Structural Analysis 4 ECSAN4A Lecturer: Joella N.

Mukalay

Chapter 4: Analysis of Structures using Strain - Energy method

4.1 Introduction

• The energy of a structure can be simply defined as its capacity for doing work.
• The term strain energy is attributed to the energy that a structure has because of its deformation.
• The relationship between the work and strain energy of a structure is based on the principle of
conservation of energy, which can be stated as follows:
The work performed on an elastic structure in equilibrium by statically (gradually) applied
external forces is equal to the work done by internal forces, or the strain energy stored in the
structure.
This principle can be mathematically expressed as:
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑖 (1) or
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑈 (2)
• In these equations, 𝑊𝑒 and 𝑊𝑖 represent the work done by the external and the internal forces,
respectively, and U denotes the strain energy of the structures.
• The explicit expression for the strain energy of a structure depends on the types of internal
forces that can develop in the members of the structure.

4.2 Strain Energy of trusses

• Consider the arbitrary truss shown in Figure 1. The truss is subjected to a load P, which
increases gradually from zero to its final value, causing the structure to deform as shown in the
figure.

Figure 1

• Because we are considering linearly elastic structures, the deflection of the truss ∆ at the point
of application of P increases linearly with the load; therefore, the external work performed by
P during the deformation ∆ can be expressed as

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Structural Analysis 4 ECSAN4A Lecturer: Joella N. Mukalay

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𝑊𝑒 = 𝑃∆
2

• To develop the expression for internal work or strain energy of the truss, let us focus our
attention on an arbitrary member j (member CD) of the truss. If F represents the axial force in
this member due to the external load P, the axial deformation of this member is given by 𝛿 =
(𝐹𝐿)⁄(𝐴𝐸).
• Therefore, internal work or strain energy stored in member j, 𝑈𝑗 , is given by

1 𝐹2𝐿
𝑈𝑗 = 𝐹𝛿 =
2 2𝐴𝐸

• The strain energy of the entire truss is simply equal to the sum of the strain energies of all of its
members and can be expressed as
𝐹2 𝐿
𝑈 = ∑ 2𝐴𝐸 (3)
1
• Note that a factor of 2 appears in the expression for strain energy because the axial force F and

the axial deformation 𝛿 caused by F in each member of the truss are related by the linear
relationship 𝛿 = (𝐹𝐿)⁄(𝐴𝐸).

4.3 Strain Energy of beams

• To develop the expression for the strain energy of beams, consider an arbitrary beam shown in
Figure 2.a.
𝑀
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

Figure 2

• As the external load P acting on the beam increases gradually from zero to its final value, the
internal bending moment M acting on a differential element dx of the beam (Figure 2.a and b)
also increases gradually from zero to its final value, while the cross sections of elements dx

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Structural Analysis 4 ECSAN4A Lecturer: Joella N. Mukalay

rotate by an angle 𝑑𝜃 with respect to each other. The internal work or the strain energy stored
in the element dx is, therefore, given by
1
𝑑𝑈 = 2 𝑀(𝑑𝜃) (4)

• The change in slope, 𝑑𝜃, can be expressed in terms of the bending moment M, by the
relationship 𝑑𝜃 = (𝑀⁄𝐸𝐼 )𝑑𝑥, we write
𝑀2
𝑑𝑈 = 2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 (5)

• The expression for the strain energy of the entire beam can now be obtained by integrating Eq.5
over the length L of the beam:
𝐿 𝑀2
𝑈 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 (6)
2𝐸𝐼

• When the quantity M/EI is not continuous function of x over the entire length of the beam, then
the beam must be divided into segments so that M/EI is continuous in each segment. The integral
on the right-hand side of Eq. 6 is then evaluated by summing the integrals for all the segments
of the beam. Eq. 6 is based on the consideration of bending deformations of beams and does
not include the effects of shear deformations, which are negligibly small as compared to the
bending deformations for most beams.

4.4 Castigliano’s second Theorem

• In this section, we consider another energy method for determining deflections of structures.
This method, which can be applied only to linearly elastic structures, was initially presented by
Alberto Castigliano in 1873 and is commonly known as Castigliano’s second theorem.
• Castigliano’s first theorem, which can be used to establish equations of equilibrium of
structures, is not considered in this text. Castigliano’s second theorem can be stated as follows:
For linearly elastic structures, the partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to an
applied force (or couple) is equal to the displacement (or rotation) of the force (or couple)
along its line of action.
In mathematical form, this theorem can be stated as:
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
= ∆𝑖 or = 𝜃𝑖 (7)
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑀𝑖

In which U = strain energy; ∆𝑖 = deflection of the point of application of the force 𝑃𝑖 in the
direction of 𝑃𝑖 ; 𝜃𝑖 = rotation of the point of application of the couple ̅̅̅
𝑀𝑖 in the direction of ̅̅̅
𝑀𝑖 .

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Structural Analysis 4 ECSAN4A Lecturer: Joella N. Mukalay

• To prove this theorem, consider the beam shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

• The beam is subjected to external loads 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 , which increase gradually from zero to
their final values, causing the beam to deflect, as shown in Figure 3. The strain energy (U)
stored in the beam due to the external work (𝑊𝑒 ,) performed by these forces is given by
1 1 1
𝑈 = 𝑊𝑒 = 2 𝑃1 ∆1 + 2 𝑃2 ∆2 + 2 𝑃3 ∆3 (8)

In which ∆1, ∆2 and ∆3 are the deflections of the beam at the points of application of 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and
𝑃3 , respectively. The strain energy U is a function of the external loads and can be expressed as
𝑈 = 𝑓(𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ) (9)
• Now, assume that the deflection ∆2 of the beam at the point of application 𝑃2 is to be
determined. If 𝑃2 is increased by an infinitesimal amount 𝑑𝑃2 , then the increase in strain energy
of the beam due to the application of 𝑑𝑃2 can be written as
𝜕𝑈
𝜕𝑈 = 𝜕𝑃 𝑑𝑃2 (10)
2

And the total strain energy, 𝑈𝑇 , now stored in the beam is given by
𝜕𝑈
𝑈𝑇 = 𝑈 + 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑈 + 𝜕𝑃 𝑑𝑃2 (11)
2

• The beam is assumed to be composed of linearly elastic material, so regardless of the sequence
in which the loads 𝑃1 , (𝑃2 + 𝑑𝑃2 ) and 𝑃3 are applied, the total strain energy stored in the beam
should be the same.
• Consider, for example, the sequence in which 𝑑𝑃2 is applied to the beam before the application
of 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 . If 𝑑∆2 is the deflection of the beam at the point of application of 𝑑𝑃2 due to
𝑑𝑃2 , then the strain energy stored in the beam is given by (1/2)(𝑑𝑃2 )(𝑑∆2 ).
• The loads 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 are then applied to the beam, causing the additional deflections ∆1, ∆2
and ∆3 , respectively, at their points of application.

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Structural Analysis 4 ECSAN4A Lecturer: Joella N. Mukalay

• Note that since the beam is linearly elastic, the loads 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 cause the same deflections
∆1, ∆2 and ∆3 , respectively, and perform the same amount of external work on the beam
regardless of whether any other load is acting on the beam or not. The total strain energy stored
in the beam during the application of 𝑑𝑃2 followed by 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 and 𝑃3 is given by
1 1 1 1
𝑈𝑇 = 2 (𝑑𝑃2 )(𝑑∆2 ) + 𝑑𝑃2 (𝑑∆2 )+2 𝑃1 ∆1 + 2 𝑃2 ∆2 + 2 𝑃3 ∆3 (12)

• Since 𝑑𝑃2 remains constant during the additional deflection, ∆2 , of its point of application, the
term 𝑑𝑃2 (𝑑∆2 ) on the right-hand side of Eq. 12 does not contain the factor ½. The term
(1/2)(𝑑𝑃2 )(𝑑∆2 ) represents a small quantity of second order, so it can be neglected, and Eq.
12 can be written as
1 1 1
𝑈𝑇 = 𝑑𝑃2 (𝑑∆2 )+2 𝑃1 ∆1 + 2 𝑃2 ∆2 + 2 𝑃3 ∆3 (13)

By substituting Eq. 8 into Eq. 13, we obtain:

𝑈𝑇 = 𝑑𝑃2 (𝑑∆2 )+𝑈 (14)
And by equating Eqs. 11 and 14, we write
𝜕𝑈
𝑈 + 𝜕𝑃 𝑑𝑃2 = 𝑑𝑃2 (𝑑∆2 )+𝑈 or
2

𝜕𝑈
= ∆2
𝜕𝑃2

Which is the mathematical statement of Castigliano’s second theorem.

4.4.1 Application to trusses

• To develop the expression of Castigliano’s second theorem, which can be used to determine the
deflections of trusses, we substitute Eq. 3 for the strain energy (U) of trusses into the general
expression of Castigliano’s second theorem for deflections as given by Eq. 7 to obtain
𝜕 𝐹2 𝐿
∆= 𝜕𝑃 ∑ 2𝐴𝐸 (15)

• As the partial derivative 𝜕𝐹 2 ⁄𝜕𝑃 = 2𝐹(𝜕𝐹 ⁄𝜕𝑃), the expression of Castigliano’s second
theorem for trusses can be written as
𝜕𝐹 𝐹𝐿
∆= ∑ (𝜕𝑃) 𝐴𝐸 (16)

• The foregoing expression is similar in form to the expression of the method of virtual work for
trusses.

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Structural Analysis 4 ECSAN4A Lecturer: Joella N. Mukalay

4.4.2 Application to beams

• By substituting Eq. 6 for the strain energy (U) of beams into the general expressions of
Castigliano’s second theorem (Eq. 7), we obtain the following expressions for the
deflections and rotations, respectively, of beams:
𝜕 𝐿 𝑀2 𝜕 𝐿 𝑀2
∆= 𝜕𝑃 ∫0 𝑑𝑥 and 𝜃 = 𝜕𝑀 ∫0 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼

Or
𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑀
∆= ∫0 ( 𝜕𝑃 ) 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 (17)

And
𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑀
𝜃 = ∫0 (𝜕𝑀) 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 (18)

Procedure for Analysis

As stated previously, the procedure for computing deflections of structures by Castigliano’s

second theorem is similar to that of the virtual work method. The procedure essentially involves
the following steps.

1. If an external load (or couple) is acting on the given structure at the point and in the
direction of the desired deflection (or rotation), then designate that load (or couple) as the
̅ ) and go to step 2. Otherwise, apply an imaginary load P (or couple 𝑀
variable P (or 𝑀 ̅ ) at
the point and in the direction of the desired deflection (or rotation).
2. Determine the axial force F and/or the equation(s) for bending moment M(x) in each
̅ ).
member of the structure in terms P (or 𝑀
3. Differentiate the member axial forces F and/or the bending moments M(x) obtained in step
̅ ) to compute 𝜕𝐹 ⁄𝜕𝑃 and/or 𝜕𝑀⁄𝜕𝑃 (or 𝜕𝐹 ⁄𝜕𝑀
2 with respect to the variable P (or 𝑀 ̅
̅ ).
and/or 𝜕𝑀⁄𝜕𝑀
̅ ) into the expressions of F and/or M(x) and their
4. Substitute the numerical value of P (or 𝑀
̅ ) represents an imaginary load (or couple), its numerical value
partial derivatives. If P (or 𝑀
is zero.
5. Apply the appropriate expression of Castigliano’s second theorem to determine the desired
deflection or rotation of the structure. A positive answer for the desired deflection (or

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Structural Analysis 4 ECSAN4A Lecturer: Joella N. Mukalay

̅)
rotation) indicates that the deflection (or rotation) occurs in the same direction as P (or 𝑀
and vice versa.

4.5 Betti’s Law and Maxwell’s Law of Reciprocal deflections

• Maxwell’s law of reciprocal deflections, initially developed by James C. Maxwell in 1864,

plays an important role in the analysis of statically indeterminate structures. Maxwell’s law will
be derived here as a special case of the more general Betti’s law, which was presented by E.
Betti in 1872. Betti’s law can be states as follows:

For a linearly elastic structure, the virtual work done by a P system of forces and couples
acting through the deformation caused by a Q system of forces and couples is equal to
the virtual work of the Q system acting through the deformation due to the P system.

• To show the validity of this law, consider the beam shown in Fig. 4. The beam is subjected to
two different systems of forces, P and Q systems, as shown in Fig. 4. a and b, respectively.

Figure 4

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Structural Analysis 4 ECSAN4A Lecturer: Joella N. Mukalay

• Now, let us assume that we subject the beam that has the P forces already acting on it to the
deflections caused by the Q system of forces. The virtual external work (𝑊𝑣𝑒 ) done can be
written as
𝑊𝑣𝑒 = 𝑃1 ∆𝑄1 + 𝑃2 ∆𝑄2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛 ∆𝑄𝑛
Or
𝑛

𝑊𝑣𝑒 = ∑ 𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑄𝑖
𝑖=1

• By applying the principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies, 𝑊𝑣𝑒 = 𝑊𝑣𝑖 , and using the
expression for the virtual internal work done in beams, we obtain
𝐿 𝑀𝑄 𝑀𝑃
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑄𝑖 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 (19)
𝐸𝐼

• Next, we assume that the beam with the Q forces acting on it is subjected to the deflections
caused by the P forces. By equating the virtual external work to the virtual internal work, we
obtain

𝐿 𝑀𝑄 𝑀𝑃
∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑄𝑗 ∆𝑃𝑗 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 (20)
𝐸𝐼

• Noting that the right-hand sides of Eqs. 19 and 20 are identical, we equate the left-hand sides
to obtain
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 ∆𝑄𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑄𝑗 ∆𝑃𝑗 (21)
Equation 21 represents the mathematical statement of Betti’s law.
• Maxwell’s law of reciprocal deflections states that for a linearly elastic structure, the deflection
at a point i due to a unit load applied at a point j is equal to the deflection at j due to a unit load
at i.
• In this statement, the terms deflection and load are used in the general sense to include rotation
and couple, respectively.
• As mentioned previously, Maxwell’s law can be considered as a special case of Betti’s law. To
prove Maxwell’s law, consider the beam shown in Fig. 5. The beam is separately subjected to
the P and Q systems, consisting of the unit loads at points i and j, respectively, as shown in Fig.
5. a and b.

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Structural Analysis 4 ECSAN4A Lecturer: Joella N. Mukalay

Figure 5

• As the figure indicates, 𝑓𝑖𝑗 represents the deflection at i due to the unit load at j, whereas 𝑓𝑗𝑖
denotes the deflection at j due to the unit load at i. These deflections per unit load are referred
to as flexibility coefficients.
• By applying Betti’s law (Eq. 21), we obtain
1(𝑓𝑖𝑗 ) = 1(𝑓𝑗𝑖 )
Or
𝑓𝑖𝑗 = 𝑓𝑗𝑖 (22)
which is the mathematical statement of Maxwell’s law.
• The reciprocal relationship remains valid between the rotations caused by two unit couples as
well as between the deflection and the rotation caused by a unit couple and a unit force,
respectively.

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Structural Analysis 4 ECSAN4A Lecturer: Joella N. Mukalay

References

Kassimali A., 2015, Structural Analysis, 5th Edition, Cengage.

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