Diode Applications

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 Diode Applications

• This chapter will develop a working knowledge of the diode in a variety of

configurations using models appropriate for the area of application in dc and ac
networks.
• Once the basic behavior of a device is understood, its function and response in an
infinite variety of configurations can be examined.
• The primary purpose of this chapter is to develop a general knowledge of the
behavior, capabilities and possible areas of application of a device in a manner that
will minimize the need for extensive mathematical developments.
• For all the analysis to follow in this chapter it is assumed that the forward resistance
of the diode is usually so small compared to the other series elements of the
network that it can be ignored.

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 Diode Applications
• Using this fact will result in the
approximate equivalents for a silicon
diode and an ideal diode that appear in
Table 2.1.
• For a Ge diode the offset voltage is 0.3V
and for a GaAs diode it is 1.2V.
• For each diode the label Si, Ge or GaAs
will appear along with the diode symbol.
• For networks with ideal diodes the diode
symbol will appear as shown in Table 2.1
without any labels.

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 Diode Applications
• The approximate models will now be
used to investigate several series diode
configurations with dc inputs.
• For each configuration, the state of each
diode must first be determined.
• Which diodes are “on” and which are
“off”?
• Once determined, the appropriate
equivalent can be substituted, and the
remaining parameters of the network
determined.

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 Diode Applications
• In general, a diode is in the “on” state if
the current established by the applied
sources is such that its direction matches
that of the arrow in the diode symbol,
and VD=0.7V for silicon, VD=0.3V for
germanium and VD=1.2V for gallium
arsenide.

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 Diode Applications
Example 1

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 Diode Applications
Example 2

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 Diode Applications
Example 3

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 Diode Applications
Example 4
( VK(LED)=1.8V )

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 Diode Applications
Example 5

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 Diode Applications
Example 6

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 Diode Applications
Example 7

(VKSi=0.7V, VKgreen=2.2V)

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 Diode Applications
Example 8

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 Diode Applications
Example 9 (OR Gate)

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 Diode Applications
Example 10 (AND Gate)

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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Half-Wave Rectification
• The diode analysis will now
be expanded to include
time-varying functions such
as the sinusoidal waveform
and the square wave.
• The simplest of networks to
examine with a time-varying
signal appears in Figure.
• For the moment we will use the ideal model (note the absence of the Si, Ge or GaAs
label) to ensure that the approach is not clouded by additional mathematical
complexity.
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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Half-Wave Rectification
• Over one full cycle, defined
by the period T of Figure,
the average value (the
algebraic sum of the areas
above and below the axis) is
zero.

• This half-wave rectifier circuit will have an average value of particular use in the ac-
to-dc conversion process.
• When employed in the rectification process, a diode is typically referred to as a
rectifier.
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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Half-Wave Rectification

• During the interval t = 0 → T/2 in Figure the polarity of the applied voltage vi is such
as to establish “pressure” in the direction indicated.
• Substituting the short-circuit equivalence for the ideal diode will result in the
equivalent circuit of Figure, where it is fairly obvious that the output signal is an
exact replica of the applied signal.
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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Half-Wave Rectification

• For the period T/2 → T the polarity of the input vi is as shown in Figure and the
resulting polarity across the ideal diode produces an “off” state with an open-circuit
equivalent.
• The result is the absence of a path for charge to flow and vo = i.R = (0)R = 0 V for the
period T/2 → T.
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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Half-Wave Rectification
• The input vi and the output vo are sketched
together in Figure for comparison purposes.
• The output signal vo now has a net positive area
above the axis over a full period and an average
value determined by

• The process of removing one-half the input

signal to establish a dc level is called halfwave
rectification.
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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Half-Wave Rectification

• The effect of using a silicon diode with VK = 0.7V is demonstrated in Figure for the
forward-bias region.
• The applied signal must now be at least 0.7V before the diode can turn “on.”

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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Half-Wave Rectification

• For levels of vi less than 0.7 V, the diode is still in an open-circuit state and vo = 0 V.
• When conducting, the difference between vo and vi is a fixed level of VK = 0.7V and
vo = vi - VK, as shown in the figure.

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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Half-Wave Rectification
• The net effect is a reduction in area above the axis,
which reduces the resulting dc voltage level.
• For situations where Vm >> VK, the following equation
can be applied to determine the average value with a
relatively high level of accuracy.

• In fact, if Vm is sufficiently greater than VK, below equation is often applied as a first
approximation for Vdc.

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 Diode Applications
Example 11

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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Full-Wave Rectification (Bridge Network)

• The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process
called full-wave rectification.
• The most familiar network for performing such a function appears in Figure with its
four diodes in a bridge configuration.
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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Full-Wave Rectification (Bridge Network)

• During the period t=0 to T/2 the polarity of the input is as shown in Figure.
• The resulting polarities across the ideal diodes are also shown in Figure to reveal that
D2 and D3 are conducting, whereas D1 and D4 are in the “off” state.
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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Full-Wave Rectification (Bridge Network)

• The net result is the configuration of Figure, with its indicated current and polarity
across R.
• Since the diodes are ideal, the load voltage is vo = vi, as shown in the same figure.
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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Full-Wave Rectification (Bridge Network)

• For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are D1 and D4, resulting in
the configuration of Figure.

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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Full-Wave Rectification (Bridge Network)

• Since the area above the axis

for one full cycle is now twice
that obtained for a half-wave
system, the dc level has also
been doubled and

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 Diode Applications
Sinusoidal Inputs
Full-Wave Rectification (Bridge Network)
• If silicon rather than ideal diodes are employed as shown in Figure, the application of
Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the conduction path results in

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 Diode Applications
CLIPPERS
• Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of an input signal
without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.
• The half-wave rectifier is an example of the
simplest form of diode clipper—one resistor
and a diode.
• Depending on the orientation of the diode,
the positive or negative region of the applied
signal is “clipped” off.
• There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel.
• The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load,
whereas the parallel variety has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.

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 Diode Applications
CLIPPERS
Series

• The response of the series configuration of Figure a to a variety of alternating

waveforms is provided in Figure b.
• Although first introduced as a half-wave rectifier (for sinusoidal waveforms), there are
no boundaries on the type of signals that can be applied to a clipper.

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 Diode Applications
CLIPPERS
Series
• The addition of a dc supply to the
network as shown in Figure can have a
pronounced effect on the analysis of the
series clipper configuration.
• There is no general procedure for
analyzing networks such as the type in
Figure, but there are some things one can
do to give the analysis some direction.
• First and the most important;
1. Take careful note of where the output voltage is defined.
In Figure it is directly across the resistor R, in some cases it may be across a
combination of series elements. 47
 Diode Applications
CLIPPERS
Series
2. Determine when is the diode on.
For this circuit if vi > V ideal diode is on.
3. Draw the equivalent circuits for both
conditions and determine vo potentials.
For vi > V For vi < V

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 Diode Applications
CLIPPERS
Series
4. Draw vi and vo potentials simultaneously.

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 Diode Applications
Example 12

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 Diode Applications
Example 13

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 Diode Applications
CLIPPERS
Parallel

• The network of Figure is the simplest of parallel diode configurations.

• The analysis of parallel configurations is very similar to that applied to series
configurations, as demonstrated in the next example.

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 Diode Applications
Example 14

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 Diode Applications
Example 15

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Diode Applications

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Diode Applications

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 Diode Applications
Clampers
• This section will examine a variety of diode configurations that shift the applied signal
to a different level.
• A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor that shifts a
waveform to a different dc level without changing the appearance of the applied
signal.
• Additional shifts can also be obtained by introducing a dc supply to the basic
structure.
• The chosen resistor and capacitor of the network must be chosen such that the time
constant determined by τ = RC is sufficiently large to ensure that the voltage across
the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the interval the diode is
nonconducting and we assume that the capacitor fully charges or discharges in five
time constants (5τ). (Please remember «Course: Introduction to Electrical and Electronics Eng.,
Subject: Capacitors»)
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 Diode Applications
Clampers
• The simplest of clamper networks is provided in Figure.
• Clamping networks have a capacitor connected directly from input to output with a
resistive element in parallel with the output signal.
• The diode is also in parallel with the output signal but may or may not have a series
dc supply as an added element.

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 Diode Applications
Clampers
• There is a sequence of steps that can be
applied to help make the analysis
straightforward.
• It is not the only approach to examining
clampers, but it does offer an option if
difficulties surface.
Step 1: Start the analysis by examining the response of the portion of the input
signal that will forward bias the diode.
Step 2: During the period that the diode is in the “on” state, assume that the
capacitor will charge up instantaneously to a voltage level determined by the
surrounding network.

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 Diode Applications
Clampers
• For the network of Figure on the right
side the diode will be forward biased for
the positive portion of the applied signal.
• For the interval 0 to T/2 the network will
appear as shown in Figure below.
• The short-circuit equivalent for the diode will result in vo=0V. For 0 → T/2
• During this same interval of time, the time constant (τ=RC) is
very small because the R has been effectively “shorted out”
by the conducting diode and the only resistance present is the
inherent (contact, wire) resistance of the network.
• The result is that the capacitor will quickly charge to the peak
value of V volts as shown in Figure with the polarity indicated.
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 Diode Applications
Clampers
Step 3: Assume that during the period
when the diode is in the “off” state the
capacitor holds on to its established
voltage level.
• When vi=-V, the network will appear as
shown in Figure below.
For T/2 → T
• The time constant determined by the RC product is
sufficiently large to establish a discharge period 5τ, much
greater than the period T/2 → T.
• Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the input loop results
in

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 Diode Applications
Clampers
• The negative sign results from the fact that the polarity of 2V is
opposite to the polarity defined for vo.
• The resulting output waveform appears in Figure with the input
signal.
• The output signal is clamped to 0V for the interval 0 to T/2 but
maintains the same total swing (2 V) as the input.
Step 4: Check that the total swing of the output matches that
of the input.
• This is a property that applies for all clamping networks, giving
an excellent check on the results obtained.

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 Diode Applications
Example 16

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 Diode Applications
Example 17

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Diode Applications

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 Diode Applications
Clampers
• Although all the waveforms are square waves, clamping networks work equally well
for sinusoidal signals.
• In fact, one approach to the analysis of clamping networks with sinusoidal inputs is
to replace the sinusoidal signal by a square wave of the same peak values.
• The resulting output will then form an envelope for the sinusoidal response as
shown in Figure below.

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 18

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 19

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 20

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 21

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 22

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 23

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 24

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 25

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 26

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 27

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 Diode Applications
EXAMPLES
Example 28

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