimension as shown in Fig. 7(b). To simplify the design of fillet welds, many times shear
failure is used as the failure criterion. It is assumed that the stress in the transverse fillet weld
is shear stress on the throat area for any direction of the applied load. With this assumption, Eqs
(6) and (7) derived for parallel fillet welds are also used for the transverse fillet welds.

3.2.10. Axially loaded unsymmetrical welded joints

In certain applications, unsymmetrical sections such as angle or T are welded to the steel plates
or beams. Fig. 8(a) shows an angle section welded to a vertical beam through two parallel fillet
welds 1 and 2. G is the center of gravity of the angle section. The external force acting on the
joint passes through G. Suppose P1 and P2 are the resisting forces set up in the welds 1 and 2
respectively. From Eq. (6)

P1 = 0.707 h l1  …(a)

P2 = 0.707 h l2  ….(b)

Fig.8

Fig.1
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The free body diagram of forces acting on the angle section with two welds is shown in

Fig.8(b). Since the sum of horizontal forces is equal to zero,

P = P1 + P2 ….(11)
Since the moment of forces about the centre of gravity is equal to zero,

P1y1 = P2y2 …(12)

Substituting expressions (a) and (b) in expression (c),

𝑙1 𝑦1 = 𝑙2 𝑦2 …(13)
Assuming total length of welds as l,

l1  l2 = l

Equations (11) to (13) are used to find out the required lengths l1 and l2 of two welds.

3.2.11. Eccentric load in plane of welds

The design of the welded joint subjected to an eccentric load in the plane of welds consists of
calculations of primary and secondary shear stresses. A bracket subjected to an eccentric force
P and attached to the support through two fillet welds W1 and W2 is shown in Fig. 9(a). In such
problems, the first step is to determine the center of gravity of welds, treating the weld as a line.
Suppose G is the center of gravity of two welds and e is the eccentricity between the center of
gravity and the line of action of force P. According to the principle of applied mechanics, the
eccentric force P can be rep1aced by an equal and similarly directed force acting through the
center of gravity G, along with a couple

(M = P x e) lying in the same plane (Fig.9(b). The effects of force P and the couple M are treated
separated as shown in Fig 9(c) and (d), respectively.

Fig.9

The stresses in this welded joint are shown in Fig.10. The force P acting through the center of
gravity causes direct shear stress in the welds (Fig.10(a). It is called the primary shear stress. It

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is assumed that the primary shear stress is uniformly distributed over the throat area of all welds.
Therefore,

𝑃
𝜏1 =
𝐴
Where A = the throat area of all welds.

The couple M causes torsional shear stresses in the throat area of welds Fig. 9.10(b). They are
called secondary shear stresses and given by

𝑀𝑟
𝜏2 =
𝐽

Where r = distance of a point in weld from G and J = polar moment of inertia of all welds.

The secondary shear stress at any point in the weld is proportional to its distance from the center
of gravity. It is maximum at the farthest point such as A. The resultant shear stress at any point
is obtained by vector addition of primary and secondary shear stresses Fig. 9.18(c).

Fig.10 Fig.11

Figure 11 shows a weld of length l and throat t. G1 is the center of gravity of the weld, while G
is the center of gravity of a group of welds. The moment of inertia of this weld about its center
of gravity G1 is given by,

𝑙𝑡 3
𝐼𝑥𝑥 =
12
and
𝑡𝑙 3
𝐼𝑦𝑦 =
12
Since t is very small compared with l , Ixx is negligible compared with Iyy.

𝐴𝑙 2
𝐽𝐺1 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 ≅ 𝐼𝑦𝑦 =
12
𝐴𝑙 2
𝐽𝐺1 =
12

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where, A is the throat area of the weld and JG1 is the polar moment of inertia of the weld about
its center of gravity. The polar moment of inertia about an axis passing through G is determined
by the parallel axis theorem. Thus,

𝐽𝐺 = 𝐽𝐺1 + 𝐴𝑟1 2

where, r1 is the distance between G and G1. From Eqs (iii) and (iv),

𝑙2
𝐽𝐺 = 𝐴 ( + 𝑟1 2 )
12

Where, there are several welds, with polar moments of inertias J1, J2, ,J3,… etc. about the center
of gravity G, the resultant polar moment of inertia is given by,

J = J 1 + J 2 + J3 + …

The above value of J is to be used in Eq. (ii) to determine secondary shear stresses

3.2.12. Welded joint subjected to bending moment

A cantilever beam of rectangular cross-section is welded to a support through two fillet welds
W1 and W2, as shown in Fig.12. According to the principle of applied mechanics, the eccentric
force P can be replaced by an equal and similarly directed force P acting through the plane of
welds, along with a couple (Mb = P x e), as shown in Fig. 13. The force P through the plane of
welds causes the primary shear stress τ1, which is given by,

Fig. 12

P
1 
A

where, A is the throat area of all welds. The moment Mb causes bending stresses in the welds.
The bending stresses are given by

𝑀𝑏 𝑦
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐼
where I = moment of inertia of all welds based on the throat area;

y = distance of the point in weld from the neutral-axis;

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Fig.13
The bending stresses are assumed to act normal to the throat area. The resultant shear in the
welds is given by,

𝜎𝑏 2
𝜏 = √( ) + 𝜏1 2
2

Referring back to Fig.11 and using parallel, axes theorem, the moment of inertia of W1, about
the X-axis, is given by

𝑏𝑡 3 𝑑
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = + (𝑏𝑡)( )2
12 𝑡
The throat dimension is assumed to be very small compared to b or d. Therefore, the first term
in the above expression is neglected.

𝑑2
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑡
4
Since there are two such symmetrical welds,

𝑏𝑑 2
𝐼 = 2𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡
2
The above expression should be used in eq.(ii) to determine the bending stresses.

Examples
1. A gas tank consists of a cylindrical shell of 2.5 m inner diameter. It is
enclosed by hemispherical shells through the butt welded joint, as shown
in Fig.1. The thickness of the cylindrical shell as well as the
hemispherical cover is 12 mm. Determine the allowable internal pressure
to which the tank may be subjected, if the permissible tensile stress in the
weld is 85 N/mm2.

Assume the efficiency of the welded joint as 0.85. Fig.1

Solution. The length of the welded joint is equal to the circumference of the cylindrical
shell.

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From Eq. (3),

𝑙 = 𝜋𝐷 = 𝜋(2500) = 7853.98 𝑚𝑚

𝑃 = 𝜎𝑡 𝑡𝑙𝜂 = (85)(12)(7853.98)(0.85) = 6809.4𝑘𝑁

Corresponding pressure inside the tank is given by

p
P

6809.4  10   1.39 N / mm
3
2
 
4
D2
4
2.5  10 
3 2

2. A steel plate 100 mm wide and 10 mm thick is welded to another steel plate through
double parallel fillet welds, as shown in Fig. 2, The plates are subjected to a static tensile
force of 50 kN. Determine the required length of the welds, if the permissible shear
stress in the weld is 94 N/mm2.

Solution.

From Eq. (7), 𝑃 = 1.414 ℎ𝑙𝜏

or 50 𝑥 103 = 1.414 (10) 𝑙 (94)

𝑙 = 37.62 𝑚𝑚

Adding 15 mm length for starting and stopping of the weld run, the length of the weld
is given by,

𝑙 = 37.62 + 15 = 52.62 𝑜𝑟 55 𝑚𝑚

3. Two steel plates, 120 mm wide and 12.5 mm thick, are joined together through double
transverse fillet welds, as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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The maximum tensile stress for the plates and the welding material should not exceed
110 N/mm2. Find the required length of the weld, if the strength of the weld is equal to
the strength of the plates.

Solution. The plates are subjected to tensile stress. The maximum tensile force acting
on the plates is given by,

𝑃 = (𝑤𝑡)𝜎𝑡 = (120𝑥12.5)(110) = 165𝑘𝑁

From Eq.(10), 𝑃 = 1.414 ℎ𝑙𝜎𝑡

165 𝑘𝑁 = 1.414(12.5)𝑙(110)

or 𝑙 = 84.87 𝑚𝑚

Adding 15 mm for starting and stopping of the weld the required length of the weld is
given by,

𝑙 = 84.87 + 15 ≅ 1000 𝑚𝑚

4. A plate, 75 mm wide and 10 mm thick, is joined with another steel plate through single
transverse and double parallel fillet welds, as shown in Fig. 4. The joint is subjected to
a maximum tensile force of 55 kN. The permissible tensile and shear stresses in the weld
material are 70 and 50 N/mm2 respectively. Determine the required length of each
parallel fillet weld.

Solution: The strength of transverse fillet weld is denoted by P1. From Eq.

𝑃1 = 0.707 ℎ𝑙𝜎𝑡 = 37117.5𝑁

The strength of double parallel fillet weld is denoted by P2.
From Eq. (7),

𝑃2 = 0.707 ℎ𝑙𝜏

= 1.414(10)𝑙(50) = 707𝑥𝑙 Fig. 4

The total strength of the joint should be 55 kN. From (i) and (ii),

37117.5 + 707 𝑥 𝑙 = 55 𝑥 10𝑘𝑁

𝑙 = 25.29 𝑚𝑚

Adding 15 mm length for starting and stopping of the weld run, the length of the weld
is given by,

𝑙 = 25.29 + 15 = 40.29 𝑜𝑟 45 𝑚𝑚

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5. A steel plate, 100 mm wide and 10 mm thick, is joined with another steel plate through
a single transverse and double parallel fillet welds, as shown in Fig. 5. The strength of
the welded joint should be equal to the strength of the plates to be joined. The
permissible tensile and shear stresses for the weld material and the plates are 70 and 50
N/mm2, respectively. Find the length of each parallel fillet weld. Assume the tensile
force acting on the plates as static.

Fig. 5
Solution. The tensile strength of the plate is given by,

𝑃 = (𝑤  𝑡)  t = (𝑙00  10)(70) = 70 000 𝑁 …(i)

The strength of transverse fillet weld is denoted by P1. From Eq. (9).

𝑃1 = 0.707 ℎ𝑙  t = 0.707(10)(100)(70) = 49 490 𝑁 (ii)

The strength of double parallel fillet weld is denoted by P2. From Eq. (7),
𝑃2 = 1.414 ℎ𝑙𝜏 = 1.414(10)  𝑙  (50) = 707  𝑙 …(iii)
The strength of the welded joints is equal to the strength of the plate. From (i), (ii) and
(iii),
70000 = 49490 + 707 𝑥 𝑙
𝑙 = 29.01 𝑚𝑚
Adding 15 mm length for starting and stopping of the weld run,
𝑙 = 29.01 + 15 = 44.01 𝑜𝑟 45 𝑚𝑚
6. Two plates are joined together through single transverse and double parallel fillet welds,
as shown in Fig.6. The size of the fillet weld is 5 mm and allowable shear load per mm
of weld is 330 N. Find the length of each parallel fillet weld.

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Solution. It is mentioned earlier that the transverse fillet weld is

designed based on shear stress. In such cases, the stress in the
fillet weld is considered as shear stress on the throat for any
direction of the applied load. With this assumption, the equations
derived for the parallel fillet weld are also applicable to the
transverse fillet weld.

Suppose L is the total length of welds required for the joint.

Since the allowable shear load per mm length of the weld is 330
N, the required length of the weld is given by,

150𝑥103
𝐿= = 454.55 𝑚𝑚 … … … … … . . (𝑖)
330
From Fig. 13,

𝐿 = 2 𝑥 𝑙 + 𝑙00 … (𝑖𝑖)

From (i) and (ii),

2 𝑥 𝑙 + 100 = 454.55

𝑙 = 177.27 𝑚𝑚

Adding 15 mm length for starting and stopping of the weld run,

𝑙 = 177.27 + 15 = 192.27 𝑜𝑟 195 𝑚𝑚

7. An ISA 200 x 100 x 10 angle is welded to a steel plate by means of fillet welds, as
shown in Fig. 7. The angle is subjected to a static force of 150 kN and the permissible
shear stress for the weld is 70 N/mm2. Determine the lengths of weld at the top and
bottom.

Fig. 7

Solution. The total length ( l ) of the weld required to withstand the load of 150 kN is
given by

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𝑃 = 0.707 ℎ𝑙𝜏

or 150 𝑥 103 = 0.707(10) l (70)

𝑙 = 303.09 𝑚𝑚 (i)

We know that, 𝑙1 𝑦1 = 𝑙2 𝑦2

l1 (200 -71.8) = l 2 (71.8)

128.2 l1 = 71.8 l 2 (ii)

Also,

l1  l 2  l  303.09 mm (iii)

From (ii) and (iii),

l1  108.81 mm and l 2 = 194.28 mm

8. How much length of a 10 m fillet weld is required to weld the long side of an ISA angle
150 x 75 x 10 to a steel plate with side welds only? A static load of 125 kN acts through
the center of gravity of the angle section, which is 53.2 mm from the short side. The
allowable load per mm of the weld length is 665 N.

Solution. The welded joint is shown in Fig. 8. The total

length ( l ) of two fillet welds is given by,

𝑃 125𝑥103
𝑙= = = 187.97 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑙 665

Therefore, l1  l 2  l  187.97 mm

From Eq. (12), l1 y1  l 2 y 2 or

l1 (l50 -53.2) = l 2 (53.2)

96.8 l1 = 53.2 l 2

Fig. 8

From (i) and (ii), l1 = 66.67 mm and l 2 = 121.30 mm

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9. A welded connection, as shown in Fig. 9 is subjected to an eccentric force of 7.5 kN.

Determine the size of welds if the permissible shear stress for the weld is 100 N/mm2.
Assume static conditions.

Fig.9.

Solution. Suppose t is the throat of each weld. There are two welds W1 and W2 and
their throat area is given by,

A = 2(50t) = (l00t) mm2

From Eq. (i), the primary shear stress is given by,

P 7500  75 
     N/mm2
A 100t   t 

The two welds are symmetrical and G is the gravity of the two welds.

Fig.10

𝑒 = 25 + 100 = 125 𝑚𝑚

𝑀 = 𝑃 𝑥 𝑒 = (7500)(125) = 937 500 𝑁𝑚𝑚 (𝑖)

The distance r of the farthest point in the center of gravity is given by (Fig. 10),
𝑟 = √252 + 252 = 35.36 𝑚𝑚

From Eq. (5), the polar moment of weld W1 about G is given by

𝑙2 502
𝐽1 = 𝐴 ( + 𝑟12 ) = 50𝑡𝑥 ( + 252 ) = (41667𝑡) 𝑚𝑚4
12 12

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Due to symmetry, the polar moment of inertia welds (J) is given by

𝐽 = 𝐽1 + 𝐽2 = 2𝐽1 = 2(41667𝑡) = (83334𝑡)𝑚𝑚4
We know that the secondary shear stress is given by,
Mr 93750035.36  397.8 
2     N / mm
2

J 83334t   t 
454
𝜏=( ) 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑡

Figure 11 shows the primary and secondary stresses. The vertical and horizontal
components of these shear stresses are added and the resultant shear stress is determined.

Fig. 11

Therefore, from the figure, Since the permissible shear stress for the weld material is
100 N/mm2,

454
= 100
𝑡
𝑡 = 4.54 𝑜𝑟 5 𝑚𝑚

10. A bracket is welded to the vertical column through two fillet welds, as shown in Fig.
12. Determine the size of the welds, if the permissible shear stress in the weld is limited
to 70 N/mm2.

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Fig.12

Solution. The area of two welds is given by, A = 2 (50 t) = (100 t) mm2

The primary shear stress is given by,

𝑃 10000 100
𝜏1 = = = 𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝐴 100 𝑡 𝑡
The moment of inertia of top weld about X-axis passing through its center of gravity g
is (50 r3/12). This moment of inertia is shifted to the center of gravity of two welds at G
by at G by parallel axis theorem. It is given by,

50𝑡 3
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = + (𝐴𝑦1 2 ) = 50𝑡 . (50)2 𝑚𝑚4
12
The dimension t is very small compared with (50). The terms containing t3 are neglected.
Therefore,

𝐼𝑥𝑥 = (50𝑡) (50)2 = (503 𝑡) 𝑚𝑚4

Since there are two welds,

𝐼 = 2𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 2(503 𝑡) = (250 000 𝑡) 𝑚𝑚4

The bending stress in the top weld is given by,

b  
 

M b y 10 103 100 50  200 
 N mm
2
(ii)
I 250000t   t 

The maximum principal shear stress in the weld is given by,

𝜎 200 100 2 141.42

𝜏 = √( 2𝑏 )2 + 𝜏1 2 = √( 2𝑡 )2 + ( ) = 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (iii)
𝑡 𝑡

The permissible shear stress in the weld is 70 N/mm2. Therefore,

141.42
= 70 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 2.02 𝑚𝑚
𝑡

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𝑡 2.02
ℎ= = = 2.86 𝑜𝑟 3 𝑚𝑚
0.707 0.707
11. A bracket is welded to the vertical plate through two fillet welds as shown in Fig. 13.
Determine the size of the welds, if the permissible shear stress is limited to 70 N/mm2.

Fig. 13

Solution: The total area of two vertical welds is given

A = 2(400 t) = (800 t) mm2

The primary shear stress in the weld is given by,

𝑃 50000 62.5
𝜏1 = = = 𝑀𝑃𝑎 … … . 𝑖
𝐴 800𝑡 𝑡
The moment of inertia of two welds about X-axis is given by,

𝑡(400)3
𝐼 = 2[ ] = (10.67𝑥106 𝑡)𝑚𝑚4
12

We know that,

b  
 
M b y 50 103  300 50  281.16 
  N mm
2

I 10.67x10^6 t   t 
The maximum principal shear stress in the weld is given by,

𝜎𝑏 2 281.16 2 62.5 2 153.85

𝜏 = √( ) + 𝜏1 2 = √( ) +( ) = 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

The permissible shear stress in the weld is 70 N/mm2. Therefore,

153.85
= 70, 𝑡 = 2.2 𝑚𝑚
𝑡
𝑡 2.2
ℎ= = = 3.11 ≅ 4 𝑚𝑚
0.707 0.707

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12. A shaft of rectangular cross-section is welded to support through fillet welds, as shown,
in Fig.14 Determine the size of the welds if the permissible shear stress in the weld is
limited to 75 N/mm2.

Fig. 14
Solution: The total area of the horizontal and vertical welds is given by,

𝐴 = 2[𝑙00 𝑡 + 150 𝑡) = (500 𝑡) 𝑚𝑚2

𝑃 25000 50
𝜏1 = = = 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 500𝑡 𝑡
Referring to Fig.15, the moment of inertia of four welds about X-axis is given by

𝑏𝑡 3 𝑑 2 𝑡𝑑 3
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = [ + (𝑏𝑡) ( ) ] + 2 [ ]
12 𝑡 12

Assuming b and d to be large as compared to the throat dimension t and neglecting the
terms containing we have

Fig. 15

𝑏𝑑 2 𝑑 3
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡[ + ]
2 6

Substituting the values,

100 𝑥 1502 1503

𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡 [ + ] = [75 𝑥 1502 ]𝑡 𝑚𝑚4
2 6

We know that the maximum shear stress in the weld is given by

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𝜎𝑏 2 555.55 2 50 282.24
𝜏 = √( ) + 𝜏1 2 = √( ) + ( )2 = 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

Since the permissible shear stress in the 75 N/mm2,

 282.24 
   75 or t  3.76 mm
 t 

t 3.76
and h   5.32 or 6 mm
0.707 0.707

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Exercises
1. Two plates rejoined together through fillet welds as shown in Fig.16. The leg dimension
of the welds is 10 mm and the permissible shear stress at the throat cross-section is 75
N/mm2. Determine the length of each weld, if 15 mm weld length is required for starting
and stopping of the weld run.

Fig. 16

2. A steel plate, 80 mm wide and 10 mm thick joined to another steel plate by means of a
single transverse and double parallel fillet welds, as shown in Fig.17. The strength of
the welded joint should be equal to the strength of the plates to be joined. The
permissible tensile and shear stresses for the weld material and the plates are 100 and
70 N/mm2 respectively. Find the length of each parallel fillet weld. Assume that the
tensile force passes through the center of gravity of three welds.

Fig. 17
3. A bracket, as shown in Fig.18, is welded to a plate. The welds have the same size, and
the permissible force per mm of the weld-length is 1 kN. Calculate the lengths l1 and l 2

Fig.19
Fig. 18

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4. A welded connection of steel plates, as shown in Fig.19, is subjected to an eccentric

force of 10 kN. Determine the throat dimension of the welds, if the permissible shear
stress is limited to 95 N/mm2. Assume static conditions.
5. A welded connection of steel plates is shown in Fig.20. It is subjected to an eccentric
force of 50 kN. Determine the size of the we1d, if the permissible shear stress in the
weld is not to exceed 70 N/mm2.

Fig. 20 Fig. 21

6. A welded joint, as shown in Fig. 21, is subjected to an eccentric load of 2500 N. Find
the size of the welds, if the maximum shear stress in the weld is not to exceed 50 N/mm2.

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3.3. SCREWED JOINTS

3.3.1. Introduction
A screw thread is formed by cutting a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface. A
screw made by cutting a single helical groove on the cylinder is known as a single threaded (or
single-start) screw and if a second thread is cut in the space between the grooves of the first, a
double-threaded (or double-start) screw is formed. Similarly, triple and quadruple (i.e.
multiple-start) threads may be formed. The helical grooves may be cut either right hand or left
hand. A screwed joint is mainly composed of two elements i.e. a bolt and nut. The screwed
joints are widely used where the machine parts are required to be readily connected or
disconnected without damage to the machine or the fastening. This may be to hold or adjust in
assembly or service inspection, repair, or replacement or it may be for the manufacturing or
assembly reasons. The parts may be rigidly connected or provisions may be made for
predetermined relative motion.

3.3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Screwed Joints

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of the screwed joints.

A) Advantages
 Screwed joints are highly reliable in operation.
 Screwed joints are convenient to assemble and disassemble.
 A wide range of screwed joints may be adapted to various operating conditions.
 Screws are relatively cheap to produce due to standardization and highly efficient
manufacturing processes.
B) Disadvantages

The main disadvantage of the screwed joints is the stress concentration in the threaded portions
which are vulnerable points under variable load conditions.

Note: The strength of the screwed joints is not comparable with that of riveted or welded joints.

3.3.3. Important Terms Used in Screw Threads

The following terms used in screw threads, as shown in Fig.1, are important from the subject
point of view:
 Major diameter: It is the largest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. The
 screw is specified by this diameter. It is also known as outside or nominal diameter.
 Minor diameter: It is the smallest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. It is
also known as the core or root diameter.

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 Pitch diameter: It is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, on a cylindrical screw

thread, the surface of which would pass through the thread at such points as to make
equal the width of the thread and the width of the spaces between the threads. It is also
called an effective diameter. In a nut and bolt assembly, it is the diameter at which the
ridges on the bolt are in complete touch with the ridges of the corresponding nut.

Fig. 1

 Pitch: It is the distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the
next. This is measured in an axial direction between corresponding points in the same
axial plane.
 Mathematically, Pitch = 1/ No. of threads per unit length of screw
 Lead: It is the distance between two corresponding points on the same helix. It may also
be defined as the distance in which a screw thread advances axially in one rotation of
the nut. Lead is equal to the pitch in case of single start threads, it is twice the pitch in
double start, thrice the pitch in triple start, and so on.
 Crest: It is the top surface of the thread.
 Root: It is the bottom surface created by the two adjacent flanks of the thread.
 Depth of thread: It is the perpendicular distance between the crest and root.
 Flank: It is the surface joining the crest and root.
 Angle of thread. It is the angle included by the flanks of the thread.
 Slope. It is half the pitch of the thread.

3.3.4. Designation of Screw Threads

The complete designation of the screw thread shall include

a) Size designation. The size of the screw thread is designated by the letter `M'’ followed
by the diameter and pitch, the two being separated by the sign ×. When there is no
indication of the pitch, it shall mean that a coarse pitch is implied.

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b) Tolerance designation. This shall include a figure designating tolerance grade as

indicated below: ‘7’ for fine grade, ‘8’ for normal (medium) grade, and ‘9’ for coarse
grade.
c) A letter designating the tolerance position as indicated below: ‘H’ for unit thread, ‘d’
for bolt thread with allowance, and ‘h’ for bolt thread without allowance. For example,
a bolt thread of 6 mm size of coarse pitch and with allowance on the threads and normal
(medium) tolerance grade is designated as M6-8d.

3.3.5. Standard Dimensions of Screw Threads

The design dimensions of I.S.O. screw threads for screws, bolts and nuts of coarse and fine
series are shown in Table 1.

3.3.6. Stresses in Screwed Fastening due to Static Loading

The following stresses in screwed fastening due to static loading are important from the subject
point of view:

 Initial stresses due to screwing up forces,

 Stresses due to external forces, and
 Stress due to the combination of stresses at (1) and (2).

We shall now discuss these stresses, in detail, in the following articles.

3.3.7. Initial Stresses due to Screwing up Forces

The following stresses are induced in a bolt, screw or stud when it is screwed up tightly.

I. Tensile stress due to stretching of bolt.

Since none of the above-mentioned stresses are accurately determined, therefore bolts are
designed based on direct tensile stress with a large factor of safety to account for the
indeterminate stresses. The initial tension in a bolt, based on experiments, may be found by the
relation

Pi = 2840 d N

where Pi = Initial tension in a bolt, and

d = Nominal diameter of bolt, in mm.

The above relation is used for making a joint fluid-tight like steam engine cylinder cover joints
etc. When the joint is not required as tight as a fluid-tight joint, then the initial tension in a bolt
may be reduced to half of the above value. In such cases
Pi = 1420 d N

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The small diameter bolts may fail during tightening, therefore bolts of smaller diameter (less
than M 16 or M 18) are not permitted in making fluid-tight joints.

Table 1. Design dimensions of screw threads, bolts and nuts according to IS

Note: In case the table is not available, then the core diameter (dc) may be taken as 0.84 d,
where d is the major diameter.

If the bolt is not initially stressed, then the maximum safe axial load which may be applied to
it, is given by
P = Permissible stress × Cross-sectional area at bottom of the thread
(i.e. stress area)
The stress area may be obtained from Table 1 or it may be found by using the relation
2
𝜋 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑑𝑐
stress area = [ ]
4 2
where 𝑑𝑝 = Pitch diameter, and
𝑑𝑐 = Core or minor diameter

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II. Torsional shear stress caused by the frictional resistance of the threads during its
tightening.

The torsional shear stress caused by the frictional resistance of the threads during its tightening
may be obtained by using the torsion equation. We know that

𝑇 𝜏 16𝑇
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏=
𝐽 𝑟 𝜋 (𝑑𝑐 )3

where  = Torsional shear stress,

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T = Torque applied, and

dc = Minor or core diameter of the thread.
It has been shown during experiments that due to repeated unscrewing and tightening of the
nut, there is a gradual scoring of the threads, which increases the torsional twisting moment (T).

III. Shear stress across the threads.

The average thread shearing stress for the screw (  s ) is obtained by using the relation
𝑃
𝜏𝑠 =
𝜋 𝑑𝑐 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 𝑛
where
b = Width of the thread section at the root.
The average thread shearing stress for the nut is

𝑃
𝜏𝑛 =
𝜋𝑑𝑥𝑏𝑥𝑛
IV. Compression or crushing stress on threads.

The compression or crushing stress between the threads (σc) may be obtained by using the
relation:

𝑃
𝜎𝑐 =
(𝜋[𝑑 2 − (𝑑𝑐 )2 ])𝑛

where d = Major diameter,

dc = Minor diameter, and

n = Number of threads in engagement.

V. Bending stress if the surfaces under the head or nut are not perfectly parallel to
the bolt axis.

When the outside surfaces of the parts to be connected are not parallel to each other, then the
bolt will be subjected to bending action. The bending stress (σb) induced in the shank of the bolt
is given by

𝑥 .𝐸
𝜎𝑏 =
2𝑙
where x = Difference in height between the extreme corners of the nut or head,

l = Length of the shank of the bolt, and

E = Young’s modulus for the material of the bolt.

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3.3.8. Stresses due to External Forces

The following stresses are induced in a bolt when it is subjected to an external load.

i. Tensile stress. The bolts, studs and screws usually carry a load in the direction of the bolt axis
which induces a tensile stress in the bolt.

Let dc = Root or core diameter of the thread, and

σt = Permissible tensile stress for the bolt material

We know that external load applied,

𝜋
𝑃= (𝑑 )2 𝜎
4 𝑐 𝑡
Now from Table 1, the value of the nominal diameter of bolt corresponding to the value of dc
may be obtained or stress area may be fixed.
𝜋
𝐴= (𝑑 )2
4 𝑐
Notes: (a) If the external load is taken up by several bolts, then
𝜋
𝑃= (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑡 𝑛
4
(b) In case the standard table is not available, then for coarse threads, 𝑑𝑐 = 0.84 𝑑, where d is
the nominal diameter of bolt.

3.3.9. Combined tension and shear stress

When the bolt is subjected to both tension and shear loads, as in case of coupling bolts or
bearing, then the diameter of the shank of the bolt is obtained from the shear load and that of
threaded part from the tensile load. A diameter slightly larger than that required for either shear
or tension may be assumed and stresses due to combined load should be checked for the
following principal stresses.

Maximum principal shear stress,

1
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝜎𝑡 2 + 4𝜏 2
2
and maximum principal tensile stress,

𝜎𝑡 1
𝜎𝑡(max) = + √𝜎 2 + 4𝜏 2
2 2 𝑡
These stresses should not exceed the safe permissible values of stress.

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Examples
1. Two machine parts are fastened together tightly through a 24 mm tap bolt. If the load
tending to separate these parts is neglected, find the stress that is set up in the bolt by
the initial tightening.

Solution. Given: d = 24 mm. From Table 1 (coarse series), we find that the core
diameter of the thread corresponding to M 24 is dc = 20.32 mm.

Let σt = Stress set up in the bolt.

We know that initial tension in the bolt,

𝑃 = 2840 𝑑 = 2840 × 24 = 68 160 𝑁

We also know that initial tension in the bolt (P),

𝜋
68160 = (𝑑 )2 𝜎 = 324𝜎𝑡
4 𝑐 𝑡
68160
𝜎𝑡 = = 210𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
324
2. An eye bolt is to be used for lifting a load of
60 kN. Find the nominal diameter of the bolt,
if the tensile stress is not to exceed 100 MPa.
Assume coarse threads.

Solution. Given: P = 60 kN = 60 × 103 N; σt

= 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2

An eye bolt for lifting a load is shown in Fig.1

Fig. 1.

Let d = Nominal diameter of the bolt, and

dc = Core diameter of the bolt.

We know that load on the bolt (P),

𝜋 𝜋
60000 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑡 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 100 = 78.55(𝑑𝑐 )2
4 4
60000
(𝑑𝑐 )2 = = 764 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑐 = 27.6 𝑚𝑚
78.55
From Table 1 (coarse series), we find that the standard core diameter (dc) is 28.706 mm
and the corresponding nominal diameter (d) is 33 mm.

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Note: A lifting eye bolt, as shown in Fig. 1, is used for lifting and transporting heavy
machines. It consists of a ring of circular cross-section at the head and provided with
threads at the lower portion for screwing inside a threaded hole on the top of the
machine.

3. Two shafts are connected by means of a flange coupling to transmit torque of 25 N-m.
The flanges of the coupling are fastened by four bolts of the same material at a radius
of 30 mm. Find the size of the bolts if the allowable shear stress for the bolt material is
30 MPa.

Solution. Given : T = 25 N-m = 25 × 103 N-mm ; n = 4; Rp = 30 mm ;  = 30 MPa =

30 N/mm2

We know that the shearing load carried by flange coupling,

𝑇 25𝑥103
𝑃𝑠 = = = 833.3𝑁 … … … … … . 𝑖
𝑅𝑝 30

Let dc = Core diameter of the bolt.

Resisting load on the bolts

𝜋 𝜋
𝑃= (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜏𝑛 = 𝑃 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 30𝑥4 = 94.26(𝑑𝑐 )2 … … … . 𝑖𝑖
4 4
From equations (i) and (ii), we get

833.3
(𝑑𝑐 )2 = = 8.84
94.26
𝑑𝑐 = 2.97 𝑚𝑚

From Table 1 (coarse series), we find that the standard core diameter of the bolt is 3.141
mm and the corresponding size of the bolt is M 4.

4. A lever loaded safety valve has a diameter of 100 mm and the blow-off pressure is 1.6
N/mm2. The fulcrum of the lever is screwed into the cast iron body of the cover. Find
the diameter of the threaded part of the fulcrum if the permissible tensile stress is limited
to 50 MPa and the leverage ratio is 8.

Solution. Given: D = 100 mm; p = 1.6 N/mm2; σt = 50 MPa = 50 N/mm2

We know that the load acting on the valve,

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐹 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑥𝐷 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑥1002 𝑥1.6 = 12568 𝑁
4 4
Since the leverage is 8, therefore load at the end of the lever,

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12568
𝑊= = 1571 𝑁
8
Load on the fulcrum,

𝑃 = 𝐹 – 𝑊 = 12 568 – 1571 = 10 997 𝑁

Let dc = Core diameter of the threaded part.

Resisting load on the threaded part of the fulcrum,

𝜋 𝜋
𝑃= (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑡 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 50 = 39.3(𝑑𝑐 )2
4 4
(dc)2 = 10 997 / 39.3 = 280 or dc = 16.7 mm

From Table 1 (fine series), we find that the standard core diameter is 18.376 mm and
the corresponding size of the bolt is M 20 × 1.5.

3.3.10. Eccentric Load Acting Perpendicular to the Axis of Bolts

A wall bracket carrying an eccentric load perpendicular to the axis of the bolts in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

In this case, the bolts are subjected to direct shearing load which is equally shared by all the
bolts. Therefore, direct shear load on each bolt,

𝑊
𝑊𝑡 = , Where n s number of bolts
𝑛
A little consideration will show that the eccentric load W will try to tilt the bracket in the
clockwise direction about the edge A-A. As discussed earlier, the bolts will be subjected to
tensile stress due to the turning moment. The maximum tensile load on a heavily loaded bolt
(Wt) may be obtained similarly as discussed in the previous article. In this case, bolts 3 and 4
are heavily loaded.

Maximum tensile load on bolt 3 or 4,

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𝑊𝐿𝐿2
𝑊𝑡𝑒 = 𝑊𝑡 =
2[(𝐿1 )2 + (𝐿2 )2 ]

When the bolts are subjected to shear as well as tensile loads, then the equivalent loads may be
determined by the following relations:

Equivalent tensile load,

1
𝑊𝑡𝑒 = {𝑊𝑡 + √𝑊𝑡 2 + 4(𝑊𝑠 )2 }
2
And equivalent shear load
1
𝑊𝑡𝑒 = √𝑊𝑡 2 + 4(𝑊𝑠 )2
2

Knowing the value of equivalent loads, the size of the bolt may be determined for the given
allowable stresses.

Example
1. For supporting the traveling crane in a workshop, the brackets are fixed on steel
columns as shown in Fig. 4. The maximum load that comes on the bracket is 12 kN
acting vertically at a distance of 400 mm from the face of the column. The vertical face
of the bracket is secured to a column by four bolts, in two rows (two in each row) at a
distance of 50 mm from the lower edge of the bracket. Determine the size of the bolts
if the permissible value of the tensile stress for the bolt material is 84 MPa. Also find
the cross-section of the arm of the bracket which is rectangular.

Solution. Given: W = 12 kN = 12 × 103 N; L = 400 mm;

L1 = 50 mm; L2 = 375 mm; σt = 84 MPa = 84 N/mm2; n = 4

We know that direct shear load on each bolt,

𝑊 12
𝑊𝑡 = = = 3 𝑘𝑁
𝑛 4
Since the load W will try to tilt the bracket in the clockwise direction about the lower
edge, therefore the bolts will be subjected to tensile load due to turning moment. The
maximum loaded bolts are 3 and 4 (See Fig. 11.34), because they lie at the greatest
distance from the tilting edge A–A (i.e. lower edge).

We know that maximum tensile load carried by bolts 3 and 4,

𝑊𝐿𝐿2 12 𝑥 400 𝑥 375

𝑊𝑡 = = = 6.29 𝑘𝑁
2[(𝐿1 ) + (𝐿2 ) ] 2[(50)2 + (375)2 ]
2 2

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Since the bolts are subjected to shear load as well as tensile load, therefore equivalent
tensile load,

1 1
𝑊𝑡𝑒 = {𝑊𝑡 + √𝑊𝑡 2 + 4(𝑊𝑠 )2 } = {6.29 + √6.292 + 4(3)2 } = 7490 𝑁
2 2

Size of the bolt, Let dc = Core diameter of the bolt.

We know that the equivalent tensile load (Wte),

𝜋 𝜋
7490 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑡 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 84 = 66 (𝑑𝑐 )2
4 4
7490
(𝑑𝑐 )2 = = 113.5 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑐 = 10.65 𝑚𝑚
66
From Table 11.1 (coarse series), the standard core diameter is 11.546 mm and the
corresponding size of the bolt is M 14.

Cross-section of the arm of the bracket

Let t and b = Thickness and depth of arm of the bracket respectively.

Section modulus,

1 2
𝑍= 𝑡𝑏
6
Assume that the arm of the bracket extends up to the face of the steel column. This
assumption gives a stronger section for the arm of the bracket.

Maximum bending moment on the bracket,

𝑀 = 12 × 103 × 400 = 4.8 × 106 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑚

We know that the bending (tensile) stress (σt),

𝑀 4.8𝑥106 𝑥6 28.8 𝑥106

84 = = =
𝑍 𝑡𝑏 2 𝑡𝑏 2
28.8 𝑥106
𝑡𝑏 2 = = 343000 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 343000/𝑏 2
84
Assuming depth of arm of the bracket, b = 250 mm, we have

𝑡 = 343 × 103 / (250)2 = 5.5 𝑚𝑚

3.3.11. Eccentric Load Acting Parallel to the Axis of Bolts

Consider a bracket having a rectangular base bolted to a wall by means of four bolts as shown
in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Eccentric load acting parallel to the axis of

bolts.
A little consideration will show that each bolt is subjected to a direct tensile load of
𝑊
𝑊𝑡1 = , where ne is the numbe of bolts
𝑛
Further the load W tends to rotate the bracket about the edge A-A. Due to this, each bolt is
stretched by an amount that depends upon its distance from the tilting edge. Since the stress is
a function of elongation, therefore each bolt will experience a different load which also depends
upon the distance from the tilting edge. For convenience, all the bolts are made of the same
size. In case the flange is heavy, it may be considered as a rigid body. Let w be the load in a
bolt per unit distance due to the turning effect of the bracket and let W1 and W2 be the loads on
each of the bolts at distances L1 and L2 from the tilting edge.

Load on each bolt at distance L1,

𝑊1 = 𝑤. 𝐿1

and moment of this load about the tilting edge

= 𝑤. 𝐿1 𝑥𝐿1 = 𝑤𝐿1 2

Similarly, load on each bolt at distance L2,

𝑊2 = 𝑤. 𝐿2

and moment of this load about the tilting edge

= 𝑤. 𝐿2 𝑥𝐿2 = 𝑤𝐿2 2

Total moment of the load on the bolts about the tilting edge

2 𝑤𝐿1 2 + 2 𝑤𝐿2 2

... (There are two bolts each at a distance of L1 and L2)

Also the moment due to load W about the tilting edge

= 𝑊𝐿
From equations the above we have

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𝑊𝐿 = 2 𝑤𝐿1 2 + 2 𝑤𝐿2 2

It may be noted that the most heavily loaded bolts are those which are situated at the greatest
distance from the tilting edge. In the case discussed above, the bolts at distance L2 are heavily
loaded.

Tensile load on each bolt at distance L2,

𝑊𝐿𝐿2
𝑊2𝑡 = 𝑊2 = 𝑤𝐿2 = 2 𝑤𝐿 2 . .. [From equation (iii)]
1 +2 𝑤𝐿2 2

and the total tensile load on the most heavily loaded bolt,

𝑊𝑡 = 𝑊𝑡1 + 𝑊2𝑡

If dc is the core diameter of the bolt and σt is the tensile stress for the bolt material, then total
tensile load,
𝜋
𝑊𝑡 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑡
4
Examples
1. A bracket, as shown in Fig. 1, supports a load of 30 kN. Determine the size of bolts, if
the maximum allowable tensile stress in the bolt material is 60 MPa. The distances are:
L1 = 80 mm, L2 = 250 mm, and L = 500 mm.

Solution. Given: W = 30 kN ; σt = 60 MPa = 60 N/mm2 ; L1 = 80 mm L2 = 250 mm ;

L = 500 mm

We know that the direct tensile load carried by each bolt,

and load in a bolt per unit distance,

𝑊 30
𝑊𝑡1 = = = 7.5 𝑘𝑁
𝑛 4
𝑊𝐿𝐿2 30𝑥50
𝑊𝑡 = = = 0.109 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚
2[(𝐿1 ) + (𝐿2 ) ] 2[(80)2 + (250)2 ]
2 2

Since the heavily loaded bolt is at a distance of L2 mm from the tilting edge, therefore
load on the heavily loaded bolt,
𝑊2𝑡 = 𝑤𝐿2 = 0.109 × 250 = 27.25 kN

Maximum tensile load on the heavily loaded bolt,

𝑊𝑡 = 𝑊𝑡1 + 𝑊2𝑡 = 7.5 + 27.25 = 34.75 kN = 34 750 N

Let dc = Core diameter of the bolts.

We know that the maximum tensile load on the bolt (Wt),

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𝜋 𝜋
34 750 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑡 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 60 = 47(𝑑𝑐 )2
4 4
2
34750
(𝑑𝑐 ) = = 740, 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑐 = 27.2 mm
47
From Table 1 (coarse series), we find that the standard core diameter of the bolt is

28.706 mm and the corresponding size of the bolt is M 33. Ans.

2. A crane runway bracket is shown in Fig. 2.

Determine the tensile and compressive stresses
produced in the section X-X when the Fig. 2
magnitude of the wheel load is 15 kN. Also
find the maximum stress produced in the bolts
used for fastening the bracket to the roof truss.

Solution. Given: W = 15 kN = 15 × 103 N

First of all, let us find the distance of center of

gravity of the section at X–X.

Let y  Distance of center of gravity (G)

from the top of the flange.

25 175
135 𝑥 25𝑥 2 + 175 𝑥 25 (25 + 2 )
𝑦̆ = = 69 𝑚𝑚
135𝑥25 + 175𝑥25
Moment of inertia about an axis passing through the center of gravity of the section

135(25)3 25 2 25(175)3 175 2

𝐼𝐺𝐺 = [ + 135𝑥25 (69 − ) ] + [ + 175𝑥25 (200 − 69 − ) ]
12 2 12 2

= 30.4 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

Distance of C.G. from the top of the flange,

𝑦1 = y = 69 𝑚𝑚

and distance of C.G. from the bottom of the web,

𝑦2 = 175 + 25 – 69 = 131 𝑚𝑚

Due to the tilting action of the load W, the cross-section of the bracket X-X will be under
bending stress. The upper fibres of the top flange will be under maximum tension and
the lower fibres of the web will be under maximum compression. Section modulus for
the maximum tensile stress,

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𝐼𝐺𝐺 30.4 𝑥 106

𝑍1 = = = 440.6𝑥103 𝑚𝑚3
𝑦1 69

and section modulus for the maximum compressive stress,

𝐼𝐺𝐺 30.4 𝑥 106
𝑍2 = = = 232𝑥103 𝑚𝑚3
𝑦2 131

We know that bending moment exerted on the section,

𝑀 = 15 × 103 (200 + 69) = 4035 × 103 𝑁𝑚𝑚

Maximum bending stress (tensile) in the flange,

𝑀 4035𝑥103
𝜎𝑏1 = = = 9.16𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑍1 440.6𝑥103

and maximum bending stress (compressive) in the web,

𝑀 4035𝑥103
𝜎𝑏2 = = = 17.4 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑍2 232𝑥103

Fig. 3

The eccentric load also induces direct tensile stress in the bracket. We know that direct
tensile stress,

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝜎𝑡1 =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑋 − 𝑋

15𝑥103
= = 1.94 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
135𝑥25 + 175𝑥25
Maximum tensile stress produced in the section at X–X (i.e. in the flange),

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бt = бb1 + бt1 = 9.16 + 1.94 = 11.1 N/mm2 = 11.1 MPa

and maximum compressive stress produced in the section at X–X (i.e. in the web),

бc = бb2 – бt1 = 17.4 – 1.94 = 15.46 N/mm2 = 15.46 MPa

Let бtb = Maximum stress produced in bolts,

n = Number of bolts = 4, and ...(Given)

d = Major diameter of the bolts = 25 mm ...(Given)

The plan of the bracket is shown in Fig. 3. Due to the eccentric load W, the bracket tends
to tilt about the edge EE. Since the load is acting parallel to the axis of bolts, therefore
direct tensile load on each bolt,

Let w = Load in each bolt per mm distance from the edge EE due to the turning effect
of the bracket,

L1 = Distance of bolts 1 and 4 from the tilting edge EE = 50 mm, and

L2 = Distance of bolts 2 and 3 from the tilting edge EE

= 50 + 325 = 375 𝑚𝑚
𝑊𝐿 15000(100 + 50 + 325 + 50)
𝑤= = = 27.5 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
)2 2
2[(𝐿1 + (𝐿2 ) ] 2[(50)2 + (375)2 ]

Since the heavily loaded bolts are those which lie at a greater distance from the tilting
edge, therefore the bolts 2 and 3 will be heavily loaded.

Maximum tensile load on each of bolts 2 and 3,

𝑊𝑡2 = 𝑤 × 𝐿2 = 27.5 × 375 = 10 312 𝑁

and the total tensile load on each of the bolts 2 and 3,

Wt = Wt1 + Wt2 = 3750 + 10 312 = 14 062 N

We know that tensile load on the bolt (Wt),

𝜋 𝜋
14062 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑡𝑏 = (0.84𝑥25)2 𝜎𝑡𝑏 = 346.4𝜎𝑡𝑏
4 4
(Taking, dc = 0.84 d)

𝜎𝑡𝑏 = 14 062/346.4 = 40.6 MPa

3. Two machine parts are fastened together tightly by means of a 24 mm tap bolt. If the
load tending to separate these parts is neglected, find the stress that is set up in the bolt
by the initial tightening.

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Solution. Given: d = 24 mm

From Table 1 (coarse series), we find that the core diameter of the thread corresponding
to M 24 is dc = 20.32 mm. Let σt = Stress set up in the bolt.

We know that initial tension in the bolt,

𝑃 = 2840 𝑑 = 2840 × 24 = 68 160 𝑁

We also know that initial tension in the bolt (P),

𝜋 𝜋
68160 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑡 = (20.30)2 𝜎𝑡 = 324𝜎𝑡
4 4
6860
𝜎𝑡 = = 210 𝑀𝑃𝑎
324
4. An eyebolt is to be used for lifting a load of 60 kN. Find the nominal diameter of the
bolt, if the tensile stress is not to exceed 100 MPa. Assume coarse threads.

Solution.

Given: P = 60 kN = 60 × 103 N;

σt = 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2

An eye bolt for lifting a load is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig.1

Let d = Nominal diameter of the bolt, and

dc = Core diameter of the bolt.

We know that load on the bolt (P),

𝜋 𝜋
60000 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑡 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 100 = 78.55(𝑑𝑐 )2
4 4
(𝑑𝑐 )2 = 600000/78.55 = 764, 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑐 = 27.6 mm

From Table 1 (coarse series), we find that the standard core diameter (dc) is 28.706 mm
and the corresponding nominal diameter (d) is 33 mm.

Note: A lifting eye bolt, as shown in Fig. 1, is used for lifting and transporting heavy
machines. It consists of a ring of circular cross-section at the head and provided with
threads at the lower portion for screwing inside a threaded hole on the top of the
machine.

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5. Two shafts are connected by means of a flange coupling to transmit torque of 25 N-m.
The flanges of the coupling are fastened by four bolts of the same material at a radius
of 30 mm. Find the size of the bolts if the allowable shear stress for the bolt material is
30 MPa.

Solution. Given : T = 25 N-m = 25 × 103 N-mm ; n = 4; Rp = 30 mm ;  = 30 MPa =

30 N/mm2. We know that the shearing load carried by flange coupling,

𝑇 25000
𝑃𝑠 = = = 833.3 𝑁
𝑅𝑝 30

Let dc = Core diameter of the bolt.

Resisting load on the bolts

𝜋 𝜋
= (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜏𝑥𝑛 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 30𝑥4 = 94.26(𝑑𝑐 )2
4 4
833.3
(𝑑𝑐 )2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑐 = 2.97 𝑚𝑚
94.26
From Table 1 (coarse series), we find that the standard core diameter of the bolt is 3.141
mm and the corresponding size of the bolt is M 4.

6. A lever loaded safety valve has a diameter of 100 mm and the blow-off pressure is 1.6
N/mm2. The fulcrum of the lever is screwed into the cast iron body of the cover. Find
the diameter of the threaded part of the fulcrum if the permissible tensile stress is limited
to 50 MPa and the leverage ratio is 8.

Solution. Given: D = 100 mm; p = 1.6 N/mm2; σt = 50 MPa = 50 N/mm2

We know that the load acting on the valve,

𝜋 𝜋
F = area x pressure = 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥 𝑝 = 𝑥 1002 𝑥 1.6 = 12568 𝑁
4 4
Since the leverage is 8, therefore load at the end of the lever,

12568
𝑊= = 1571 𝑁
8
Load on the fulcrum,

𝑃 = 𝐹 – 𝑊 = 12 568 – 1571 = 10 997 𝑁

Let dc = Core diameter of the threaded part.

Resisting load on the threaded part of the fulcrum,

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𝜋 𝜋
10997 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 𝜎𝑡 = (𝑑𝑐 )2 50 = 39.3(𝑑𝑐 )2
4 4
From Table 1 (fine series), we find that the standard core diameter is 18.376 mm and
the corresponding size of the bolt is M 20 × 1.5.

3.3.12. Elastic analysis of bolted joints

A bolted assembly of two components is shown in Fig. 1. Initially, the nut is tightened by means
of a Spanner, which results in tensile stress in the bolt. It is assumed that the stress is within the
elastic limit and obeys Hooke’s law. The stiffness of the component k’ is given by,

𝑃 𝐴𝐸
𝑘′ = =
𝛿 𝑙
(1)
The stiffness of the bolt is given by,

𝜋 𝐸
𝑘 ′𝑏 = ( 𝑑2 ) (2)
4 𝑙

where, k b' = stiffness of the bolt (N/mm)

d = nominal diameter of the bolt (mm)

l = total thickness of parts held together by the bolt (mm)

There are two components in the grip of the bolt, which act as two compression springs in
series. Their combined stiffness ( k c' ) is given by

𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
′
= ′ + ′
𝑘𝑐 𝑘1 𝑘2

Where, ( k1' ) and ( k 2' ) are the stiffness of the two parts. It is difficult to predict the area of the
two components, that is compressed by the bolt head and the nut. As shown in the figure, it is
assumed that an annular area with (3d) and (d) as outer and inner diameters respectively, is
under the grip of the bolt.
𝜋
𝐴= [(3𝑑)2 − (𝑑 2 ) = 2𝜋𝑑 2
4
𝐴𝐸 𝐸
𝑘 ′1 = 𝑘 ′ 2 = = 2𝜋𝑑 2
𝑙 𝑙

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Fig. 1. Bolted joint in tension

When the nut is initially tightened, the bolt is subjected to an initial tension, which is called as
pre-load ( Pi ). Under the action of pre-load, the bolt is elongated by an amount (δb) and the two
parts are compressed by an amount (δc); thus

𝑃𝑖
𝛿𝑏 =
𝑘′𝑏

𝑃𝑖
𝛿𝑐 =
𝑘′𝑐

The force-deflection diagram is shown in Fig. 2. Line OA indicates the elongation of the bolt,
while line CA shows the compression of the parts. The slope of the line is negative because of
the compressive force. When the parts are clamped and put into service, they are subjected to
an external force P.

The effects of the external force are as follows:

(i)The bolt is further elongated by an amount (∆δ)

and, consequently, the bolt load is further
increased by an amount (∆P). This deformation
is indicated by the line AB.

(ii) The compression of the two parts is relieved

by the same amount (∆δ) and there is a
corresponding reduction in load. The reduction in
load is (P - ∆P). This deformation is shown by the
line AD.

∆𝑃
𝑘′𝑏 =
∆𝛿

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𝑃 − ∆𝑃
𝑘′𝑐 =
∆𝛿
Dividing the expression (d) by (e) and rearranging the terms, we have

𝑘′𝑏
∆𝑃 = 𝑃( ′ )
𝑘 𝑏 + 𝑘′𝑐

The resultant load on the bolt, i.e. (pb) is given by,

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑏 + ∆𝑃

Referring back to Fig. 2, as the external load is further increased, the deformation of the bolt
will further continue on line OB. The limiting point is M, where the compression of the two
parts becomes zero. At this point, the joint will begin to open, since the parts can no longer
expand to maintain the tight joint. From similar triangles,

𝐴𝐺 𝑀𝐶
=
𝑂𝐺 𝑂𝐶
𝑃𝑖 (𝑃𝑏)𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑏 + 𝛿𝑐

𝛿𝑏 + 𝛿𝑐
(𝑃𝑏)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝑖 ( )
𝛿𝑐

Substituting expressions (b) and (c) in the above expression,

𝑘′𝑏 + 𝑘′𝑐
(𝑃𝑏)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝑖 ( )
𝑘′𝑐

We will rewrite Eq.

𝑘′𝑏
∆𝑃 = 𝑃 ( )
𝑘′𝑏 + 𝑘′𝑐

Dividing numerator and denominator of the right-hand side of above expression by ( k b' ),

1
∆𝑃 = 𝑃 ( )
1 + 𝑘′𝑐 /𝑘′𝑏

 '
Suppose, a = ratio of stiffness of connected parts to stiffness of the bolt k c k b
'

Substituting in (f),
1
∆𝑃 = 𝑃 ( )
1+𝑎
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑖 + ∆𝑃

We will consider expressions (g) and (h) regarding two cases, viz, soft gasket and hard gasket.

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Case I. Soft gasket:

When the gasket is too soft, ( k c' ) is too small compared with ( k b' )
𝑘′𝑐
𝑎= ′ =0
𝑘𝑏
1
∆𝑃 = 𝑃 ( )=𝑃
1+𝑎
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑖 + ∆𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃

Therefore, the resultant load on the bolt is sum initial tension and external load.

Case II Hard gasket:

When the gasket is too hard, ( k c' ) is too large compared with ( k b' )
𝑘′𝑐
𝑎= ′ =∞
𝑘𝑏
1
∆𝑃 = 𝑃 ( )=0
1+𝑎
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑖 + ∆𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖 + 0 = 𝑃𝑖

Therefore, the resultant load on the bolt is initial tension only. However, in rare cases the
external load (P) is more than initial tension (Pi). In such cases, the resultant load on the bolt is
taken as an external load only.

Examples
1. Two circular plates with (2d) and (d) as outer and inner
diameters respectively, are clamped together by means of
a bolt as shown in Fig. 3. The bolt is made of plain carbon
steel 45C8 (Syt = 380 N/mm2 and E = 207 000 N/mm2),
while the plates are made of aluminum (E = 71000
N/mm2) The initial pre-load in the bolt is 5 kN and the
external force acting on the bolted joint is 10 kN.
Determine the size of the bolt, if the factor of safety is 2.5.

From Eq. (1),

𝜋 𝐸 𝜋 207000
𝑘 ′ 𝑏 = ( 𝑑2) = ( 𝑑2) = (3251.55 d2 ) N/mm
4 𝑙 4 50
The area Ac of the two plates is given by,
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴𝑐 = 4 (2𝑑)2 − 4 (𝑑)2 = 2.356(𝑑)2 𝑚𝑚2

The combined stiffness ( k c' ) of the two plates is given

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′
𝐴𝑐 𝐸𝑐 2.356(𝑑)2 𝑥 71000
𝑘 𝑐 = = = 3345.52(𝑑)2
𝑙 50
From Eq. (4),

1
∆𝑃 = 𝑃 ( )
1 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑐 /𝑘 ′ 𝑏

3345.52(𝑑)2
= 10000 𝑥 = 4928.78 𝑁
3251.55 d2 + 3345.52(𝑑)2

𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑖 + ∆𝑃 = 5000 + 4928.78 = 9928.78 𝑁

The bolt is subjected to tensile stresses and the tensile stress area A of the bolt is given
by,

𝑃𝑏 𝑆𝑦𝑡
=
𝐴 𝑓𝑠

9958.78 380
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 65.32 𝑚𝑚2
𝐴 2.5
From the standard Table of metric screw threads, a bolt with threads M12 (A = 84.3
mm2) is suitable for this joint.

2. A bolted assembly of two components is shown in Fig. 3.

Initially, the nut is tightened by means of a spanner to
induce a pre-load of 2.5 kN in the bolt. The external force
P acting on the assembly is 5 kN. The bolt with coarse
threads is made of plain carbon steel 30C8 (Syt =
400N/mm2) and the factor of safety is 2.5. The effective
stiffness of the parts held together by the bolt is 2.5 times
the stiffness of the bolt. Specify the size of the bolt.

Solution: k c' = 2.5 k b'

1
∆𝑃 = 𝑃 ( )
1 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑐 /𝑘 ′ 𝑏
𝑘′𝑏
= 5000 𝑥 = 1428.57 N
𝑘 ′ 𝑏 +2.5𝑘 ′ 𝑏

𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑖 + ∆𝑃 = 2500 + 1428.57 = 3928.57 N

The tensile stress area A of the bolt is given by,

𝑃𝑏 𝑆𝑦𝑡
=
𝐴 𝑓𝑠

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3928.57 400
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 24.55 𝑚𝑚2
𝐴 2.5
From the standard Table of metric screw threads, a bolt with threads M8 (A = 36.6 mm2)
is suitable for this application.

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CHAPTER 4
TORQUE TRANSMITTING JOINTS
4.1. Introduction
So that parts may rotate together with the shafts or axles on which they are mounted, use is
made of keys, splines, pins, fits etc.; All these change the original geometry of the shafts and
axles and give rise to stress concentration. Interference fits result in radial pressures on the
mounting surfaces, which are non-uniformly distributed over the hub length. These joints will
be discussed in detail as follows.

4.2. Keys
A key can be defined as a machine element that is used to connect the transmission shaft to
rotating machine elements like a pulley, gear; sprocket, or flywheel. A keyed joint consisting
of shaft, hub and key is illustrated in Fig. 1. There are two basic functions of the key. They are
as follows:

i. The primary function of the key is to transmit the torque from the shaft to the hub of the
mating element and vice versa.
ii. The second function of the key is to prevent relative rotational motion between the shaft
and the joined machine element like gear or pulley.

In most of the cases, key also prevents axial motion between two elements, except in case of
feather key or splined connection.

Fig.1. Key joint

A recess or slot machined either on the shaft or in the hub to accommodate the key is called the
keyway. The keyway is usually cut by vertical or horizontal milling cutter. The keyway results
in stress concentration in the shaft and the part becomes weak. This is the main drawback of
the key joint. Keys are made of plain carbon steels like 45C8 or 50C8 to withstand shear and
compressive stresses resulting from the transmission of torque. According to IS, steel of tensile
strength not less than 600 N/mm2 shall be used as the material for the key.

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4.2.1. Types of Keys

Many types of keys are available and several standards specify the dimensions of the key. There
are different ways to classify the keys. Some of them are as follows:

i. Saddle key and sunk key;

ii. Square key and flat key;
iii. Taper key and parallel key; and
iv. Key with and without Gib-head.

Also, there are special types of keys such as Woodruff key, Kennedy key or feather key. The
selection of the type of key for a given application depends upon the following factors:

i. power to be transmitted;
ii. tightness of fit;
iii. stability of connection; and
iv. cost.

In this chapter, only popular types of key are discussed.

Saddle keys

A saddle key is a key that fits in the keyway of the hub only. In this case there is no keyway on
the shaft. There are two types of saddle key, namely, hollow and flat, as shown in Fig. 2. A
hollow saddle key has a concave surface at the bottom to match the circular surface of the shaft.
A flat saddle key has a flat surface at the bottom and it sits on the flat surface machined on the
shaft. In both types of saddle key, friction between shaft, key, and hub prevents relative motion
between the shaft and the hub. The power is transmitted by means of friction. Therefore, saddle
keys are suitable for light-duty or low power transmission as compared with sunk keys.

The resistance to slip in case of a flat key is slightly more than that of the hollow key with a
concave surface. Therefore, the flat saddle key is slightly superior to the hollow saddle key as
far as power transmitting capacity is concerned.

Saddle key requires keyway only on the hub. Therefore, the cost of the saddle key joint is less
than that of the sunk key joint. This is the main advantage of the saddle key. The disadvantage
of saddle key is its low power transmitting capacity. Saddle key is liable to slip around the shaft
when subjected to heavy torque. Therefore, it cannot be used in medium and heavy-duty
applications.

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Fig.2. (a) Hollow Saddle Key (b) Flat Saddle Key

Sunk keys

A sunk key is a key, in which half the thickness of the key fits into the keyway on the shaft and
the remaining half in the keyway on the hub. Therefore, keyways are required both on the shaft
as well as the hub of the mating element. This is a standard form of key and may be either of
rectangular or square cross-section, as shown in Fig. 2. The standard dimensions of square and
rectangular cross-section sunk keys are given in Table1. In sunk key, power is transmitted due
to shear resistance of the key. The relative motion between the shaft and the hub is also
prevented by the shear resistance of the key. Therefore, sunk key is suitable for heavy-duty
application, since there is no possibility of the key to slip around the shaft. It is a positive drive.
This is the main advantage of the sunk key over the saddle key. However, it is necessary to cut
keyways both on the shaft and the hub. Therefore, the cost of the sunk key joint is more than
that of the saddle key joint.

Fig. 3 Sunk keys with square or rectangular cross-section

Flat keys

Sunk keys with square or rectangular cross-section are widely used in practice. Sunk key with
rectangular cross-section is called flat key. The flat key has more stability as compared with the
square key.

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Flat keys are more suitable for machine tool applications, where additional stability of the
connection is desirable.

Table 1. Dimensions of square and rectangular sunk keys (in mm)

Square keys

Square keys are used in general industrial machinery. Selecting the square key without stress
analysis, following rule of thumb may be used in industries. “The industrial practice is to use a
square key with sides equal to one-quarter of the shaft diameter and length at least 1.5 times the
shaft diameter.”

or, 𝑏 = ℎ = 𝑑/4 and 𝑙 = 1.5𝑑

where,

b = width of key (mm)

h = height or thickness of key (mm)

𝑙 = length of key (mm)

𝑑 = diameter of shaft (mm)

For flat key, the thumb-rule dimensions are as follows:

𝑏 = 𝑑/4, ℎ = 2𝑏/3 = 𝑑/6, 𝑙 = 1.5𝑑

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Parallel key

A parallel key is a sunk key which is uniform in width as well as height throughout the length
of the key. The parallel sunk key may be of rectangular or square section uniform in width and
thickness throughout. It may be noted that a parallel key is a taper-less and is used where the
pulley, gear or other mating piece is required to slide along the shaft.

Taper key

A taper key is uniform in width but tapered in height. The standard taper is1 in 100. The bottom
surface of the key is straight and the top surface is given a taper. The taper is provided for the
following two reasons:

I. When the key is inserted in the keyways of the shaft and the hub and pressed by
means of a hammer, it becomes tight due to wedge action. This ensures the
tightness of the joint in operating conditions and prevents loosening of the parts.
Due to taper, it is easy to remove the key and dismantle the joint.
II. The taper of the key is on one side. Machining taper on two sides of the key is
more difficult than making taper on one side. Also, there is no specific advantage
of taper on two sides.

Gib-head keys

It is a rectangular sunk key with a head at one end known as gib head. It is usually provided to
facilitate the removal of key. A gib head key is shown in Fig. 3 (a) and its use is shown in Fig.
3 (b).

Fig. 3 Gib-head key

Feather key

A feather key is a parallel key that is fixed either to the shaft or the hub and that permits relative
axial movement between them. Figure 4 shows a feather key, which is fixed to the shaft by
means of two cap screws, having countersunk-heads.

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Fig. 4. Feather Key

The feather key transmits the torque and at the same time permits some axial movement of the
hub. Feather keys are used where the parts mounted on the shaft are required to slide along the
shaft such as clutches or gear shifting devices. It is an alternative to a splined connection.

Woodruff key

A Woodruff key is a sunk key, in the form of an almost semi-circular disk of uniform thickness
as shown in Fig. 5. The keyway in the shaft is in the form of a semi-circular recess with the
same curvature as that of the key. The bottom portion of the Woodruff key fits into a circular
keyway in the shaft. The keyway in the hub is made in the usual manner.

Fig. 5 Woodruff key

The advantages of the Woodruff key are as follows:

i. The Woodruff key can be used on the tapered shaft because it can be aligned by slight
rotation in the seat.
ii. The extra depth of key in the shaft prevents its tendency to slip over the shaft.

The disadvantages of the Woodruff key are as follows:

i. The extra depth of the keyway in the shaft increases stress concentration and reduces its
strength.
ii. The key does not permit axial movement between the shaft and the hub.

Woodruff Keys are used on tapered shafts in machine tools and automobiles.

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4.3. Design of square and flat keys

Although there are many types of keys, only square and flat keys are extensively used in
practice. Therefore, the discussion in this chapter is restricted to square and flat keys. A square
key is a particular type of flat key, in which the height is equal to the width of the cross-section.
Therefore, for analysis, a flat key is considered.

The forces acting on a flat key, with width as b and height as ℎ, are shown in Fig. 6. The
transmission of torque from the shaft to the hub results in two equal and opposite forces denoted
by P. The torque Mt is transmitted by means of a force P acting on the left surface AC of the
key. The equal and opposite force F, acting on the right surface DB of the key is the reaction of
the hub on the key. It is observed that force P on left surface AC and its equal and opposite
reaction P on right surface DB are not in the same plane. Therefore, forces P’(P’ = P) act as a
resisting couple preventing the key to roll in the keyway.

Fig. 6 Square Key

The exact location of force P on surface AC is unknown. To simplify the analysis, it is assumed
that the force P is tangential to the shaft diameter.

Therefore,
Mt 2M t
P 
d 2 d …(a)

where,

Mt = transmitted torque (N-mm)

d = shaft diameter (mm)

P = force on key (N)

The design of the square or flat key is based on two criteria, viz, failure due to shear stresses
and failure due to compressive stresses. The shear failure will occur in plane AB. It is illustrated
in Fig. 7 (a). The shear stress  in the plane AB is given by,

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P P
   …(b)
Area of plane AB bl
where,

b = width of key (mm) and l = length of key (mm)

From (a) and (b),

2M t …(i)

dbl

The failure due to compressive stresses will occur on surfaces AC or DB. The crushing area
between shaft and key is shown in Fig. 7 (b). It is assumed that,

AC  BD  h 2
where, h = height of key (mm)

The compressive stress σc in the key is given by,

𝑃 𝑃 2𝑝
𝜎𝑐 = = = …(c)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑐 𝐴𝐶 (ℎ/2)𝑙 ℎ𝑙

From (a) and (c),

2𝑀𝑡 …(ii)
𝜎𝑐 =
𝑑ℎ𝑙

Fig. 7. Failure of Key (a) Shear Failure (b) Crushing Failure

Equations (i) and (ii) are stress equations of flat key.

For square key, ℎ = 𝑏

Substituting above relationship in Eqs (i) and (ii),

2𝑀𝑡
𝜏= …(iii)
𝑑𝑏𝑙
4𝑀𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = …(iv)
𝑑𝑏𝑙
From (iii) and (iv), 𝜎𝑐 = 2𝜏

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Therefore, the compressive stress induced in a square key due to the transmitted torque is twice
of shear stress.

Examples

1. It is required to design a square key for fixing a gear on a shaft of 25 mm diameter The
shaft is transmitting 15 kW power at 720 rpm to the gear. The key is made of steel 50C4
(Syt = 460 N/mm2) and the factor of safety is 3. For key material the yield strength in
compression can be assumed to be equal to the yield strength in tension. Determine the
dimensions of the key

Solution: For the key material,

𝑆𝑦𝑐 = 𝑆𝑦𝑡 = 460 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑆𝑦𝑐 460
𝜎𝑐 = = = 153.33 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑓𝑠 3

According to maximum shear stress theory of failure,

𝑆𝑠𝑦 = 0.5𝑆𝑦𝑡 = 0.5(460) = 230 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑆𝑠𝑦 230
𝜏= = = 76.67 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑓𝑠 3
The torque transmitted by the shaft is given by,

60𝑥106 (𝑘𝑊) 60𝑥106 (15)

𝑀𝑡 = = = 198943.68 𝑁𝑚𝑚
2𝜋𝑛 2𝜋(720)

The industrial practice is to use a square key with sides equal to one-quarter of the shaft
diameter. Therefore,

𝑑 25
𝑏=ℎ= = = 6.25 𝑜𝑟 6𝑚𝑚
4 4
From equation (i)

2𝑀𝑡 2(198943.68)
𝑙= = = 34.60 𝑚𝑚
𝜏𝑑𝑏 (76.67)(25)(6)

From equation (ii)

4𝑀𝑡 4(198943.68)
𝑙= = = 34.60 𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝑐 𝑑𝑏 (153.33)(25)(6)

From (a) and (b), the length of the key should be 35 mm.

The dimensions of the key are 6 x 6 x 35 mm.

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2. The standard cross-section for a fiat key, which is fitted on a 50mm diameter shaft, is
16 x 10 mm. The key is transmitting 475 N-m torque from the shaft to the hub. The key
is made of commercial steel (Syt = Syc = 230 N/mm2), Determine the length of the key,
if the factor of safety is 3.

𝑆𝑦𝑐 230
𝜎𝑐 = = = 76.67 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑓𝑠 3

According to maximum shear stress theory of failure,

𝑆𝑠𝑦 = 0.5𝑆𝑦𝑡 = 0.5(230) = 115 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑆𝑠𝑦 115
𝜏= = = 38.33 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑓𝑠 3

From equation (i)

2𝑀𝑡 2(475000)
𝑙= = = 30.98 𝑚𝑚
𝜏𝑑𝑏 (38.33)(50)(16)

From equation (ii)

4𝑀𝑡 4(475000)
𝑙= = = 30.98 𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝑐 𝑑𝑏 (76.67)(50)(10)

From (a) and (b), the length of the key should be 35 mm.

4.4. Splines
Splines are keys that are made integral with the shaft. They are used when there is a relative
axial motion between the shaft and the hub. The gear shifting mechanism in automobile
gearboxes requires such type of construction. Splines are cut on the shaft by milling and on the
hub by broaching. A splined connection, with straight splines, is shown in Fig. 8. Following
notations are used:

D = major diameter of splines (mm)

d = minor diameter of splines (mm)

l = length of hub (mm)

n = number of splines

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Fig. 8 Splines key a) external b) internal

The torque transmitting capacity of splines is given by,

𝑀𝑡 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐴𝑅𝑚

where,

Mt = transmitted torque (N-mm)

Pm = permissible pressure on spline (N/mm2)

A = total area of splines (mm2)

Rm = mean radius of splines (mm)

The area A is given by,

1
𝐴 = (𝐷 − 𝑑)𝑙𝑛
2
𝐷+𝑑
𝑅𝑚 =
4
Substituting the above values in Eq. (a),

1
𝑀𝑡 = 𝑝𝑚 𝑙𝑛(𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 )
8
The permissible pressure on the splines is limited to 6.5 N/mm2.

The above analysis and Fig. 8 refer to straight-sided splines. Besides, there are two other
types of splines: involute splines and serrations, as shown in Fig. 9.

(i) Involute Splines: Involute splines are in the form of concentric external and internal gear
teeth. They are stub teeth with a pressure angle of 300. These splines are specified by the
module. Involute splines are more popular than straight splines due to greater strength relative
to their size. Involute splines are self-centering and tend to adjust to an even distribution of
load. However, the cost of the involute splines is more than straight-sided splines.

(ii) Serrations: Straight-sided serrations are used in applications where it is important to keep
the overall size of the assembly as small as possible. They are used as interference joints.

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Serration joints are also used to obtain small angular relative adjustment between the joined
members.

Fig. 9. Types of Spline Profile

Examples
3. A standard splined connection 8 x 52 x 60 mm is used for the gear and the shaft assembly
of a gearbox. The splines transmit 20 kW power at 300 rpm. The dimensions of the
splines are as follows:

Major diameter = 60 mm

Minor diameter = 52 mm

Number of splines = 8

Permissible normal pressure on splines is 6,5 N/mm2.

The coefficient of friction is 0.06. Calculate:

(i) The length of hub of the gear

(ii) The force required for shifting the gear.

Solution: The torque transmitted by the shaft is given by,

60𝑥106 (𝑘𝑊) 60𝑥106 (20)

𝑀𝑡 = = = 636619.76 𝑁𝑚𝑚
2𝜋𝑛 2𝜋(300)

From Eq. (v),

8𝑀𝑡 8(636619.76)
𝑙= = = 109.31 = 110 𝑚𝑚
𝑝𝑚 ln(𝐷 − 𝑑 ) (6.5)(8)602 − 522 )
2 2

Due to torque Mt, a normal force P acts on the splines. It is assumed that the force P acts
at the mean radius of the splines. Therefore,

𝑀𝑡 = 𝑃𝑅𝑚

𝐷 + 𝑑 60 + 52
𝑅𝑚 = = = 28 𝑚𝑚
4 4

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Substituting the above value in Eq. (a),

𝑀𝑡 636619.76
𝑃= = 22736.42 𝑁
𝑅𝑚 28

Friction force = µ𝑃 = 0.06(22736.42) = 1364.19 𝑁

The force required to shift the gear is equal and opposite of the friction force. Therefore,
the force required to shift the gear is 1364.19 N.

4.5. Interference-Fit Joints

Interference-fit joints depend for their operation on friction developed between the mating
surfaces. The necessary normal pressure between the two surfaces is obtained due to elastic
deformations undergone by the mating parts during assembly. To this end, an adequate amount
of interference is created in the course of manufacture. By an interference is meant the negative
difference in diameter between the hole in the hub (Fig. 1a) and the shaft (Fig. 1b). The
frictional forces (Ffr in N) arising when the two parts are forced together (Fig. 1c) prevent the
parts from relative displacement and enable the joint to resist both twisting and axial loads. For
this to take place, the following condition must be satisfied

𝐹𝑓𝑟 ≥ 𝐾√(103 𝑥2𝑇/𝑑)2 + 𝐹𝑎2

where 𝐾 = 1.5 to 2 is the grip safety factor; T is the transmitted torque (Nm); d is the mounted
surface diameter (mm), and Fa is the axial force (N).

Fig. 9 interference-fit

4.5.1. Application of interference fit joints

Interference-fit joints are widely used to connect gear rings to hubs, hubs to shafts, carriers to
planet axes and shafts, etc. They permit easy assembly, ensure good alignment, but give rise to
appreciable stress concentration. Also, they are very sensitive to poor workmanship, the actual
amount of interference being nearly always different from the theoretical value. This adversely
affects the load-carrying capacity of the joint, so selective assembly is often required.

4.5.2. Types of interference fits

There are three types of interference fits in use by the industry today. They are:

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a) a shrink fit, where the outer member is heated, slipped onto the inner member, and the
grip is secured by contraction of the outer member on cooling;
b) an expansion fit, wherein the inner member is cooled, slipped into the outer member,
and the grip is secured by the expansion of the inner member when the assembly attains
room temperature;
c) a force or press-fit, produced by pressing a shaft into a smaller hole. The necessary
pressure is developed hydraulically.

Owing to their low cost and ease of manufacture, press fits are used most commonly. However,
they suffer from grave shortcomings, in particular crushing and scouring of the contact surfaces
and non-uniform deformation of the parts being joined. As compared with shrink or expansion
fits, the latter factor may reduce the strength of a press-fit assembly to two-thirds of its normal
value.

The above drawbacks are nonexistent in shrink fits (where the hub is heated to a temperature
of 200 to 400°C) and expansion fits (where the shaft is cooled in dry ice (solid carbon dioxide
at -80°C or in liquid air at about -200°C) which, however, have disadvantages of their own. In
shrink fits, for example, the metal may undergo structural changes, scale may be raised, or the
parts being fitted together may warp during heating. Being free from these shortcomings,
expansion fits are finding ever-increasing application with progress in cryogenic engineering.

To design an interference-fit joint means primarily to choose the type of it that would guarantee
the transmission of a specified load.

When they are fitted together, the mating parts undergo diametral deformation equal to the
amount of interference δ created during manufacture

𝛿 = 𝑑𝐵 − 𝑑𝐴

where dB and dA are the diameters of the inner and outer members (shaft and hub hole,
respectively) in mm. The pressure p (MPa) exerted on the mating surfaces is given by the Lamé
formula

𝛿
𝑝=
(𝐶𝐵 /𝐸𝐵 + 𝐶𝐴 /𝐸𝐴 )

where d is the common diameter (mm); EB and EA are the elastic moduli of the inner and outer
members (MPa); CB and CA are the Lamé constants for the inner and outer parts

𝐶𝐵 = (𝑑 2 + 𝑑12 )/(𝑑2 − 𝑑12 ) − µ𝐵

𝐶𝐴 = (𝑑22 + 𝑑2 +)/(𝑑22 − 𝑑 2 ) + µ𝐴

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µB and µA are the Poisson’s ratios for the inner and outer members; d1 is the diameter of the
hole in the shaft; and d2 is the outside diameter of the hub.

When the parts are fitted together, their surface irregularities are cut flush, so the effective
interference δ becomes smaller than the measured value 𝛿𝑚 :

𝛿 = 𝛿𝑚 − 1.2(𝑅𝑧𝐵 + 𝑅𝑧𝐴 )103

where RzB and RzA are the total heights of peak and valleys on the mating surfaces (µm).

In expansion and shrink fits, 𝛿 = 𝛿𝑚

The pressure exerted on the mating surfaces should be such that the resulting frictional force
exceeds the applied load

𝐹𝑓𝑟
𝑝=
𝜋𝑑𝑙𝑓

where I is the length of the mounting surface and f is the coefficient of friction (for steel
members, it is taken as 0.06 to 0.22 with force fits and 0.08 to 0.19 with shrink and expansion
fits).

In designing an interference-fit joint according to the condition in Eq. (i), we determine, as a

point of departure, the required frictional force Ffr. Then, we find the necessary pressure p from
Eq. (iv), the design interference δ from Eq. (ii), and the measured (actual) interference δm from
Eq. (iii). Finally, we consult appropriate tables to choose a suitable standard fit for which

𝛿 ≥ 𝛿𝑚

The shaft and hub making up an interference-fit joint should be checked for strength. Here, the
hub is loaded to a greater extent than the shaft. The maximum safe amount of interference (mm)
at which the outer part will not undergo plastic deformation is given by

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛿
𝛿𝑎𝑥𝑚 =
𝑃
Where

𝑑 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.5𝜎𝑦𝐴 [1 − (𝑑 ) ]being the yield strength of the hub material (MPa).
2

The force (N) necessary to make a press-fit joint is

𝐹𝑝 = 𝜋𝑑𝑙𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓

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Example

1. Determine the parameters of a press-fit joint for a gear wheel and a shaft , using the
following data: torque T = 5 x 102 N m; axial force Fa = 715 N; common diameter of
the shaft and hub d = 50 mm; outside diameter of the hub d2 = 80 mm; the shaft is solid,
d1 = 0; hub length l = 56 mm; yield strength of the shaft and hub material (steel 0.40C-
Cr) σy = 500 MPa; maximum surface roughness Ra1 = Ra2 = 1.25 µm; elastic modulus
E = 2.2 x 10 MPa; Poisson’s ratio µB = 0.3; coefficient of friction f = 0.1.

Solution

a. According to Eq. (i), the required frictional force is

𝐹𝑓𝑟 ≥ 𝐾√(103 𝑥2𝑇/𝑑)2 + 𝐹𝑎2 = 3𝑥104 𝑁

where 𝐾 = 1.5 is the grip safety factor.

b. Use Eq. (iv), to compute the required pressure

𝑝 = 𝐹𝑓𝑟 /(𝜋𝑑𝑙𝑓) = 34 MPa

Calculate the effective interference from Eq. (ii)

𝛿 = 𝑝𝑑(𝐶𝐵 /𝐸𝐵 + 𝐶𝐴 /𝐸𝐴 ) = 0.025 𝑚𝑚

Here, the Lamé constants are CB = 1- µB= 0.7, and

𝐶𝐴 = (𝑑22 + 𝑑2 +)/(𝑑22 − 𝑑 2 ) + µ𝐴 = 2.58

c. Determine the measured interference, using Eq. (iii)

𝛿𝑚 = 𝛿 + 1.2(𝑅𝑧𝐵 + 𝑅𝑧𝐴 )103 = 0.040 𝑚𝑚

Here, the height of the surface irregularities is

𝑅𝑧𝐵 = 𝑅𝑧𝐴 = 5𝑅𝐴 = 6.25 µ𝑚.

d. Enter standard tables with d = 50 mm to choose a standard fit (Ø50 H7/s6)

having a minimum interference δmin = 0.043 mm and a maximum interference
δmax = 0.084 mm.
e. Check the mating parts for strength. The maximum pressure at which the hub
will still be free from plastic deformation is
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.5𝜎𝑦𝐴 [1 − (𝑑/𝑑2 )2 ] = 152 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The respective maximum interference is

𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛿/𝑝 = 0.112 𝑚𝑚

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The hub strength is ensured because δmax <  max

f. The force necessary to make the press-fit joint is

𝐹𝑝 = 𝜋𝑑𝑙𝑝𝑓 = 29900 𝑁

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CHAPTER 5
PRESSURE VESSELS
5.1. Introduction
The cylindrical pressure vessels are divided into two groups - thin and thick cylinders. A
cylinder is considered thin when the ratio of its inner diameter to the wall thickness is more
than 15. Boiler shells, pipes, tubes, and storage tanks are treated as thin cylinders.

When the ratio of the inner diameter of the cylinder to the wall thickness is less than 15, the
cylinder is called a thick-walled cylinder or simply thick cylinder. Hydraulic cylinders, high-
pressure pipes and gun barrels are examples of thick cylinders [13].

The difference between the analysis of stresses in thin and thick cylinders is as follows:

i. In thin cylinders, it is assumed that the tangential stress (𝜎𝑡 ) is uniformly distributed
over the cylinder wall thickness.
ii. In thick cylinders, the tangential stress (𝜎𝑡 ) has the highest magnitude at the inner
surface of the cylinder and gradually decreases towards the outer surface.

The radial stress (𝜎𝑟 ) is neglected in thin cylinders, while it is of significant magnitude in case
of thick cylinders

5.2. Thin cylindrical vessel subjected to internal pressure

Fig. 1 shows a thin cylindrical vessel in which a fluid under pressure is stored.

Fig. 1 Cylindrical vessel

On account of the internal pressure p, the cylindrical vessel may fail by splitting up in any one
of the two ways as shown in Fig. 2 (a) and 2 (b).

The forces, due to pressure of the fluid acting vertically upwards and downwards on the thin
cylinder, tend to burst the cylinder as shown in Fig. 2 (a).

The forces, due to pressure of the fluid, acting at the ends of the thin cylinder, tend to burst the
thin cylinder as shown in Fig. 2 (b).

Let d = Internal diameter of the thin cylinder

t = Thickness of the wall of the cylinder

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p = Internal pressure of the fluid

L = Length of the cylinder.

Fig. 2 Cross section of cylindrical vessel

profilesectionaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
5.3. Stresses in a thin cylindrical vessel subjected to internal pressure
When a thin cylindrical vessel is subjected to internal fluid pressure, the stresses in the

wall of the cylinder on the cross-section along the axis and on the cross-section perpendicular
to the axis are set up. These stresses are tensile and are known as

1. Circumferential stress (or hoop stress) and

2. Longitudinal stress.

The name of the stress, is given according to the direction in which the stress is acting. The
stress acting along the circumference of the cylinder is called circumferential stress whereas the
stress acting along the length of the cylinder (i.e., in the longitudinal direction) is known as
longitudinal stress. The circumferential stress is also known as hoop stress. The stress set up in
Fig. 2 (a) is circumferential stress whereas the stress set up in Fig. 2 (b) is longitudinal.

5.4. Expression for circumferential stress (or hoop stress)

Consider a thin cylindrical vessel subjected to internal fluid pressure. The circumferential stress
will be set up in the material of the cylinder, if the bursting of the cylinder takes place as shown
in Fig. 3 (a).

The expression for hoop stress or circumferential stress is obtained as given below.

Let p = Internal pressure of fluid

d = Internal diameter of the cylinder

t = Thickness of the wall of the cylinder

𝜎𝑡 = Circumferential or hoop stress in the material.

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Fig. 3 Cylindrical vessel

The bursting will take place if the force due to fluid pressure is more than the resisting force
due to circumferential stress set up in the material. In the limiting case, the two forces should
be equal.

Force due to fluid pressure = p x Area on which p is acting

= 𝑝 𝑥 (𝑑 𝑥 𝐿) (i)

(p is acting on projected area d x L)

Force due to circumferential stress

= 𝜎𝑡 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝜎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

= 𝜎𝑡 𝑥 (𝐿 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑥 𝑡)

= 𝜎𝑡 𝑥 2𝐿𝑡 = 2𝜎𝑡 𝑥 𝐿 𝑥 𝑡 (ii)

Equating (i) and (ii), we get

𝑝 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥 𝐿 = 2𝜎𝑡 𝑥 𝐿 𝑥 𝑡

pd
𝜎𝑡 =
2t
This stress is tensile as shown in Fig. 3 (b).

5.5. Expression for longitudinal stress

Consider a thin cylindrical vessel subjected to internal fluid pressure. The longitudinal stress
will be set up in the material of the cylinder, if the bursting of the cylinder takes place along the
section AB of Fig. 4 (a).

Let p = Internal pressure of fluid stored in thin cylinder

d = Internal diameter of cylinder

t = Thickness of the cylinder

𝜎𝐿 = Longitudinal stress in the material.

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The bursting will take place if the force due to fluid pressure acting on the ends of the cylinder
is more than the resisting force due to longitudinal stress σL developed in the material as shown
in Fig. 4 (b). In the limiting case, both the forces should be equal.

Force due to fluid pressure = p x Area on which p is acting


= p d2
4

Fig. 4 Pressure distribution

Resisting force = 𝜎𝐿 𝑥 Area on which 𝜎𝐿 is acting

= 𝜎𝐿 𝑥 𝜋𝑑 𝑥 𝑡

Hence in the limiting case

Force due to fluid pressure = Resisting force

𝜋
𝑝 𝑥 𝑑 2 = 𝜎𝐿 𝜋𝑑𝑡
4
𝜋
𝑝 𝑥 4 𝑑2 𝑝𝑑
𝜎𝐿 = =
𝜋𝑑𝑡 4𝑡
The stress σL is also tensile. Equation (2) can be written as
𝑝𝑑 1
𝜎𝐿 = = 𝜎𝑡
2 𝑥 2𝑡 2

or Longitudinal stress = Half of circumferential stress.

This also means that circumferential stress is two times the longitudinal stress (𝜎𝐿 ). Hence in
the material of the cylinder the permissible stress should be less than the circumferential stress.
Or in other words, the circumferential stress should not be greater than the permissible stress.

Maximum shear stress: At any point in the material of the cylindrical shell, there are two
𝑝𝑑
principal stresses, namely a circumferential stress of magnitude 𝜎𝑡 = acting
2𝑡

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𝑝𝑑
circumferentially and a longitudinal stress of magnitude 𝜎𝐿 = acting parallel to the axis of
4𝑡

the shell.

These two stresses are tensile and perpendicular to each other. Maximum shear stress is

𝜎𝑡 − 𝜎𝐿 𝑝𝑑
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
2 8𝑡
Note.

i. If the thickness of the thin cylinder is to be determined, then equation (1) should be
used.
ii. If maximum permissible stress in the material is given. This stress should be taken
circumferential stress (𝜎𝑡 ).
iii. While using equations (1) and (2), the units of p, σ1 and σ2 should be the same. They
should be expressed either in N/mm2 or N/m2. Also the units of d and t should be the
same. They may be in meter (m) or millimeter (mm).

Examples
1. A cylindrical pipe of diameter 1.5 m and thickness 1.5 cm is subjected to an internal
fluid pressure of 1.2 N/mm2. Determine:

(i) Longitudinal stress developed in the pipe, and

(ii) Circumferential stress developed in the pipe.

Solution: Given: Diameter of pipe, d = 1.5 m, Thickness, t = 1.5 cm = 1.5 x 10-2 m

Internal fluid pressure, p = 1.2 N/mm2

t 1.5  102 1
As the ratio   , which is less than 1/15, hence this is a case of a thin
d 1.5 100
cylinder.

Here unit pressure (p) is in N/ mm2. Hence the unit of σt and σL will also be in N/mm2.

a. The longitudinal stress (𝜎𝐿 ) is given by equation (2) as,

𝑝𝑥𝑑 1.2 𝑥 1.5

𝜎2 = = = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎
4𝑡 4 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 10−2
b. The circumferential stress(𝜎𝑡 ) is given by equation (1) as

𝑝𝑥𝑑 1.2 𝑥 1.5

𝜎1 = = = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2𝑡 2 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 10−2

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2. A cylinder of internal diameter 2.5 m and of thickness 5 cm contains a gas. If the tensile
stress in the material is not to exceed 80 N/mm2, determine the internal pressure of the
gas.

Solution: Given: Internal dia. of cylinder, d = 2.5 m, Thickness of cylinder, t = 5 cm =

5 x 10-2m, Maximum permissible stress = 80 N/mm2, As maximum permissible stress
is given. Hence this should be equal to circumferential stress(σt).

We know that the circumferential stress should not be greater than the maximum
permissible stress. Hence take circumferential stress equal to maximum permissible
stress,

𝜎𝑡 = 80 N/mm2

Let p = Internal pressure of the gas

Using equation (1),

2𝑡 𝑥 𝜎1 2 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 10−2
𝑝= = = 3.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑑 2.5
3. A cylinder of internal diameter 0.50 m contains air at a pressure of 7N/mm2 (gauge). If
the maximum permissible stress induced in the material in 80 N/mm2, find the thickness
of the cylinder.

Solution: Given: Internal dia. of cylinder, d = 0.50 m, Internal pressure of air, p = 7

N/mm2. Maximum permissible stress in the material means the circumferential stress
(σt). As stated earlier that the circumferential stress should not be greater than the
maximum permissible stress. Hence take circumferential stress equal to maximum
permissible stress. Circumferential stress, 𝜎𝑡 = 80 N/mm2

Let t = Thickness of the cylinder

Using equation (1),

𝑝𝑑 7 𝑥 0.5
𝑡= = = 2.188 𝑐𝑚
2 𝑥 𝜎1 2 𝑥 80

If the value of t is taken 2.1875 cm, the stress-induced will be 80 N/mm2. If the value
of is less than 2.1875 cm, the stress-induced will be more than 80 N/mm2. But the stress-
induced should not be more than 80 N/mm2. If the value of t is taken more than 2.1875
cm (say t = 2.188 cm), the stress-induced will be less than 80 N/mm2.

Hence take t = 2.188 cm or say 2.2 cm. Ans.

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4. A thin cylinder of internal diameter 1.25 m contains a fluid at an internal pressure of 2

N/mm2. Determine the maximum thickness of the cylinder if:

(i) The longitudinal stress is not to exceed 30 N/mm2.

(ii) The circumferential stress is not to exceed 45 N/mm2.

Solution: Given: Internal dia. of cylinder, d = 1.25 m, Internal pressure of fluid,

p = 2 N/mm2, Longitudinal stress, σL = 30 N/mm2, Circumferential stress, σt = 45

N/mm2

Using equation (1),

𝑝𝑑 2 𝑥 1.25
𝑡= = = 0.0277 𝑚
2 𝑥 𝜎1 2 𝑥 45

Using equation (2),

𝑝𝑑 2 𝑥 1.25
𝑡= = = 0.0208 𝑚
4 𝑥 𝜎2 4 𝑥 30

The longitudinal or circumferential stresses induced in the material are inversely

proportional to the thickness (t) of the cylinder. Hence the stress-induced will be less if
the value of ‘t’ is more. Hence take the maximum value of ‘t’ calculated in equations (i)
and (ii).

From the equations (i) and (ii) it is clear that t should not be less than 2.77 cm.

Take t = 2.80 cm. Ans.

5. A water main 80cm diameter contains water at a pressure head of l00m. If the weight
density of water is 9810 N/m3, find the thickness of the metal required for the water
main. Given the permissible stress as 20 N/mm2.

Solution: Given: Dia. of main, d = 80 cm, Pressure head of water, h = 100 m. Weight
density of water, w =  x g = 1,000 x 9.81 = 9810 N/m3, Permissible stress = 20 N/mm2,
Permissible stress is equal to circumferential stress (σt), or σt = 20 N/mm2

Pressure of water inside the water main,

𝑃 =  𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ = 𝑤ℎ = 9810 𝑥 100N/m2

Here σt is in N/mm2, hence pressure (p) should also be N/mm2. The value of p in N/mm2
is given as

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9810 𝑥100
𝑝= N/mm2 = 0.981N/mm2
10002 𝑚𝑚2
Let t = Thickness of the metal required.

Using equation (1),

𝑝𝑥𝑑
𝜎1 =
2𝑡
𝑝 𝑥 𝑑 0.981 𝑥 80
𝑡= = = 2 𝑐𝑚
2 𝜎1 2 𝑥 20

5.6. Efficiency of a joint

The cylindrical shells such as boilers are having two types of joints namely longitudinal joint
and circumferential joint. In the case of a joint, holes are made in the material of the shell for
the rivets. Due to the holes, the area offering resistance decreases. Due to the decrease in area,
the stress (which is equal to the force divided by the area) developed in the material of the shell
will be more.

Hence in the case of riveted shell the circumferential and longitudinal stresses are greater than
what is given by equations (1) and (2). If the efficiency of a longitudinal joint and
circumferential joint is given, then the circumferential and longitudinal stresses are obtained as:

Let 𝜂𝑙 = Efficiency of a longitudinal joint, and

𝜂𝑐 = Efficiency of the circumferential joint.

Then the circumferential stress (𝜎𝑡 ) is given as

𝑝𝑥𝑑 (3)
𝜎𝑡 =
2𝑡 𝑥 𝜂𝑙
and the longitudinal stress (𝜎𝐿 ) is given as
𝑝𝑥𝑑
𝜎𝐿 = (4)
4𝑡 𝑥 𝜂𝑐
Note.
i. In the longitudinal joint, the circumferential stress is developed whereas, in the
circumferential joint, the longitudinal stress is developed.
ii. The efficiency of a joint means the efficiency of a longitudinal joint.
iii. If efficiencies of a joint are given, the thickness of the thin shell is determined
from equation (3).

Examples
1. A boiler is subjected to an internal steam pressure of 2 N/mm2. The thickness of the
boiler plate is 2.6 cm and permissible tensile stress is 120 N/mm2. Find out the

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maximum diameter, when the efficiency of the longitudinal joint is 90% and that of the
circumferential joint is 40%.

Solution. Given: Internal steam pressure, p = 2 N/mm2, Thickness of boilerplates,

t = 2.0 cm, Permissible tensile stress = 120 N/mm2;

In the case of joints, the permissible stress may be circumferential stress or longitudinal
stress.

Efficiency of longitudinal joint, ηt = 90% = 0.90

Efficiency of circumferential joint, ηc = 40% = 0.40.

Max. diameter for circumferential stress is given by equation (3).

Using equation (3

𝑝𝑥𝑑
𝜎𝑡 =
2𝑡 𝑥 𝜂𝑙

where 𝜎𝑡 = Given permissible stress = 120 N/mm2

1𝑥𝑑
120 =
2 𝑥 0.90 𝑥 2
120 𝑥 2 𝑥 0.9 𝑥 2
𝑑= = 216 𝑐𝑚
2
Max. diameter for longitudinal stress is given by equation (4).

Using equation (4),

𝑝𝑥𝑑
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡 𝑥 𝜂𝑐

where 𝜎𝐿 is given permissible stress = 120 N/mm2.

1𝑥𝑑
120 =
4 𝑥 0.4 𝑥 2
120 𝑥 4 𝑥 0.4 𝑥 2
𝑑= = 192 𝑐𝑚
2
The longitudinal or circumferential stresses induced in the material are directly
proportional to diameter (d). Hence the stress-induced will be less if the value of ‘d’ is
less. Hence take the minimum value of ‘d’ calculated from equations (i) and (ii).

The maximum diameter of the boiler is equal to the minimum value of the diameter
given by equation (i) and (ii). Hence maximum diameter, d = 192 cm. Ans.

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(Please note that if d is taken as equal to 216.0 cm, the longitudinal stress (бL) will be

more than the given permissible value as shown below:

𝑝𝑥𝑑 2 𝑥 216
𝜎𝐿 = = = 135 𝑁/𝑚2
4𝑡 𝑥 𝜂𝑐 4 𝑥 0.4 2

2. A boiler shell is to be made of 15mm thick plate having a limiting tensile stress of 120
N/mm2. If the efficiencies of the longitudinal and circumferential joints are 70% and
30% respectively determine

(i) The maximum permissible diameter of the shell for an internal pressure of 2 N/mm2,
and

(ii) Permissible intensity of internal pressure when the shell diameter is 1.5 m.

Solution: Given:

Thickness of boiler shell, t = 15 mm

Limiting tensile stress = 120 N/mm2

Limiting tensile stress may be circumferential stress or longitudinal stress.

Efficiency of longitudinal joint, ηL = 70% = 0.70

Efficiency of circumferential joint, ηt = 30% = 0.30.

(i) Maximum Permissible diameter for an internal pressure, p = 2 N/mm2.

The boiler shell should be designed for the limiting tensile stress of 120 N/mm 2. First
consider the limiting tensile stress as circumferential stress and then as longitudinal
stress. The minimum diameter of the two cases will satisfy the condition.

(a) Taking limiting tensile stress = Circumferential stress = бt =120 N/mm2.

But бt is also given by equation (3) as

𝑝𝑥𝑑 2𝑥𝑑
𝜎𝑡 = 120 =
2𝑡 𝑥 𝜂𝑙 2 𝑥 0.7 15

𝑑 = 1260 𝑚𝑚

(b) Taking limiting tensile stress = Longitudinal stress

𝜎𝑡 = 120 N/mm2.

Using equation (4),

𝑝𝑥𝑑
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡 𝑥 𝜂𝑐

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2𝑥𝑑
120 =
4 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 15
𝑑 = 1080 𝑚𝑚

Thus the maximum diameter of the shell, in order both the conditions may be satisfied

= 1080 mm.

(ii) Permissible intensity of internal pressure when the shell diameter is 1.5 m.

or d =1.5 m = 1500 mm.

(a) Taking limiting tensile stress = Circumferential stress (𝜎𝑡 )

= 120 N/mm2

Using equation (3),

𝑝𝑥𝑑
𝜎𝑡 =
2𝑡 𝑥 𝜂𝑙

120 𝑥 2𝑥 0.7 𝑥 15
𝑝= = 1.68 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1500
(b) Taking limiting tensile stress = Longitudinal stress (𝜎𝐿 ) = 120 N/mm2

Using equation (4),

𝑝𝑥𝑑
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡 𝑥 𝜂𝑐

120 𝑥 4 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 15
𝑝= = 1.44 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1500
Hence in order both the conditions may be satisfied the maximum permissible internal
pressure is equal to the minimum value of pressure given by maximum permissible
internal pressure = 1.44 N/mm2

If p is taken equal to 1.68 N/mm2, then longitudinal stress бL will be,

𝑝𝑥𝑑 1.68 𝑥 1500

𝜎𝐿 = = = 140 𝑀𝑃𝑎
4𝑡 𝑥 𝜂𝑐 4 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 15

This value is more than the given limiting tensile stress.

5.7. Pressure Vessels Equations

a) Lame’s equation:
Assuming that the longitudinal fibres of the cylindrical shell are equally strained, Lame has
shown that the tangential stress at any radius x is,

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𝑝𝑖 (𝑟𝑖 )2 − 𝑝𝑜 (𝑟𝑜 )2 (𝑟𝑖 )2 (𝑟𝑜 )2 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑜

𝜎𝑡 = 2 2
+ 2
[ ]
(𝑟𝑜 ) − (𝑟𝑖 ) 𝑥 (𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2

and radial stress at any radius x,

𝑝𝑖 (𝑟𝑖 )2 − 𝑝𝑜 (𝑟𝑜 )2 (𝑟𝑖 )2 (𝑟𝑜 )2 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝𝑜
𝜎𝑟 = − [ ]
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2 𝑥2 (𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2
Since we are concerned with the internal pressure (pi = p) only, therefore substituting the value
of external pressure, 𝑝𝑜 = 0.

Tangential stress at any radius x,

𝑝(𝑟𝑖 )2 (𝑟𝑜 )2
𝜎𝑡 = [1 + ]
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2 𝑥2

and radial stress at any radius x,

𝑝(𝑟𝑖 )2 (𝑟𝑜 )2
𝜎𝑟 = [1 − ]
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2 𝑥2

In designing a thick cylindrical shell of brittle material (e.g. cast iron, hard steel and cast
aluminium) with closed or open ends and following the maximum normal stress theory failure,
the tangential stress induced in the cylinder wall,

𝑝[(𝑟𝑜 )2 + (𝑟𝑖 )2 ]
𝜎𝑡 = 𝜎𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2

Since ro = ri + t, therefore substituting this value of ro in the above expression, we get

𝑝[(𝑟𝑖 + 𝑡)2 + (𝑟𝑖 )2 ]

𝜎𝑡 =
(𝑟𝑖 + 𝑡)2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2

(𝑟𝑖 + 𝑡)2 𝜎𝑡 + 𝑝
=
(𝑟𝑖 )2 𝜎𝑡 − 𝑝

𝜎𝑡 + 𝑝
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 (√ − 1)
𝜎𝑡 − 𝑝

The value of shear stress (  ) is usually taken as one-half the tensile stress (𝜎𝑡 ).

Therefore, the above expression may be written as

𝑝[(𝑟𝑜 )2 + (𝑟𝑖 )2 ]
𝜎𝑡(max) − 𝜎𝑡(𝑚𝑖𝑛) − (−𝑝)
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
2 2
After rearranging and considering 𝑟𝑜 = 𝑟𝑖 + 𝑡

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𝑝(𝑟𝑖 + 𝑡)2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(𝑟𝑖 + 𝑡)2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2

and finally solving for t

𝜏
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 (√ − 1)
𝜏−𝑝

𝜎𝑡
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 (√ − 1)
𝜎𝑡 − 2𝑝

b) Birnie’s equation
In case of open-end cylinders (such as pump cylinders, rams, gun barrels etc.) made of ductile
material (i.e. low carbon steel, brass, bronze, and aluminium alloys), the allowable stresses
cannot be determined through maximum-stress theory of failure. In such cases, the maximum-
strain theory is used. According to this theory, the failure occurs when the strain reaches a
limiting value and Birnie’s equation for the wall thickness of a cylinder is

𝜎𝑡 + (1 − µ)𝑝
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 (√ − 1)
𝜎𝑡 − (1 + µ)𝑝

The value of 𝜎𝑡 may be taken as 0.8 times the yield point stress (𝜎𝑦 ).

c. Clavarino’s equation:

This equation is also based on the maximum-strain theory of failure, but it is applied to closed-
end cylinders’ heads) made of ductile material.

According to this equation, the thickness of a cylinder,

𝜎𝑡 + (1 − 2µ)𝑝
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 (√ − 1)
𝜎𝑡 − (1 + µ)𝑝

In this case also, the value of σt may be taken as 0.8 σy.

c) Barlow’s equation
This equation is generally used for high-pressure oil and gas pipes. According to this equation,
the thickness of a cylinder,

𝑡 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜 /𝜎𝑡

For ductile materials, 𝜎𝑡 = 0.8 𝜎𝑦 and for brittle materials 𝜎𝑡 = 0.125 𝜎𝑢 , where 𝜎𝑢 is the ultimate
stress.

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Examples
1. A cast-iron cylinder of internal diameter 200 mm and thickness 50 mm is subjected to
a pressure of 5 N/mm2. Calculate the tangential and radial stresses at the inner, middle
(radius = 125 mm) and outer surfaces.

Solution. Given: di = 200 mm or ri = 100 mm; t = 50 mm; p = 5 N/mm2

We know that outer radius of the cylinder, ro = ri + t = 100 + 50 = 150 mm

Tangential stresses at the inner, middle and outer surfaces

We know that the tangential stress at any radius x,

𝑝[(𝑟𝑜 )2 + (𝑟𝑖 )2 ]
𝜎𝑡 =
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2

Tangential stress at the inner surface (i.e. when x = ri = 100 mm),

𝑝[(𝑟𝑖 + 𝑡)2 + (𝑟𝑖 )2 ] 5[(150)2 + (100)2 ]
𝜎𝑡 = = = 13 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2 (150)2 − (100)2

Tangential stress at the middle surface (i.e. when x = 125 mm),

𝑝(𝑟𝑖 )2 (𝑟𝑜 )2 5(100)2 (150)2
𝜎𝑡 = [1 + ] = [1 + ] = 9.76 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2 𝑥2 (150)2 − (100)2 1252

and tangential stress at the outer surface (i.e. when x = ro = 150 mm),
2𝑝(𝑟𝑖 )2 2𝑥5(100)2
𝜎𝑡 = = = 8 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2 (150)2 − (100)2

Radial stresses at the inner, middle and outer surfaces

We know that the radial stress at any radius x,

𝑝[(𝑟𝑜 )2 + (𝑟𝑖 )2 ]
𝜎𝑟 =
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2

Radial stress at the inner surface (i.e. when x = ri = 100 mm),

𝜎𝑟 = −𝑝 = −5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)

Radial stress at the middle surface (i.e. when x = 125 mm)

𝑝(𝑟𝑖 )2 (𝑟𝑜 )2 5(100)2 (150)2

𝜎𝑟 = [1 − 2 ] = [1 − ]
(𝑟𝑜 )2 − (𝑟𝑖 )2 𝑥 (150)2 − (100)2 1252

𝜎𝑟(𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒) = −1.76 𝑀𝑃𝑎

and radial stress at the outer surface (i.e. when x = ro = 150 mm),

𝜎𝑟(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟) = 0

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2. A hydraulic press has a maximum capacity of 1000 kN. The piston diameter is 250 mm.
Calculate the wall thickness if the cylinder is made of material for which the permissible
strength may be taken as 80 MPa. This material may be assumed as a brittle material.

Solution. Given: W = 1000 kN = 1000 × 103 N; d = 250 mm; σt = 80 MPa = 80 N/mm2

First of all, let us find the pressure inside the cylinder (p). We know that load on the
hydraulic press (W),
𝜋 𝜋
106 = 𝑥 𝑑 2 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑥 (250)2 𝑥 𝑝 = 49.1 𝑥 103 𝑝
4 4
𝑝 = 20.37 𝑀𝑃𝑎

We know that wall thickness of the cylinder

𝜎𝑡 + 𝑝 80 + 20.37
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 (√ − 1) = 125 (√ − 1) = 37 𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝑡 − 𝑝 80 − 20.37

3. A closed-ended cast iron cylinder of 200 mm inside diameter is to carry an internal

pressure of 10 N/mm2 with a permissible stress of 18 MPa. Determine the wall thickness
by means of Lame’s and the maximum shear stress equations. What result would you
use? Give a reason for your conclusion.

Solution. Given: di = 200 mm or ri = 100 mm; p = 10 N/mm2 ; σt = 18 MPa = 18 N/mm2

According to Lame’s equation, wall thickness of a cylinder,

𝜎𝑡 + 𝑝 80 + 10
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 (√ − 1) = 100 (√ − 1) = 87 𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝑡 − 𝑝 80 − 10

According to maximum shear stress equation, wall thickness of a cylinder,

𝜏
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 (√ − 1)
𝜏−𝑝

We know that the shear stress (τ) is usually taken one-half the tensile stress (σt). In the
present case, τ = σt / 2 = 18/2 = 9 N/mm2. Since τ is less than the internal pressure ( p =
10 N/mm2), therefore the expression under the square root will be negative. Thus no
thickness can prevent failure of the cylinder. Hence it is impossible to design a cylinder
to withstand fluid pressure greater than the allowable working stress for the given
material. This difficulty is overcome by using compound cylinders.

Thus, we shall use a cylinder of wall thickness, t = 87 mm Ans.

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4. The cylinder of a portable hydraulic riveter is 220 mm in diameter. The pressure of the
fluid is 14 N/mm2 by gauge. Determine the suitable thickness of the cylinder wall
assuming that the maximum permissible tensile stress is not to exceed 105 MPa.

Solution. Given: di = 220 mm or ri = 110 mm; p = 14 N/mm2; σt = 105 MPa = 105

N/mm2. Since the pressure of the fluid is high, therefore thick cylinder equation is used.

Assuming the material of the cylinder as steel, the thickness of the cylinder wall (t) may
be obtained by using Birnie’s equation. We know that

𝜎𝑡 + (1 − µ)𝑝
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 (√ − 1)
𝜎𝑡 − (1 + µ)𝑝

105 + (1 − 0.3)14
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 (√ − 1)
105 − (1 + 0.3)14

𝑡 = 16.5 𝑚𝑚

...(Taking Poisson’s ratio for steel, μ = 0.3)

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Exercise
1. A pressure vessel has an internal diameter of 1 m and is to be subjected to an internal
pressure of 2.75 N/mm2 above the atmospheric pressure. Considering it as a thin
cylinder and assuming the efficiency of its riveted joint to be 79%, calculate the plate
thickness if the tensile stress in the material is not to exceed 88 MPa.
2. A steam boiler, 1.2 metre in diameter, generates steam at a gauge pressure of 0.7 N/mm2.
Assuming the efficiency of the riveted joints as 75%, find the thickness of the shell.
Given that ultimate tensile stress = 385 MPa and factor of safety = 5.
3. The maximum force exerted by a small hydraulic press is 500 kN. The working pressure
of the fluid is 20 N/mm2. Determine the diameter of the plunger, operating the table.
Also suggest the suitable thickness for the cast steel cylinder in which the plunger
operates, if the permissible stress for cast steel is 100 MPa.
4. Find the thickness of the flat end cover plates for a 1 N/mm2 boiler that has a diameter
of 600 mm. The limiting tensile stress in the boiler shell is 40 MPa.
5. The hydraulic cylinder 400 mm bore operates at a maximum pressure of 5 N/mm2. The
piston rod is connected to the load and the cylinder to the frame through hinged joints.
Design: 1. cylinder, 2. piston rod, 3. hinge pin, and 4. flat end cover. The allowable
tensile stress for cast steel cylinder and end cover is 80 MPa and for piston rod is 60
MPa. Draw the hydraulic cylinder with piston, piston rod, end cover and O-ring.

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CHAPTER 6
MECHANICAL SPRINGS
6.1. Introduction
A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when loaded and to recover
its original shape when the load is removed. The various important applications of springs are
as follows:

i. To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in a car springs,
railway buffers, air-craft landing gears, shock absorbers and vibration dampers.
ii. To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches, and spring-loaded valves.
iii. To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in cams and
followers.
iv. To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine indicators.
v. To store energy, as in watches, toys, etc.

6.2. Types of Springs

Though there are many types of springs, yet the following, according to their shape, are
important from the subject point of view [18].

6.2.1. Helical springs:

The helical springs are made up of a wire coiled in the form of a helix and is primarily intended
for compressive or tensile loads. The cross-section of the wire from which the spring is made
may be circular, square or rectangular.

Fig. 1. Helical Springs

The two forms of helical springs are compression helical spring as shown in Fig. 1 (a) and
tension helical spring as shown in Fig. 1 (b).

The helical springs have the following advantages:

(a) These are easy to manufacture.

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(b) These are available in a wide range.

(c) These are reliable.

(d) These have a constant spring rate.

(e) Their performance can be predicted more accurately.

(f) Their characteristics can be varied by changing dimensions.

6.2.2. Conical and volute springs

The conical and volute springs, as shown in Fig. 2, are used in special applications where a
telescoping spring or a spring with a spring rate that increases with the load is desired. The
conical spring, as shown in Fig. 2 (a), is wound with a uniform pitch whereas the volute springs,
as shown in Fig. 2 (b), are wound in the form of a paraboloid with constant pitch and lead
angles. The springs may be made either partially or completely telescoping. In either case, the
number of active coils gradually decreases. The decreasing number of coils results in an
increased spring rate. This characteristic is sometimes utilized in vibration problems where
springs are used to support a body that has a varying mass. The major stresses produced in
conical and volute springs are also shear stresses due to twisting.

Fig. 2. Conical Springs

6.2.3. Torsion springs

These springs may be of helical or spiral type as shown in Fig. 3. The helical type may be used
only in applications where the load tends to wind up the spring and are used in various electrical
mechanisms. The spiral type is also used where the load tends to increase the number of coils
and when made of flat strip are used in watches and clocks. The major stresses produced in
torsion springs are tensile and compressive due to bending.

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Fig. 3. Torsional Springs

6.2.4. Laminated or leaf springs.

The laminated or leaf spring (also known as flat spring or carriage spring) consists of several
flat plates (known as leaves) of varying lengths held together by means of clamps and bolts, as
shown in Fig. 4. These are mostly used in automobiles. The major stresses produced in leaf
springs are tensile and compressive.

Fig. 4: Laminated or leaf springs Fig. 5: Disc or bellevile

6.2.5. Disc or Belleville springs springs
These springs consist of several conical discs held together against slipping by a central bolt or
tube as shown in Fig. 5. These springs are used in applications where high spring rates and
compact spring units are required. The major stresses produced in disc or Belleville springs are
tensile and compressive.

6.2.6. Special purpose springs

These springs are air or liquid springs, rubber springs, ring springs etc. The fluids (air or liquid)
can behave as a compression spring. These springs are used for special types of applications
only.

6.3. Material for Helical Springs

The material of the spring should have high fatigue strength, high ductility, high resilience and
it should be creep-resistant. It largely depends upon the service for which they are used i.e.
severe service, average service, or light service.

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 Severe service means rapid continuous loading where the ratio of minimum to
maximum load (or stress) is one-half or less, as in automotive valve springs.
 Average service includes the same stress range as in severe service but with only
intermittent operation, as in engine governor springs and automobile suspension
springs.
 Light service includes springs subjected to loads that are static or very infrequently
varied, as in safety valve springs.

The springs are mostly made from oil-tempered carbon steel wires containing 0.60 to 0.70
percent carbon and 0.60 to 1.0 percent manganese. Music wire is used for small springs. Non-
ferrous materials like phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, Monel metal, brass etc., may be used
in special cases to increase fatigue resistance, temperature resistance, and corrosion resistance.

The helical springs are either cold-formed or hot-formed depending upon the size of the wire.
Wires of small sizes (less than 10 mm diameter) are usually wound cold whereas larger size
wires are wound hot. The strength of the wires varies with size, smaller size wires have greater
strength and less ductility, due to the greater degree of cold working.

6.4.Terms used in Compression Springs

The following terms used in connection with compression springs are important from the
subject point of view.

1. Solid length. When the compression spring is compressed until the coils come in contact
with each other, then the spring is said to be solid. The solid length of a spring is the
product of the total number of coils and the diameter of the wire.
Mathematically, Solid length of the spring,

LS = n'.d

where n' = Total number of coils, and

d = Diameter of the wire.

2. Free length. The free length of a compression spring, as shown in Fig. 6, is the length
of the spring in the free or unloaded condition. It is equal to the solid length plus the
maximum deflection or compression of the spring and the clearance between the
adjacent coils (when fully compressed).

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Fig. 6. Compression spring nomenclature.

Mathematically,

Free length of the spring,

LF = Solid length + Maximum compression + Clearance between

adjacent coils (or clash allowance)

= 𝑛′. 𝑑 + 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 0.15 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥

The following relation may also be used to find the free length of the spring, i.e.

𝐿𝐹 = 𝑛′. 𝑑 + 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛′ – 1) × 1 𝑚𝑚

In this expression, the clearance between the two adjacent coils is taken as 1 mm.

3. Spring index. The spring index is defined as the ratio of the mean diameter of the coil
to the diameter of the wire. Mathematically,

Spring index, C = D / d

Where D = Mean diameter of the coil, and

d = Diameter of the wire.

4. Spring rate. The spring rate (or stiffness or spring constant) is defined as the load
required per unit deflection of the spring. Mathematically,

Spring rate, k = W / δ

where W = Load, and

δ = Deflection of the spring.

5. Pitch. The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance between adjacent coils in an
uncompressed state. Mathematically,

𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑝=
𝑛′ − 1

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The pitch of the coil may also be obtained by using the following relation, i.e.

(𝐿𝐹 − 𝐿𝑆 )
𝑝= +𝑑
𝑛′
Pitch of the coil,

where LF = Free length of the spring,

LS = Solid length of the spring,

n' = Total number of coils, and

d = Diameter of the wire

In choosing the pitch of the coils, the following points should be noted:

a. The pitch of the coils should be such that if the spring is accidentally or
carelessly compressed, the stress does not increase the yield point stress
in torsion.
b. The spring should not close up before the maximum service load is
reached.

Note: In designing a tension spring, the minimum gap between two coils when the
spring is in the free state is taken as 1 mm. Thus the free length of the spring,

𝐿𝐹 = 𝑛. 𝑑 + (𝑛 − 1)

and pitch of the coil,

𝐿𝐹
𝑝=
𝑛−1
6.5.Stresses in Helical Springs of Circular Wire
Consider a helical compression spring made of circular wire and subjected to an axial load W,
[19]as shown in Fig. 7(a).

Let D = Mean diameter of the spring coil

d = Diameter of the spring wire,

n = Number of active coils,

G = Modulus of rigidity for the spring material,

W = Axial load on the spring,

C = Spring index = D/d,

p = Pitch of the coils, and

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δ = Deflection of the spring, as a result of an axial load W.

Fig. 7. Helical spring

Now consider a part of the compression spring as shown in Fig. 7(b). The load W tends to rotate
the wire due to the twisting moment (T ) set up in the wire. Thus torsional shear stress is induced
in the wire.

A little consideration will show that part of the spring, as shown in Fig. 7 (b), is in equilibrium
under the action of two forces W and the twisting moment T. We know that the twisting moment,

𝐷 𝜋
𝑇 = 𝑊𝑥 = 𝑥 𝜏 𝑥 𝑑3
2 16 1
8𝑊𝐷
𝜏1 =
𝜋𝑑 3
The torsional shear stress diagram is shown in Fig. 8 (a).

In addition to the torsional shear stress (  1 ) induced in the wire, the following stresses also act
on the wire :

1. Direct shear stress due to the load W, and

2. Stress due to curvature of wire.

Load
𝜏2 =
Cross sectional area of the wire
𝑊 4𝑊
𝜏2 = 𝜋 = 2
2 𝜋𝑑
4𝑥𝑑
We know that direct shear stress due to the load W,

The direct shear stress diagram is shown in Fig. 8 (b) and the resultant diagram of torsional
shear stress and direct shear stress is shown in Fig. 8 (c).

We know that the resultant shear stress induced in the wire,

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8𝑊𝐷 4𝑊
𝜏 = 𝜏1 ± 𝜏2 = ± 2
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑
The positive sign is used for the inner edge of the wire and the negative sign is used for the
outer edge of the wire. Since the stress is maximum at the inner edge of the wire, therefore
Maximum shear stress induced in the wire,

= Torsional shear stress + Direct shear stress

Fig. 8. Torsional spring stress diagram

8𝑊𝐷 4𝑊 8𝑊𝐷 𝑑
= ± = (1 + )
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋𝑑 3 2𝐷
8𝑊𝐷 𝑑 8𝑊𝐷
= (1 + ) = 𝐾𝑠 𝑥 (iii)
𝜋𝑑 3 2𝐶 𝜋𝑑 3

1
where KS = Shear stress factor = 1  ... (Substituting D/d = C)
2C

8𝑊𝐷 1
𝑥
𝜋𝑑 3 2𝐶
From the above equation, it can be observed that the effect of direct shear is appreciable for
springs of small spring index C. Also we have neglected the effect of wire curvature in equation
(iii). It may be noted that when the springs are subjected to static loads, the effect of wire
curvature may be neglected, because yielding of the material will relieve the stresses.

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To consider the effects of both direct shear as well as curvature of the wire, a Wahl’s stress
factor (K) introduced by A.M. Wahl may be used. The resultant diagram of direct shear and
curvature shear stress is shown in Fig. 8 (d).

Maximum shear stress induced in the wire,

8𝑊𝐷 8𝑊𝐶
𝜏 = 𝐾𝑥 = 𝐾 𝑥
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 2
Where

4𝐶 − 1 0.615
𝐾= +
4𝐶 − 4 𝐶
The values of K for a given spring index (C) may be obtained from the graph as shown in Fig.
9.

We see from Fig. 9 that Wahl’s stress factor increases very rapidly as the spring index decreases
The spring mostly used in machinery have spring index above 3.

Fig. 9. Wahl’s stress factor for helical springs

Note: The Wahl’s stress factor (K) may be considered as composed of two sub-factors, KS and
KC, such that

𝐾 = 𝐾𝑆 × 𝐾𝐶

where KS = Stress factor due to shear, and

KC = Stress concentration factor due to curvature.

6.6. Deflection of Helical Springs of Circular Wire

In the previous article, we have discussed the maximum shear stress developed in the wire. We
know that total active length of the wire,

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𝑙 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 × 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 = 𝜋 𝐷 × 𝑛

Let θ = Angular deflection of the wire when acted upon by the torque T.

Axial deflection of the spring,

δ = θ × D/2 ...(i)

We also know that

𝑇 𝜏 𝐺. 𝜃
= =
𝐽 𝐷/2 𝑙

𝑇𝑙
𝜃=
𝐽𝐺

where J = Polar moment of inertia of the spring wire

𝜋
𝐽= 𝑥 𝑑4
32
and G = Modulus of rigidity for the material of the spring wire.

Now substituting the values of l and J in the above equation, we have

𝐷
𝑇𝑙 (𝑊 𝑥 2 ) 𝜋𝐷𝑛 16𝑊𝐷2 𝑛
𝜃= = 𝜋 =
𝐽𝐺 𝑥 𝑑 4 𝐺𝑑 4
32
Substituting this value of θ in equation (i), we have
16𝑊𝐷2 𝑛 𝐷 8𝑊𝐷3 8𝑊𝐶 3
𝛿= 𝑥 = =
𝐺𝑑 4 2 𝐺𝑑 4 𝐺𝑑
and the stiffness of the spring or spring rate,
𝑊 𝐺𝑑 4 𝐺𝑑
= =
𝛿 8𝐷 . 𝑛 8 𝐶 3 𝑛
3

6.7.Eccentric Loading of Springs

Sometimes, the load on the springs does not coincide with the axis of the spring, i.e. the spring
is subjected to an eccentric load. In such cases, not only the safe load for the spring reduces, the
stiffness of the spring is also affected. The eccentric load on the spring increases the stress on
one side of the spring and decreases on the other side. When the load is offset by a distance e
from the spring axis, then the safe load on the spring may be obtained by multiplying the axial
load by the factor

𝐷
, where D is the mean diameter of the spring
2𝑒 + 𝐷

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6.8.Buckling of Compression Springs

It has been found experimentally that when the free length of the spring (LF) is more than four
times the mean or pitch diameter (D), then the spring behaves like a column and may fail by
buckling at a comparatively low load as shown in Fig. 10. The critical axial load (Wcr) that
causes buckling may be calculated by using the following relation, i.e.

𝑊𝑐𝑟 = 𝑘 × 𝐾𝐵 × 𝐿𝐹

where k = Spring rate or stiffness of the spring = W/δ,

LF = Free length of the spring, and

KB = Buckling factor depending upon the ratio LF / D.

The buckling factor (KB) for the hinged end and built-in end springs may be taken from the
table. It may be noted that a hinged end spring is one which is supported on pivots at both ends
as in case of springs having plain ends where a built-in end spring is one in which a squared
and ground end spring is compressed between two rigid and parallel flat plates. It orders to
avoid the buckling of spring; it is either mounted on a central rod or located on a tube. When
the spring is located on a tube, the clearance between the tube walls and the spring should be
kept as small as possible, but it must be sufficient to allow for increase in spring diameter during
compression.

Fig.10. Buckling of compression springs

6.9.Surge in Springs
When one end of a helical spring is resting on a rigid support and the other end is loaded
suddenly, then all the coils of the spring will not suddenly deflect equally, because some time
is required for the propagation of stress along the spring wire. A little consideration will show
that in the beginning, the end coils of the spring in contact with the applied load take up the
whole of the deflection, and then it transmits a large part of its deflection to the adjacent coils.
In this way, a wave of compression propagates through the coils to the supported end from
where it is reflected to the deflected end. This wave of compression travels along the spring

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indefinitely. If the applied load is of fluctuating type as in the case of valve spring in internal
combustion engines and if the time interval between the load applications is equal to the time
required for the wave to travel from one end to the other end, then resonance will occur. This
results in very large deflections of the coils and correspondingly very high stresses. Under these
conditions, it is just possible that the spring may fail. This phenomenon is called surge.

It has been found that the natural frequency of spring should be at least twenty times the
frequency of application of a periodic load to avoid resonance with all harmonic frequencies up
to the twentieth order. The natural frequency for springs clamped between two plates is given
by

𝑑 6𝐺g
𝑓𝑛 = 2
√ 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠
2𝜋𝐷 𝑛 𝜌

where d = Diameter of the wire,

D = Mean diameter of the spring,

n = Number of active turns,

G = Modulus of rigidity,

g = Acceleration due to gravity, and

ρ = Density of the material of the spring.

The surge in springs may be eliminated by using the following methods:

i. By using friction dampers on the center coils so that the wave propagation dies out.
ii. By using springs of high natural frequency.
iii. By using springs having a pitch of the coils near the ends different than at the center to
have different natural frequencies.

Examples
1. A compression coil spring made of an alloy steel is having the following specifications:
Mean diameter of coil = 50 mm; Wire diameter = 5 mm; Number of active coils = 20.
If this spring is subjected to an axial load of 500 N; calculate the maximum shear stress
(neglect the curvature effect) to which the spring material is subjected.

Solution. Given: D = 50 mm; d = 5 mm; n = 20; W = 500 N

We know that the spring index,

𝐷 50
𝐶= = = 10
𝑑 5

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Shear stress

1 1
𝐾𝑠 = 1 + =1+ = 1.05
2𝐶 2 𝑥 10
and maximum shear stress (neglecting the effect of wire curvature),

8𝑊𝐷 8𝑥500𝑥50
𝜏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝑥 3
= 1.05𝑥 = 534.7 𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 𝜋 𝑥 53
2. A helical spring is made from a wire of 6 mm diameter and has an outside diameter of
75 mm. If the permissible shear stress is 350 MPa and modulus of rigidity 84 kN/mm2,
find the axial load which the spring can carry and the deflection per active turn.

Solution. Given : d = 6 mm ; Do = 75 mm ;  = 350 MPa = 350 N/mm2 G = 84 kN/mm2

= 84 × 103 N/mm2

We know that mean diameter of the spring,

D = Do – d = 75 – 6 = 69 mm

𝐷 69
Spring index, 𝐶= = = 11.5
𝑑 6
Let W = Axial load, and

δ/n = Deflection per active turn.

a. Neglecting the effect of curvature

We know that the shear stress factor,

1 1
𝐾𝑠 = 1 + =1+
2𝐶 2𝑥11.5
and maximum shear stress induced in the wire (  ),

8𝑊𝐷 8𝑊 𝑥 69
350 = 𝐾𝑠 𝑥 3
= 1.043 𝑥 = 0.848 𝑊
𝜋𝑑 𝜋 𝑥 63
350
𝑊= = 412.7 𝑁
0.848
We know that deflection of the spring,

8𝑊𝐷3 𝑛
𝛿=
𝐺𝑑 4
Deflection per active turn,

𝛿 8𝑊𝐷3 8 𝑥 412.7 𝑥 693

= = = 9.96 𝑚𝑚
𝑛 𝐺𝑑 4 840000 𝑥 64

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b. Considering the effect of curvature

We know that Wahl’s stress factor,

4𝐶 − 1 0.615 4(11.5) − 1 0.615

𝐾= + = + = 1.123
4𝐶 − 4 𝐶 4(11.5) − 4 11.5

We also know that the maximum shear stress induced in the wire (  ),

8𝑊𝐷 8𝑊𝑥11.5
350 = 𝐾𝑠 𝑥 3
= 1.123 𝑥 = 0.913 𝑊
𝜋𝑑 𝜋 𝑥 63
350
𝑊= = 383.4 𝑁
0.913
and deflection of the spring,

8𝑊𝐷3 𝑛
𝛿=
𝐺𝑑 4
Deflection per active turn,

𝛿 8𝑊𝐷3 8𝑥383.4𝑥(69)3
= = = 9.26 𝑚𝑚
𝑛 𝐺𝑑4 84000(6)4
3. Design a spring for a balance to measure 0 to 1000 N over a scale of length 80 mm. The
spring is to be enclosed in a casing of 25 mm in diameter. The approximate number of
turns is 30. The modulus of rigidity is 85 kN/mm 2. Also calculate the maximum shear
stress-induced.

Solution. Given: W = 1000 N; δ = 80 mm; n = 30; G = 85 kN/mm2 = 85 × 103 N/mm2

Design of spring

Let D = Mean diameter of the spring coil,

d = Diameter of the spring wire, and

C = Spring index = D/d.

Since the spring is to be enclosed in a casing of 25 mm diameter, therefore the outer

diameter of the spring coil (Do = D + d) should be less than 25 mm.

We know that deflection of the spring (δ),

8𝑊𝐶 3 𝑛 8 𝑥 1000 𝑥 𝐶 3 . 30 240 𝐶 3

80 = = =
𝐺𝑑 83000 𝑑 85 𝑑
𝐶 3 80 𝑥 85
= 𝑥 28.3
𝑑 240
Let us assume that d = 4 mm. Therefore

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𝐶 3 = 28.3 𝑑 = 28.3 × 4 = 113.2 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 4.84

and 𝐷 = 𝐶. 𝑑 = 4.84 × 4 = 19.36 𝑚𝑚 Ans.

We know that outer diameter of the spring coil,

𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷 + 𝑑 = 19.36 + 4 = 23.36 𝑚𝑚

Since the value of Do = 23.36 mm is less than the casing diameter of 25 mm, therefore
the assumed dimension, d = 4 mm is correct.

Maximum shear stress-induced

We know that Wahl’s stress factor,

4𝐶 − 1 0.615 4(4.84) − 1 0.615

𝐾= + = + = 1.322
4𝐶 − 4 𝐶 4(4.84) − 4 4.84

Maximum shear stress-induced,

8𝑊𝐶 8𝑥1000𝑥4.84
𝜏=𝐾𝑥 = 1.322 𝑥 = 1018.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋𝑥42
4. A mechanism used in printing machinery consists of a tension spring assembled with a
preload of 30 N. The wire diameter of spring is 2 mm with a spring index of 6. The
spring has 18 active coils. The spring wire is hard drawn and oil tempered having
following material properties: Design shear stress = 680 MPa, Modulus of rigidity = 80
kN/mm2. Determine: 1) the initial torsional shear stress in the wire; 2) spring rate; and
3) the force to cause the body of the spring to its yield strength.

Solution. Given : Wi = 30 N ; d = 2 mm ; C = D/d = 6 ; n = 18 ;  = 680 MPa = 680

N/mm2 ; G = 80 kN/mm2 = 80 × 103 N/mm2

a. Initial torsional shear stress in the wire

We know that Wahl’s stress factor,

4𝐶 − 1 0.615 4(6) − 1 0.615

𝐾= + = + = 1.2525
4𝐶 − 4 𝐶 4(6) − 4 6

Initial torsional shear stress in the wire,

8𝑊𝐶 8𝑥30𝑥6
𝜏=𝐾𝑥 2
= 1.2525 𝑥 = 143.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑥22
b. Spring rate. We know that spring rate (or stiffness of the spring),

𝑊 𝐺𝑑 80𝑥103 𝑥2
= 3 = = 5.144 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝛿 8𝐶 . 𝑛 8𝑥63 𝑥18

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c. Force to cause the body of the spring to its yield strength

Let W = Force to cause the body of the spring to its yield strength.

We know that design or maximum shear stress (  ),

8𝑊𝐶 8𝑊𝑥6
680 = 𝐾 𝑥 = 1.2525𝑥 = 4.78 𝑊
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋22
680
𝑊= = 142.25 𝑁
4.78
6.10. Leaf Springs
Leaf springs (also known as flat springs) are made out of flat plates. The advantage of leaf
spring over helical spring is that the ends of the spring may be guided along a definite path as
it deflects to act as a structural member in addition to energy absorbing device. Thus the leaf
springs may carry lateral loads, brake torque, driving torque etc., in addition to shocks. Consider
a single plate fixed at one end and loaded at the other end as shown in Fig. 11. This plate may
be used as a flat spring.

Fig. 11

Let t = Thickness of plate,

b = Width of plate, and

L = Length of plate or distance of the load

W= from the cantilever end.

We know that the maximum bending moment at the cantilever end A,

𝑀 = 𝑊𝐿

and section modulus,

𝑏𝑡 3
𝐼 1
𝑧 = = 12
𝑡 = 𝑥𝑏𝑡 2
𝑦 6
2

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Bending stress in such a spring,

𝑀 𝑊𝐿 6𝑊𝐿
𝜎= = =
1
𝑍 ( ) 𝑥𝑏𝑡 2 𝑏𝑡 2
6

We know that the maximum deflection for a cantilever with a concentrated load at the free end
is given by

𝑊𝐿3
3𝐸𝑥𝑏𝑡 3 4𝑊𝐿3 2𝜎𝐿2
𝛿= = =
12 𝐸𝑏𝑡 3 3𝐸𝑡
It may be noted that due to the bending moment, top fibres will be in tension and the bottom
fibres are in compression, but the shear stress is zero at the extreme fibres and maximum at the
center, as shown in Fig.12. Hence for analysis, both stresses need not be taken into account
simultaneously. We shall consider the bending stress only.

Fig. 12

If the spring is not of cantilever type but it is like a simply supported beam, with length 2L and
load 2W in the center, as shown in Fig. 13, then

Maximum bending moment in the center

Fig. 13

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𝑏𝑡 2
𝑀 = 𝑊𝐿 and 𝑍= 6

𝑀 𝑊𝐿 6𝑊𝐿
𝜎= = 2 =
𝑍 𝑏𝑡 𝑏𝑡 2
6
We know that maximum deflection of a simply supported beam loaded in the center is given
by
𝑊𝑙 (𝐿1 )3 (2𝑊)(2𝐿)3 𝑊𝐿3
𝛿= = =
48𝐸𝐼 48𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
In this case 𝑊1 = 2𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑑 𝐿1 =2L
From above we see that a spring such as automobile spring (semi-elliptical spring) with length
2L and loaded in the center by a load 2W, may be treated as a double cantilever.

If the plate of the cantilever is cut into a series of n strips of width b and these are placed as
shown in Fig. 14, then equations (i) and (ii) may be written as

6𝑊𝐿 4𝑊𝐿3 2𝜎𝐿2

𝜎= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 = =
𝑛𝑏𝑡 2 𝑛𝐸𝑏𝑡 3 3𝐸𝑡

Fig. 14 Leaf spring

The above relations give the stress and deflection of a leaf spring of uniform cross-section. The
stress at such a spring is maximum at the support.

If a triangular plate is used as shown in Fig. 15 (a), the stress will be uniform throughout. If this
triangular plate is cut into strips of uniform width and placed one below the other, as shown in
Fig. 15 (b) to form a graduated or laminated leaf spring, then

6𝑊𝐿
𝜎= 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑛𝑏𝑡 2
6𝑊𝐿3 𝜎𝐿2
𝛿= =
𝑛𝐸𝑏𝑡 3 𝐸𝑡
Where n is number of graduated leaves

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Fig. 15 Types of Leaf spring

A little consideration will show that by the above arrangement, the spring becomes compact so
that the space occupied by the spring is considerably reduced.

Length of Leaf Spring Leaves

The length of the leaf spring leaves may be obtained as discussed below:

Let 2L1 = Length of span or overall length of the spring,

l = Width of band or distance between centers of U-bolts.

nF = Number of full-length leaves,

nG = Number of graduated leaves, and

n = Total number of leaves = nF + nG.

We have already discussed that the effective length of the spring,

2𝐿 = 2𝐿1 − 𝑙 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑

2
= 2𝐿1 − 𝑙 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑈 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
3
It may be noted that when there is only one full-length leaf (i.e. master leaf only), then the
number of leaves to be cut will be n and when there are two full-length leaves (including one
master leaf), then the number of leaves to be cut will be (n – 1). If a leaf spring has two full-
length leaves, then the length of leaves is obtained as follows:

effective lenght
length of smallest leaf = + ineffective length
n−1
effective lenght
length of next leaf = 𝑥2 + ineffective length
n−1
similarly, length of (n-1) leaf

effective lenght
= 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + ineffective length
n−1

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The nth leaf will be the master leaf and it is of full length. Since the master leaf has eyes on both
sides, therefore

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓 = 2 𝐿1 + 𝜋 (𝑑 + 𝑡) × 2

where d = Inside diameter of eye, and

t = Thickness of the master leaf.

The approximate relation between the radius of curvature (R) and the camber (y) of the spring
is given by

(𝐿1 )2
𝑅=
2𝑦
The exact relation is given by

y (2R + y) = (L1)2

where L1 = Half span of the spring.

Note: The maximum deflection (δ) of the spring is equal to the camber (y) of the spring.

Materials for Leaf Springs

The material used for leaf springs is usually a plain carbon steel having 0.90 to 1.0% carbon.
The leaves are heat-treated after the forming process. The heat treatment of spring steel
produces greater strength and therefore greater load capacity, greater range of deflection and
better fatigue properties.

According to IS, the recommended materials are:

a. For automobile: 50 Cr 1, 50 Cr 1 V 23, and 55 Si 2 Mn 90 all used in hardened and

tempered state.
b. For rail road springs: C 55 (water-hardened), C 75 (oil-hardened), 40 Si 2 Mn 90
(water hardened) and 55 Si 2 Mn 90 (oil-hardened).
c. The physical properties of some of these materials are given in the following table.
All values are for oil quenched condition and for single heat only.

Examples
1. Design a leaf spring for the following specifications: Total load = 140 kN ; Number of
springs supporting the load = 4 ; Maximum number of leaves = 10; Span of the spring
= 1000 mm ; Permissible deflection = 80 mm.

Take Young’s modulus, E = 200 kN/mm2 and allowable stress in spring material as 600
MPa.

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Solution. Given: Total load = 140 kN ; No. of springs = 4; n = 10 ; 2L = 1000 mm or

L = 500 mm; δ = 80 mm ; E = 200 kN/mm2 = 200 × 103 N/mm2 ; σ = 600 MPa = 600
N/mm2

We know that load on each spring,

totalload 140
2𝑊 = = 35 𝑘𝑁
No. of springs 4

35
𝑊= 17.5 𝑘𝑁
2
Let t = Thickness of the leaves, and

b = Width of the leaves.

We know that bending stress (σ),

6𝑊𝐿 6𝑥17500𝑥500 52.5𝑥104

600 = = =
𝑛𝑏𝑡 2 𝑛𝑏𝑡 2 𝑛𝑏𝑡 2
and deflection of the spring (δ),

52.5𝑥106
𝑛𝑏𝑡 2 = = 87.5𝑥103 … … … … … . 𝑖
600
6𝑊𝐿3 6𝑥17500(500)3 65.6𝑥106
80 = = =
𝑛𝐸𝑏𝑡 2 𝑛𝑥200𝑥103 𝑥𝑏𝑥𝑡 3 𝑛𝑏𝑡 3

3
65.6𝑥106
𝑛𝑏𝑡 = = 0.82𝑥106 … … … … … … … . 𝑖𝑖
80
Diving equation (ii) to equation (i) we have

𝑛𝑏𝑡 3 0.82𝑥106
= 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 9.37 ≅ 10 𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑏𝑡 2 87.5𝑥103
Now from equation (i), we have

87.5𝑥103 87.5𝑥103
𝑏= = = 87.5 𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑡 2 10(10)2

and from equation (ii), we have

0.82𝑥106 0.82𝑥106
𝑏= = = 82 𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑡 3 10(10)3

Taking larger of the two values, we have a width of leaves, b = 87.5 say 90 mm

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2. A truck spring has 12 number of leaves, two of which are full-length leaves. The spring
supports are 1.05 m apart and the central band is 85 mm wide. The central load is to be
5.4 kN with a permissible stress of 280 MPa. Determine the thickness and width of the
steel spring leaves. The ratio of the total depth to the width of the spring is 3. Also
determine the deflection of the spring.

Solution. Given: n = 12; nF = 2 ; 2L1 = 1.05 m = 1050 mm ; l = 85 mm ; 2W = 5.4 kN

= 5400 N or W = 2700 N; σF = 280 MPa = 280 N/mm2

Thickness and width of the spring leaves

Let t = Thickness of the leaves, and

b = Width of the leaves.

Since it is given that the ratio of the total depth of the spring (n × t) and width of the
spring (b) is 3, therefore

𝑛𝑥𝑡 𝑛𝑥𝑡 12𝑥𝑡

= = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = = = 4𝑡
𝑏 3 3
We know that the effective length of the spring,

2𝐿 = 2𝐿1 – 𝑙 = 1050 – 85 = 965 𝑚𝑚

𝐿 = 965 / 2 = 482.5 𝑚𝑚

and number of graduated leaves,

𝑛𝐺 = 𝑛 – 𝑛𝐹 = 12 – 2 = 10

Assuming that the leaves are not initially stressed, therefore maximum stress or bending
stress for full length leaves (σF),

18𝑊𝐿 18𝑥2700𝑥482.5 225476

280 = = =
𝑏𝑡 2 (2𝑛𝐺 2
+ 3𝑛𝐹 ) 4𝑡𝑥𝑡 (2𝑥10 + 3𝑥2) 𝑡3

225476
𝑡3 = = 805.3 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 9.3 ≅ 10 𝑚𝑚
280
𝑏 = 4𝑡 = 4𝑥10 = 40 𝑚𝑚

Deflection of the spring

We know that deflection of the spring,

12𝑊𝐿3 12𝑥2700𝑥(482.5)3
𝛿= = = 16.7 𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝑏𝑡 3 (2𝑛𝐺 + 3𝑛𝐹 ) 210𝑥103 𝑥40𝑥103 (2𝑥10 + 3𝑥2)

Consider 𝐸 = 210𝑥103 𝑀𝑃𝑎

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3. A semi-elliptical laminated vehicle spring to carry a load of 6000 N is to consist of seven

leaves 65 mm wide, two of the leaves extending the full length of the spring. The spring
is to be 1.1 m in length and attached to the axle by two U-bolts 80 mm apart. The bolts
hold the central portion of the spring so rigidly that they may be considered equivalent
to a band having a width equal to the distance between the bolts. Assume a design stress
for spring material as 350 MPa.
Determine:
a. Thickness of leaves, b. Deflection of spring, c. Diameter of eye, d. Length
of leaves, and e. Radius to which leaves should be initially bent.

Sketch the semi-elliptical leaf-spring arrangement.

The standard thickness of leaves is: 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, 10, 11, etc. in mm.

Solution. Given: 2W = 6000 N or W = 3000 N; n = 7; b = 65 mm ; nF = 2 ; 2L1 = 1.1m

= 1100 mm or L1 = 550 mm ; l = 80 mm ; б = 350 MPa = 350 N/mm2

a. Thickness of leaves

Let t = Thickness of leaves.

We know that the effective length of the spring,

2𝐿 = 2𝐿1 – 𝑙 = 1100 – 80 = 1020 𝑚𝑚

𝐿 = 1020 / 2 = 510 𝑚𝑚

and number of graduated leaves,

𝑛𝐺 = 𝑛 – 𝑛𝐹 = 7 – 2 = 5

Assuming that the leaves are not initially stressed, the maximum stress (бF),

18 𝑊𝐿3 18𝑥3000𝑥(510)3 26480

350 = 3 = = , 𝜎𝐹 = 𝜎
𝑏𝑡 (2𝑛𝐺 + 3𝑛𝐹 ) 65xt 2 (2𝑥5 + 3𝑥2) t2

26480
𝑡2 = = 75.66 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 8.7 𝑠𝑎𝑦 9 𝑚𝑚
350
b. Deflection of spring

We know that deflection of spring,

12𝑊𝐿3 12𝑥3000𝑥(510)3
𝛿= = = 30 𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝑏𝑡 3 (2𝑛𝐺 + 3𝑛𝐹 ) 210𝑥103 𝑥65𝑥93 (2𝑥5 + 3𝑥2)

Consider 𝐸 = 210𝑥103 𝑀𝑃𝑎

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 By: Tesfaye Olana

c. Diameter of eye

The inner diameter of eye is obtained by considering the pin in the eye in bearing,
because the inner diameter of the eye is equal to the diameter of the pin.

Let d = Inner diameter of the eye or diameter of the pin,

l1 = Length of the pin which is equal to the width of the eye or leaf

(i.e. b) = 65 mm ...(Given)

pb = Bearing pressure on the pin which may be taken as 8 N/mm2.

We know that the load on pin (W),

3000 = d × l1 × pb = d × 65 × 8 = 520 d

d = 3000 / 520 = 5.77 say 6mm

Fig. 16

Let us now consider the bending of the pin. Since there is a clearance of about 2 mm
between the shackle (or plate) and eye as shown in Fig. 16, therefore the length of the
pin under bending

𝑙2 = 𝑙1 + 2 × 2 = 65 + 4 = 69 𝑚𝑚

Maximum bending moment on the pin,

𝑊𝑥𝑙2 3000𝑥69
𝑀= = = 51570 𝑁𝑚𝑚
4 4
and section modulus,
π
Z= 𝑥𝑑 3 = 0.0982 𝑑 3
32
We know that bending stress (σb),

M 51750 527𝑥103
80 = = =
Z 0.0982 𝑑 3 𝑑3

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 By: Tesfaye Olana

3
527𝑥103
𝑑 = = 6587 𝑜𝑟 𝑑 = 18.7 𝑠𝑎𝑦 20 𝑚𝑚
80
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝜎𝑏 = 80𝑀𝑃𝑎

We shall take the inner diameter of eye or diameter of pin (d) as 20 mm Ans.

Let us now check the pin for induced shear stress. Since the pin is in double shear,
therefore load on the pin (W),
𝜋 𝜋
3000 = 2𝑥 𝑥𝑑2 𝑥𝜏 = 2𝑥 𝑥202 𝑥𝜏 = 628.4𝜏
4 4
3000
𝜏= = 4.77 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
628.4
d. Length of leaves

We know that ineffective length of the spring

= l = 80 mm ... (U-bolts are considered equivalent to a band)

effective length
lenght of the smallest leaf = + ineffective length
n−1
1020
lenght of the smallest leaf = + 80 = 250 mm
7−1
1020
lenght of the 2nd leaf = x2 + 80 = 420 mm
7−1
1020
lenght of the 3rd leaf = x3 + 80 = 590 mm
7−1
1020
lenght of the 4th leaf = x4 + 80 = 760 mm
7−1
1020
lenght of the 5th leaf = x5 + 80 = 930 mm
7−1
1020
lenght of the 6th leaf = x6 + 80 = 1100 mm
7−1
The 6th and 7th leaves are full length leaves and the 7th leaf (i.e. the top leaf) will act as
a master leaf. We know that length of the master leaf

= 2L1 + π (d + t) 2 = 1100 + π (20 + 9)2 = 1282.2 mm

e. Radius to which the leaves should be initially bent

Let R = Radius to which the leaves should be initially bent, and

y = Camber of the spring.

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 By: Tesfaye Olana

We know that

y (2R – y) = (L1)2

30(2R – 30) = (550)2 or 2R – 30 = (550)2/30 = 10 083 ... (y = δ)

10083 + 30
𝑅= = 5056.5 𝑚𝑚
2

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 By: Tesfaye Olana

Exercises
1. Design a compression helical spring to carry a load of 500 N with a deflection of 25
mm. The spring index may be taken as 8. Assume the following values for the spring
material:

Permissible shear stress = 350 MPa

Modulus of rigidity = 84 kN/mm2

[Ans. d = 5.893 mm; D = 47.144 mm; n = 6]

2. A helical valve spring is to be designed for an operating load range of approximately 90

to 135 N. The deflection of the spring for the load range is 7.5 mm. Assume a spring
index of 10. Permissible shear stress for the material of the spring = 480 MPa and its
modulus of rigidity = 80 kN/mm2. Design the spring.

[Ans. d = 2.74 mm; D = 27.4 mm; n = 6]

3. Design a helical spring for a spring-loaded safety valve for the following conditions:

Operating pressure = 1 N/mm2

Maximum pressure when the valve blows off freely = 1.075 N/mm2

Maximum lift of the valve when the pressure is 1.075 N/mm2

Wire diameter = 6 mm

Diameter of valve seat = 100 mm

Maximum shear stress = 400 MPa

Modulus of rigidity = 86 kN/mm2

Spring index = 5.5

[Ans. d = 17.2 mm; D = 94.6 mm; n = 12]

4. A vertical spring-loaded valve is required for a compressed air receiver. The valve is to
start opening at a pressure of 1 N/mm2 gauge and must be fully open with a lift of 4 mm
at a pressure of 1.2 N/mm2 gauge. The diameter of the port is 25 mm. Assume the
allowable shear stress in steel as 480 MPa and shear modulus as 80 kN/mm2. Design a
suitable close coiled round section helical spring having squared ground ends. Also
specify initial compression and free length of the spring.

[Ans. d = 7 mm; D = 42 mm; n = 13]

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 By: Tesfaye Olana

5. A carriage spring 800 mm long is required to carry a proof load of 5000 N at the center.
The spring is made of plates 80 mm wide and 7.5 mm thick. If the maximum permissible
stress for the material of the plates is not to exceed 190 MPa, determine: 1. The number
of plates required, 2. The deflection of the spring, and 3. The radius to which the plates
must be initially bent. The modulus of elasticity may be taken as 205 kN/mm2.
[Ans. 6; 23 mm; 3.5 m]
6. A semi-elliptical laminated spring 900 mm long and 55 mm wide is held together at the
center by a band 50 mm wide. If the thickness of each leaf is 5 mm, find the number of
leaves required to carry a load of 4500 N. Assume a maximum working stress of 490
MPa. If the two of these leaves extend the full length of the spring, find the deflection
of the spring. The Young’s modulus for the spring material may be taken as 210
kN/mm2. [Ans. 9; 71.8 mm]
7. A semi-elliptical laminated spring is made of 50 mm wide and 3 mm thick plates. The
length between the supports is 650 mm and the width of the band is 60 mm. The spring
has two full-length leaves and five graduated leaves. If the spring carries a central load
of 1600 N, find:
i. Maximum stress in full length and graduated leaves for an initial condition of no
stress in the leaves.
ii. The maximum stress if the initial stress is provided to cause equal stress when
loaded.
iii. The deflection in parts (1) and (2). [Ans. 590 MPa; 390 MPa; 450 MPa; 54 mm]

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 A textbook of Machine Element-I

Tesfaye Olana Terefe

Masters of Science in Design of Mechanical Systems, Mechanical Engineering

Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mizan Tepi University, Ethiopia

Email: [email protected]
Tesfaye O. Terefe
[email protected]
May 2020